EJTP 10, No.

28 (2013) 111134 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics

Riemann Zeta Function and Hydrogen Spectrum
Ivan I. Iliev

Complex Fondovi Jilishta, bl. 36, entr. B, 1233 Soa, Bulgaria

Received 19 January 2012, Accepted 16 November 2012, Published 15 January 2013
Abstract: Signicant analytic and numerical evidence, as well as conjectures and ideas
connect the Riemann zeta function with energy-related concepts. The present paper is devoted
to further extension of this subject. The problem is analyzed from the point of view of geometry
and physics as wavelengths of hydrogen spectrum are found to be in one-to-one correspondence
with complex-valued positions. A Zeta Rule for the denition of the hydrogen spectrum is
derived from well-known models and experimental evidence concerning the hydrogen atom.
The Rydberg formula and Bohrs semiclassical quantization rule are modied. The real and the
complex versions of the zeta function are developed on that basis. The real zeta is associated
with a set of quantum harmonic oscillators with the help of relational and inversive geometric
concepts. The zeta complex version is described to represent continuous rotation and parallel
transport of this set within the plane. In both cases we derive the same wavelengths of hydrogen
spectral series subject to certain requirements for quantization. The fractal structure of a specic
set associated with (s) is revealed to be represented by a unique box-counting dimension.
c _ Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Mathematical Physics; Quantum Physics; Riemann Zeta Function; Riemann
Hypothesis; Hydrogen Spectrum
PACS (2010): 03.65.-w; 03.65.Ge;02.70.Hm;03.67.Lx; 67.63.Gh; 67.80.fh; 02.60.-x
1. Rydberg Formula and Bohr Model
The emission spectrum of hydrogen can be expressed in terms of the Rydberg constant
for hydrogen R
H
using the Rydberg formula, namely
1

= R
H
(
1

2
1

2
2
), (1)
where
1
and
2
are integers such that
1
<
2
. This spectrum is divided into a number
of spectral series where for each one,
1
1 and
2
=
1
+ 1,
1
+ 2,
1
+ 3, ....

Email: [email protected], Tel: + 359 885 395466

112 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
Initially the value of the constant is determined empirically.
In [1] and [2] Bohr shows that its value can be calculated from fundamental con-
stants. In his planetary model an electron follows circular orbits around the nucleus of
the hydrogen atom and these positions of the electron are associated with discrete energy
levels. A nonclassical quantization rule arises from the implementation of Plancks theory
of radiation [3] and Einsteins explanation of the photoelectric eect [4]. In terms of the
angular momentum of the electron of mass m
e
moving in an orbit of radius r

and with
a speed v

with respect to the nucleus it can be expressed as

m
e
v

=
h
2
= , = 1, 2, 3, ... . (2)
Bohr writes the energy associated with radiation as the dierence between the energies of
two levels E = (E
final
E
initial
) = E
i
E
f
. Thus the Rydberg formula
1

= R
H
(
1

2
1

2
2
) is dened with the same value and dimension of the Rydberg constant. The emission
spectrum is derived from the Rydberg formula in the form
1

e
= R
H
(
1

2
final

2
initial
) and
is dened by the frequencies of radiation emitted by the atom when the electron from a
state of being removed from the nucleus enters into reaction with it and is further moved
to lower energy levels. The indexation
1
for the nal state is xed and the indexation
2
for the initial state varies from innity to
1
+ 1. When the atom is exposed to certain
forms of energy E = (E
final
E
initial
) = E
f
E
i
the electron can be excited or moved
to higher energy levels even to the state of a free particle. The positive sign in front of
the brackets shows that this process is associated with the absorption of radiation. The
indexation
1
for the initial state is xed and the indexation
2
for the nal state varies
and the Rydberg formula takes the form
1

a
= R
H
(
1

2
initial

2
final
). Thus for xed
1
,
2
varies from
1
+ 1 to innity.
Bound states of the hydrogen atom are dened by a discrete spectrum for
2
.
For values of
2
electrons free state is dened which is the state of an isolated
particle in case the electron is moved far apart from the nucleus by the absorption of
photons. This state is characterized by a continuous spectrum.
The requirement for conservation of energy implies that the quantities related to the
emission of radiation due to the descent of an electron from some initial state to a lower
one are equal to quantities related to the absorption of radiation which causes the raise
of the same electron from the same lower state to the same initial state.
2. Hydrogen Spectrum and Zeta Function
From the Rydberg formula for hydrogen one can derive the following relation

H
(s = 2,
2
) =
q+
1

=1
1

2
=

=1
1

2
+
q

2
1

1
R
H
q

i=1
1

i
(3)
where q is the integer number of observed wavelengths in each of the series of spectral
lines. The value of two of the variable s naturally arises from Bohrs energy-related
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 113
concept. From the wavelengths of hydrogen as compiled from [5], [6] and [7] in the
following table (in nanometers):
Lyman Balmer Paschen Brackett Pfund Humphreys
121.5 656.3 1875.1 4050 7460 12400
102.3 481.6 1281.8 2630 4650 7500
97.2 434.1 1093.8 2170 3740 5910
94.9 410.2 1004.9 1940 3300 5130
93.7 397.0 954.6 1820 3040 4670
93.0 388.9 922.9 1460 2280 3280
92.6 383.5 901.5
92.3 364.6 886.3
92.1 875.0
91.9 866.5
866.5
(4)
one can easily nd that the terms of the consecutive q +
1
sums of the zeta function
dier insignicantly from the consecutive sums of the terms

1
=1
1

2
+
q

2
1

1
R

q
i=1
1

i
for
all series of the hydrogen spectrum. Here is an example for the Balmer series:

H
(2)-terms
i
(meters)

2
=1
1

2
+
q
=1,...8
4

1
R
H

q
i=1
1

i
1.00000
1.25000
1.36111 6.56E-07 1.36115
1.42361 4.86E-07 1.42369
1.46361 4.34E-07 1.46376
1.49139 4.10E-07 1.49161
1.51180 3.97E-07 1.51207
1.52742 3.89E-07 1.52776
1.53977 3.84E-07 1.54014
1.54977 3.65E-07 1.54020
(5)
This incomplete zeta function (since summation is performed up to a term) is a func-
114 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
tion of the sum of all observed wavelengths for a given series. Thus it can be associated
with a quantum operator of Hamiltonian nature corresponding to the total energy of the
bound state, the hydrogen atom in this case. The complete version of the zeta function
for
2
should be associated with an operator which includes the case with a free
electron and thus the atoms unbound state.
One can deduce that the spatial frequency formulation of the spectrum (emission or
absorption) of hydrogen follows a well-dened Zeta Rule, as far as a general nucleus-
electron conguration is assumed.
3. Generalized Spectrum and Zeta Function
A general version of the zeta function can be developed as
(s,
2
) =
q+
1

=1
1

s
=

=1
1

s
+
q

s
1

1
C
q

i=1
1

i
, (6)
where q is the number of wavelengths of some spectral series dened with respect to
1
and C is a constant. This constant equals the Rydberg constant in the case of hydrogen
and Bohrs semiclassical electron-proton relation is encoded in it. For other congurations
it can take dierent values. For example, for objects with Plancks mass and charge the
constant calculated in a similar way appears to be of the order of the inverse Plancks
length, namely
C
Pl
=
1
4
1
l
Pl
. (7)
To ensure the continuation of the parameter s to values other than s = 2 we write
the Rydberg formula in a modied way as
1

= C[
1
(n
k
1
)
2

1
(n
k
2
)
2
], (8)
where n
1
and n
2
are integers, k is a real number and thus s = 2k. Bohrs quantization
rule becomes mvr = n
k
and one arrives at the original for n
k
= or k =
log
log n
. We
can assume that for all other values of k innitely many wavelengths can be derived and
if they really exist, they should constitute some background generalized spectrum. For
xed values of the parameter k the zeta function can be written as
(s = 2k, n
2
) =
q+n
1

n=1
1
n
s
=
n
1

n=1
1
n
s
+
q
n
s
1

1
C
q

i=1
1

i
. (9)
Generalization of the Rydberg formula is found in [8] where at the end Ritz writes ...
the magnetic eld in an atom may be regarded in all spectra as produced by two poles of
opposite sign, which separately may occupy dierent positions in the atom. In hydrogen,
these points lie at equal distances on a straight line. ....
This idea prompts us to develop a
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 115
4. Circle - circle Intersection Model
We take four parameters d, n
1
, n
2
and k and dene the intersection of two circles where
the circle C
l
x
2
+ y
2
= (
d
n
k
2
)
2
(10)
centered at the origin intersects the circle C
r
(x
2d
n
k
1
)
2
+ y
2
= (
d
n
k
2
)
2
. (11)
We set n
1
, n
2
- integers with n
1
< n
2
and k- real. This is a pair of disjoint circles since
1
2
2d
n
k
1
>
d
n
k
2
. The place of intersection along the x- coordinate is found to be x =
d
n
k
1
through
subtraction of both equations and solving for x. Upon substitution and solving for y one
gets the relation
y
2
= (
d
n
k
2
)
2
(
d
n
k
1
)
2
. (12)
Further we write
y
2
= d
2
(
1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
) = (d)
2
(
1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
) (13)
and thus
y = d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
or y = d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
.
(14)
In order to preserve the dimensionless geometric model we set d
2
= C
R
, where C
R
is a
constant equal to the numerical value of the Rydberg constant. In addition, the presence
of the negative sign is a good argument to associate this model with the negative energy
content of bound states within the process of emission of radiation. For k = 1 one nds
the value of the square of the vertical extension y (y) equivalent to the wave numbers
and thus to the wavelengths of interest for the hydrogen atom such that
1

e
= y
2

e
=
1
y
2
.
(15)
In the same way all quantities previously expressed by the Rydberg formula and related
to the spectral lines of the hydrogen series can be derived and plotted. The zeta function
with respect to (12) takes the form
(s = 2k, n
2
) =
q+n
1

n=1
1
n
2k
=
n
1

n=1
1
n
2k
+
q
n
2k
1

1
C
R
q

i=1
y
2
i
=
n
1

n=1
1
n
s
+
q
n
s
1

1
C
R
q

i=1
1

i
. (16)
We shall refer to the above pattern as the trivial case of intersection.
An important benet from the circle-circle intersection concept is that complex num-
bers and complex-valued positions are introduced and they are related to real physical
phenomena and observations through the correspondence
1

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
. (17)
116 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
Wavelengths of hydrogen spectrum can be derived from the imaginary part of the complex
numbers
z
1,2
=
d
n
k
1
d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2

C
R
n
k
1
C
R

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
, (18)
for k = 1.
Therefore, the number of conjugate pairs of complex values z
1,2
equals the number of
possible quantum energy states (levels) of the hydrogen atom.
We have dened so far the zeta summation operator as a function of real physical
observables. These real values appear to be in one-to-one correspondence with certain
complex quantities.
5. The Riemann Zeta Function and Spectral Interpretations
One can refer to the Riemann zeta function in light of the Hilbert-Polya conjecture.
From Odlyzkos home page Polyas statement reads ... if the nontrivial zeros of the
Xi-function were so connected with the physical problem that the Riemann hypothesis
would be equivalent to the fact that all the eigenvalues of the physical problem are real..
Another plausible version of this conjecture as summarized by Derbyshire in [9] is related
to the possibility that the imaginary parts of the zeros
1
2
+t of Riemanns (s =
1
2
+t) =
0 correspond to eigenvalues of some unbound Hermitian operator, i.e. these are the
eigenvalues of some Hermitian matrix.
Montgomerys pair correlation conjecture [10] arises from the investigation on the
correlation between pairs of zeros with respect to their imaginary parts. It closely follows
from a function which is initially recognized by Dyson as Conrey tells in [11] as the pair
correlation function for eigenvalues of large random Hermitian matrices. This function is
discussed in relation with the distribution of energy levels in large systems of particles.
The truth of the Riemann Hypothesis is assumed, i.e. only the imaginary parts of the
non-trivial zeros are considered.
Another platform for discussion, in case the truth of the hypothesis is assumed is to
write [
1
2
(t )] for [
1
2
[ > and because of the conventional operation [(
1
2
) t]
to try to prove that either = 0, or t is entirely real.
Following the ideas from the circle-circle intersection model with respect to the Rie-
mann zeta function and the energy-related concepts cited above we have to distinguish
between the complex valued positions z
1,2
=
d
n
k
1
d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
and the complex numbers
s = t as the parameter of the Riemann zeta function (s). The former z
1,2
values
are derived from the intersection of two disjoint circles and they are directly related to
real energy values through their imaginary parts which have = 0 for all cases of the
trivial intersection. The relation to some real physical problem of s = t and thus of
the non-trivial zeros s =
1
2
t of the complex (s) appears to be dierent in nature and
shall be considered accordingly.
The geometry of the circle-circle intersection concept shows that the value of the real
part of z
1,2
cannot be uniquely dened. It depends on the arbitrary choice of the position
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 117
of the intersecting couple of circles with respect to the origin. The most one can get is the
relation
d
n
k
1
a = , where the separation between the centers of both circles remains xed
and equal to
2d
n
k
1
, the value a denes the arbitrary deection from the origin of the circle
C
l
and is the unknown value of the real part of z
1,2
. At the same time, the imaginary
parts of z
1,2
do not depend on the position of the pair of intersecting circles with respect
to the origin. They are a function of the separation between the centers of the circles
and their radii. Thus the correspondence of the imaginary parts to energy levels remains
valid for all values of the deection a and thus . The values of the imaginary parts are
irrelevant to any preferred choice of the origin.
In order to discuss the variable s = 2k and the contribution of the new parameter k
we x the parameters d, n
1
and n
2
and we preserve the relation n
1
< n
2
as in the original
Rydberg representation.
For k > 0 and thus n
k
1
< n
k
2
the circles remain disjoint and the intersection of the
circles is said to be in the complex plane as dened by expression (14). Wavelengths
related to the emission spectrum are derived from this model. For n
2
the radii
of circles C
l
and C
r
approach zero and both objects can be seen as point-circles and
thus points. The complex valued positions z
1,2
=
d
n
k
1
d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
become equal to
z
1,2
=
d
n
k
1

d
n
k
1
and they dene the intersection between two points of zero size. This
conguration represents the state of a free electron and is unique for the case with the
emission of radiation.
The requirement for the conservation of energy is considered in a dierent way in the
circle-circle intersection model. The positions and the roles of the divisors n
1
and n
2
are
exchanged. Thus the circle C

l
[x

(x
d
n
k
2
)]
2
+ (y

)
2
= (
d
n
k
1
)
2
(19)
centered at x
d
n
k
2
intersects the circle C

r
[x

(x +
d
n
k
2
)]
2
+ (y

)
2
= (
d
n
k
1
)
2
(20)
centered at x +
d
n
k
2
. The coordinate extensions are primed for convenience and they
coincide with the x, y-axes. The separation between the two centers is equal to
2d
n
k
2
and
the radii are equal to
d
n
k
1
. The place of intersection along the x

- coordinate is found to
be equal to x = . Upon substitution and solving for y

one gets the relation

(y

)
2
= (
d
n
k
1
)
2
(
d
n
k
2
)
2
(21)
and thus
y

= d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
. (22)
For d
2
= C
R
and k = 1 the value of the square of the vertical extension y

is equal to the
square of the imaginary part of the complex numbers z
1,2
and thus equivalent to the same
118 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
wave numbers but in this case they are related to the absorption spectrum for hydrogen
such that
1

a
= (y

)
2

a
=
1
(y

)
2
.
(23)
The relation to the absorption spectrum is represented by real intersection of circles.
We face two possibilities to dene certain positions by complex notations. The rst
option are the z
1,2
= d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
= t complex values arising from the intersection
of disjoint circles. The other one are the real parametric notations x

= x = and
y

= d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
= t which in the conventional Argand complex plane can take
the same value and position as x

= t = z
1,2
. Possibly, these notations are
interchangeable unless deeper specication is needed for the physical interpretation.
For values k < 0 and thus n
k
1
> n
k
2
one can further investigate the Riemann zeta
function and especially (s = 2k) where k is an integer and thus s = 2k is a trivial
zero of the function. From the intersection relation
y
2
= d
2
(
1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
) = d
2
(n
2k
2
n
2k
1
) =
1

a
(24)
which is a result from the real intersection of the circles x
2
+y
2
= (
d
n
k
2
)
2
and (x
2d
n
k
1
)
2
+
y
2
= (
d
n
k
2
)
2
and for d
2
= C
R
one can write
(2k, n
2
) =
n
1

n=1
1
n
2k
+
q
n
2k
1
+
1
C
R
q

i=1
1

i
. (25)
Following the above consideration we associate absorption of radiation to this real in-
tersection of circles. A concept that the zeros of the Riemann zeta function should be
interpreted as an absorption spectrum is developed by Connes in [12] and [13], where
the imaginary values of the non-trivial zeros are interpreted as missing spectral lines.
The correspondence of emission and absorption representations require the existence
of an emission-related construction to the construction represented by (24). With the
exchange of the divisors n
1
and n
2
and the same place of intersection equal to x the circle
C

l
[x

(x
d
n
k
2
)]
2
+ (y

)
2
= (
d
n
k
1
)
2
(26)
centered at x
d
n
k
2
intersects the circle C

r
[x

(x +
d
n
k
2
)]
2
+ (y

)
2
= (
d
n
k
1
)
2
(27)
centered at x +
d
n
k
2
where the x

coordinate coincides with the x coordinate. The sepa-

ration between the two centers is equal to
2d
n
k
2
and radii are equal to
d
n
k
1
. Upon solving
for y

one gets the relation

(y

)
2
= d
2
(
1
n
2k
1
) (
1
n
2k
2
) = d
2
(n
2k
2
n
2k
1
) (28)
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 119
and thus the complex valued positions
y

= d

n
2k
2
n
2k
1
. (29)
We associate these positions with the emission of radiation and they dene the same
points as the ones related to the absorption of radiation.
If one considers the values y
2
= d
2
(n
2k
2
n
2k
1
) in the form
y
2
= n
2k
2
d
2
[1 (
n
1
n
2
)
2k
] (30)
for n
2k
2
= Z
2
, where Z is a positive integer greater than one and
n
1
n
2
is a unit fraction
1

and d
2
= C
R
R
H
the relation
y
2
= Z
2
R
H
[1 (
1

k
)
2
] =
1

e,a
(31)
for k = 1 is the extension of the Rydberg formula for the spectrum of hydrogen-like
elements. Many-electron states or many-particle states are traced with formula (31) and
closer relations are suggested by Montgomerys pair-correlation formula.
From inversive geometry we know that two disjoint circles can be mapped into two
concentric circles. We build up an inversion of circles C
l
and C
r
with the complex numbers
z
1,2
= d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
as the cornerstone of the model. These complex valued positions
lie on the radical axis of circles C
l
and C
r
. Point z
1
= + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
is chosen as
the center of circle C
o
which is orthogonal to the pair of disjoint circles and thus z
1
has
the same power with respect to both circles. Circle C
o
intersects the real line (the line
of centers) at the limiting points of each pencil of circles determined by circles C
l
and
C
r
. An inversion circle C
inv
is drawn centered at the left limiting point L
l
such that the
extension of the real part of z
1,2
and the right limiting point L
r
appear as inversion
points with the inversion pole. The new circles C
c
l
and C
c
r
are concentric and both are
centered at the inversion pole . In this picture the complex valued positions z
1,2
and the
limiting points L
l
and L
r
always remain within the annulus of the concentric circles.
As previously pointed in this paragraph the number of complex conjugate pairs z
1,2
equals the number of possible quantum energy states. This number equals the number of
possible pairs of concentric circles C
c
l
and C
c
r
. These pairs of circles can be considered as
geometric representation of Bohrs model of electrons traveling in stationary orbits around
the nucleus. At the same time if one endows the true spatial frequency dimension to the
parameter d in the circle-circle intersection model instead of being only numerically equal
to the Rydberg constant and scale it by some constant of angular momentum dimension
one can dene a position-momentum phase space. Then and as it is well-known concentric
circles represent the phase plane portrait of harmonic oscillators p
2
+x
2
. The number of
such resonators equals the number of energy states. Berry and Keating in [14] and [15]
present evidence that in the series (
1
2
+ E
n
) = 0, the E
n
quantities are energy levels.
They describe a Riemann operator as the quantum counterpart of classical Riemann
dynamics based on connections between the Riemann zeta function and the classical
120 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
hamiltonian H
cl
(x, p) = xp. After certain considerations, the number of quantum levels
N(E) with energy less than E is found to be
N(E) =
E
2
[log(
E
2
) 1] +
7
8
+ ..., (32)
which equals Riemanns estimation for the number of roots of (t) less than a given
quantity [16].
Presumably from a connection between the expression for the classical momentum
p
cl
=
E
x
and its quantum version p
q
= k =
2

=
1

h one can write

1
h
(E

1
x
c), (33)
where c is some constant. The right hand side is the analogue of the formula Berry
and Keating use to derive relation (32). The left hand side is an integration over some
continuous spectrum of the wave number
1

. The related series

q
1

q
can be derived after
suitable normalization. The number of energy states associated to the discrete spectrum
of wavelengths can be identied by the average spacing between the terms of the series.
In the geometry of the concentric pairs of circles one can easily recognize the landscape
for the analytic continuation of the denition of the integral
(s)(s) =

0
x
s1
e
x
1
dx (34)
into the complex plane as performed by Riemann. To avoid the discontinuity of the
integrand at the origin Riemann considers the integral

(v)
s1
e
v
1
dv. (35)
where the contour is dened from positive innity and slightly above the real axis to
some > 0, then counterclockwise around a circle with radius with center at the origin
and then from back to +, just below the real axis. Thus from the relation
2 sin(s)(s)(s) =

(v)
s1
e
v
1
dv (36)
Riemann deduces that ... This equation now gives the value of the function (s) for all
complex numbers s ... .
In fact this continuation implies complex numbers of the form v
1,2
= x ( 0) as
the constituents of the contour due to the technique for consideration of the branch cut
of the argument function which provides the insight to the continuation of the variable
s into the complex numbers. The contour can be associated with the trajectory of
an electron. The branch + v
1
= x + ( 0) can be associated with the
movement of the electron from a free state towards the nucleus and thus with certain
emission processes. The branch v
2
= x ( 0) + can be related to the
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 121
trajectory of the electron from a state close to the nucleus outwards and associated with
absorption processes.
Then Riemann considers the integral in a negative sense around the specied domain.
The evaluation of the integral can be done with the assistance of a new contour
c
consisting of two concentric circles connected via a contour wall and the Residue Theorem.
One can derive

c
(w)
s1
e
w
1
dw = 2

q
Res[
(w)
s1
e
w
1
, w = q2], (37)
where q is an integer. The values q2 appear in conjugate pairs and represent the
discontinuities of the integrand of (36), i.e. the poles of the integrand. Alongside this
contour deformation one gets a second set of complex numbers of the form w
1,2
= 0 y
where the extension y corresponds to the values of the poles and the real part equals zero
because the common center of the concentric circles which constitute the contour
c
is
at the origin. The contour
c
can be associated with the discrete circular orbits of the
electron around the nucleus.
The left part of equation (37) can also be written as

c
(w)
s1
e
w
1
dw =

c
dw
[
(w)
s1
e
w
1
]
1
(38)
and thus the poles occur as zeros of some function g(1 s) = (w)
1s
(e
w
1) with the
same number of zeros as the number of poles.
If we set
q2 = d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2

(39)
and thus provide a relation between the value of the poles and the imaginary parts of
z
1,2
, the latter can be used in the derivation of integral (37).
For further discussion on the function we emphasize on the two sets of complex num-
bers v
1,2
= x ( 0) and w
1,2
= 0 y which support the analytic continuation of
(s). To extend the understanding about these complex quantities we describe another
circle-circle intersection model between two disjoint circles with their line of centers apart
from the coordinate axes x and y. Thus the intersection of the circle C
1
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= (
d
n
k
2
)
2
(40)
with the circle C
2
(x c)
2
+ (y m)
2
= (
d
n
k
2
)
2
(41)
is investigated. The separation between the centers is

[c a[
2
+[mb[
2
=
d
n
k
1
and
the parameters d, n
1
, n
2
and k have the same meaning and relation as in the trivial
case of intersection and k > 0. The condition

[c a[
2
+[mb[
2
>
2d
n
k
2
guarantees
122 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
that the circles are disjoint. One can identify the trivial case of intersection by setting
a = b = m = 0 and the separation

[c a[
2
+[mb[
2
equals c =
2d
n
k
1
. It is assumed
that the pair of disjoint circles from the trivial case is parallel transported to a dierent
place in the plane, such that all relations deduced for the trivial case hold for the newly
positioned pair of circles, including the possibility to inverse the pair of disjoint circles
into a pair of concentric circles. Then we rst solve for x and we get
x =
c
2
+ m
2
a
2
b
2
2(c a)
y
mb
c a
. (42)
We set A =
c
2
+m
2
a
2
b
2
2(ca)
and B =
mb
ca
and thus
x = A yB. (43)
Then we plug the value of x in (40) and solve for y. Thus
y =
(A a)B + b
B
2
+ 1

4(B
2
+ 1)[(A a)
2
+ b (
d
n
k
2
)
2
] [2(A a)B b]
2
2(B
2
+ 1)
(44)
and the complex-valued representation follows from the understanding that disjoint circles
intersect in complex valued positions. We simplify be setting C =
(Aa)B+b
B
2
+1
and D =

4(B
2
+1)[(Aa)
2
+b(
d
n
k
2
)
2
][2(Aa)Bb]
2
2(B
2
+1)
. Then we solve for x by plugging the value of y in
(42). Finally we get the complex values
x
1,2
= A BC BD
y
1,2
= C D
(45)
which dene the places of intersection of circles C
1
and C
2
. One can refer to the trivial
case by taking B = 0 and C = 0 and thus x
1,2
= A 0 =
c
2
0 =
d
n
k
1
0 and
y
1,2
= 0D = 0d

(
1
n
k
1
)
2
(
1
n
k
2
)
2
. These are not exactly the same values as the values
dened in the trivial case, where y
1,2
= d

(
1
n
k
1
)
2
(
1
n
k
2
)
2
appears in a conjugate pair but
this is not the case with the x - place of intersection. In addition, the zero values are not
recognized in the trivial case and we write directly z
1,2
= xy =
d
n
k
1
d

(
1
n
k
1
)
2
(
1
n
k
2
)
2
.
Otherwise we have to write
z
1,2
= (
d
n
k
1
0) [0 d

(
1
n
k
1
)
2
(
1
n
k
2
)
2
] (46)
which following the usual rules has to be revealed as
z
1,2
=
d
n
k
1
d

(
1
n
k
1
)
2
(
1
n
k
2
)
2
) (0 + 0). (47)
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 123
We lose the complex-valued position for the intersection between the disjoint circles which
is the entity associated with the wavelengths and energy levels. A dierent value of the
real part is derived and it denes the positions of the limiting points L
l
and L
r
.
To identify the true positions of the points of intersection along the radical axis of the
disjoint circles and thus the position of the poles z
1,2
in the parallel transported complex
we have to apply a rather inconvenient operation, as follows:
z
int
1,2
= x
1,2
y
1,2
= [ABCBD()][CD()] = [(ABC)BD](CD). (48)
The contradiction related to (46) is resolved in the same way by writing
z
1,2
= [
d
n
k
1
0()] [0 d

(
1
n
k
1
)
2
(
1
n
k
2
)
2
()] =
d
n
k
1
d

(
1
n
k
1
)
2
(
1
n
k
2
)
2
. (49)
If one reveals the complex number z
1,2
= x
1,2
y
1,2
in the conventional way
z
pos
1,2
= (A BC BD) (C D) = [(A BC) D] (BD C) (50)
one arrives at the positions of the limiting points which still lie on the line of centers of
the transported pair of disjoint circles.
A similar and unusual consideration appears in the treatment of the real intersection
between circles in case their line of centers does not coincide with the x or y coordinates.
The relation

[c a[
2
+[mb[
2
<
2d
n
k
2
guarantees that the circles get real intersection.
The solution for the value of y is real and it is equal to
y =
(A a)B + b
B
2
+ 1

[2(A a)B b]
2
4(B
2
+ 1)[(A a)
2
+ b (
d
n
k
2
)
2
]
2(B
2
+ 1)
(51)
and we set D

[2(Aa)Bb]
2
4(B
2
+1)[(Aa)
2
+b(
d
n
k
2
)
2
]
2(B
2
+1)
. Thus we get the real parametric
values
x
1,2
= A BC BD

y
1,2
= C D

(52)
for the intersection of the pair of circles. We can dene the intersecting points as z
int
1
=
(x
1
, y
1
) = (ABC BD

, C +D

) and z
int
2
= (x
2
, y
2
) = (ABC +BD

, C D

), which
are the same as the complex values for the poles z
int
1,2
in (48). We cannot get further
information about positions along the line of centers as it is possible with equation (50)
for the case of disjoint circles. To do this we have to represent the positions of the real
intersection from (52) in complex notation as in (45) and then apply the operations from
(48) and (50).
We shall refer to both possibilities of this model as the general case of intersection.
From the above considerations we come to the conclusion that the complex values
v
1,2
= x 0 and w
1,2
= 0 y are special cases of some v

1,2
= x and w

1,2
= y
124 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
which dene the extended coordinate axes of a complex plane S. The general case of
intersection between circles and points along the radical axis of these objects is dened
within this complex plane by the complex numbers
s
int
1,2
= v

1,2
w

1,2
= [x ()] [y ()] = (x ) (y ). (53)
The position of the limiting points in the case of circle-circle intersection or the points
themselves in the case of intersection between point-circles along the line of centers is
dened by the complex values
s
pos
1,2
= v

1,2
w

1,2
= (x ) (y ) = (x ) (y ). (54)
The general case ranges over all positions between two circular objects with respect to each
other and the position of the pair itself with respect to the conventional real and imaginary
axes. The real and the imaginary parts of the extensions x and y of these
axes need not be orthogonal as in the traditional Cartesian representation of complex
numbers. For example, the intersection of the disjoint circles (xa)
2
+(y b)
2
= r
2
and
(x a)
2
+ (y + b)
2
= r
2
such that b > r is at x = a

b
2
r
2
and y = 0. The circles
are identical and they are placed at equal distance from the real axis, above and below
it. The intersection is along the radical axis between them and it coincides with the real
line. Thus the orientation of the imaginary parts

b
2
r
2
is parallel to the real line,
i.e. parallel to the segment which denes the extension of the associated real part.
The assumption that the pair of circles involved in the trivial case of intersection
is parallel transported to a new position can be accomplished through suitable ane
transformation composed of certain rotations, translations and scaling. The complex
number
z
pole
inv
=
d
n
k
1
(cos + sin ) = (cos + sin ) (55)
represents a -radians counterclockwise rotation of the place of intersection x =
d
n
k
1
=
or the rotation of the inversion pole as the center of the associated pair of concentric
circles. Circle C
l
remains centered at the origin and the new position of the center of
circle C
r
is
z
center
C
r
=
2d
n
k
1
(cos + sin ) = 2(cos + sin ) (56)
with both (55) and (56) lying on the line of centers of both circles. The position of the
intersection between circles C
l
and C
r
remains along the radical axis of the circles which
is identied with the y-coordinate in the trivial case of intersection. It is always perpen-
dicular to the line of centers of the circles which is identied with the x-coordinate in the
trivial case. Our purpose is to dene relations, the same or similar to those in the trivial
case of intersection which correspond to wave numbers and thus to wavelengths after the
ane transformation. In addition, we have to take care about the physical interpretation
of the circle-circle intersection, i.e. whether it refers to the emission spectrum or to the
absorption spectrum with the former being represented by complex-valued positions and
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 125
the latter being represented by the same but real-valued positions. We multiply the real
vectors (x, y
1,2
) = (, d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
) with the counterclockwise rotation matrix
R() =

cos sin
sin cos

(57)
to get the proper positions of the real intersection. Since they are associated with ab-
sorption we leave them in the real parametric form
x

= cos d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin
y

= sin d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos .
(58)
One can write (58) in the usual complex notation by
z
int
1,2
= ( cos d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin ) + ( sin d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos ) (59)
but this does not provide the most comprehensive description of the complex-valued
intersection as interpretation of emission related quantities. As previously mentioned
one cannot identify the positions of the limiting points along the line of centers. For
values of n
2
one gets intersection between point-circles which is only associated
with the emission spectrum. Last but not least, the ane transformation of the complex-
valued positions appears to be sensitive to the application of the usual matrix rotation.
We multiply the complex-valued vector z
int
1
= + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
by the counterclockwise
rotation matrix and we get
x

= cos d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin
y

= sin + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos .
(60)
Then we write for the new position
z
1
= ( cos d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin ) + ( sin + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos ). (61)
When we reveal expression (61) in the usual way we get
z
pos
1
= ( cos d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos ) + ( sin d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin ) (62)
and thus the position of the limiting point L
l
which lies on the line of centers is dened
instead of the true position of intersection which lies on the radical axis. For n
2
one
gets the position of the complex zero z
pos
1
= 0+0. Since we have applied counterclockwise
126 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
rotation in (56) then the position of the limiting point L
r
and the center of circle C
r
represented by a point-circle for n
2
has to be in the same direction. Contrary to
this we have to apply multiplication of the complex vector z
int
2
by the clockwise rotation
matrix and write the complex-valued position in the form
z
pos
2
= ( cos + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin ) ( sin + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos ) (63)
to get the proper position
z
pos
2
= ( cos + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos ) + ( sin + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin ) (64)
which for n
2
becomes z
pos
2
= 2(cos + sin ), i.e. it is the same as (56). To evaluate
the proper positions of the intersection in complex form we multiply the complex vector
z
int
1
= + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
by the matrix
R

() =

cos sin
sin cos

(65)
and we apply the operation from (53) such that
z
int
1
= [ cos + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
(sin )()] + [ sin d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
(cos )()] =
[ cos d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin ] + [ sin + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos ]. (66)
Then we multiply the complex vector z
int
2
= d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
by the same matrix R

()
and with the operation from (53) we write
z
int
2
= [ cos + (d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
)(sin )()] + [ sin + (d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
)(cos )()] =
[ cos + d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin ] + [ sin d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos ]. (67)
The complex-valued positions (66) and (67) are generalized by (53) and the real value
needed to be associated with the wave numbers of interest is dened as

2
+
2
=
1

=
1

2
+
2
,
(68)
where

2
+
2
= (d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
sin )
2
+ (d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
cos )
2
= d
2
(
1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
). (69)
The position of the inversion pole where the radical axis crosses the line of centers and
where the associated pair of concentric circles is centered can be written as
z
pole
inv
= x y (70)
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 127
in the notations from (53) and within the -radians rotation as
z
pole
inv
= cos sin . (71)
6. The Complex Version
With the assistance of the above described models and considerations we discuss the
Riemann zeta function complex version (s) for s = t.
In Bohrs sense this is a modication of the concept of the angular momentum into
a complex-valued representation where k = t and mvr = n
k
= n
t
. This is a
subject largely discussed in Regge theory and more details can be found in [17] and in
[18]. Regge poles which can be of interest from the point of view of the present survey
are dened as singularities in the complex angular momentum plane. In general Riemann
type of continuation for positive integer values of the angular momentum to the complex
plane is applied in relation to wave amplitudes and particles spectrum.
By analogy with the circle-circle intersecting patterns the complex-valued zeta func-
tion in the form [( t)
2
] can be derived from the expression for some y - intersection
module where the term k = t is directly plugged in such that
[( t)
2
, n
2
] =
n
1

n=1
1
(n
t
)
2
+
q
(n
t
1
)
2

1
d
2
q

i=1
y
2
i
. (72)
The square of the parameter s = t appears according to the relation with the energy
concepts as derived in Bohrs sense for the real version of zeta and one can dene the
(t) version for
k
2
=
t
2
and thus mvr = n
k
2
= n
t
2
. The relation to the hydrogen
spectrum is supported by the assumption d
2
= C
R
.
Complex numbers are not an ordered set and we cannot dene a relation between the
quantities with the indexes n
1
and n
2
as divisors. We apply directly the analogy from
the real version. With k = t we write
y
2
e
= d
2
[
1
(n
t
1
)
2

1
(n
t
2
)
2
] (73)
for the expected complex intersection between disjoint circles which is associated with
the emission spectrum. The term
1
(n
t
1
)
2
is related to linear separation and the term
1
(n
t
2
)
2
is related to some radial extension. For the real intersection and its relation to
the absorption spectrum we write
y
2
a
= d
2
[
1
(n
t
1
)
2

1
(n
t
2
)
2
] (74)
where the term
1
(n
t
1
)
2
is related to some radial extension and the term
1
(n
t
2
)
2
is related
to linear separation.
In both cases the expected place of intersection along the x-coordinate axis is
x =
d
n
t
1
=
d
n

1
e
t log n
1
=
d
n

1
(cos t log n
1
+ sin t log n
1
) (75)
128 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
which represents the extended version of the x-axis as described in (53). For = t log n
1
this is exactly the new place of intersection along the line of centers of two circular objects
as expressed by the rotation in (55). Note that for n
1
= 1 or t = 0 the intersection is
x =
d
n

1
+ 0 (76)
and for n
1
1 and t 0 it becomes x =
d
n

1
+ ( 0). These are the same type
of complex values as v
1
= x + 0 and v
1
= x + ( 0) which arise from the contour
deformation in (35).
Equation (73) in its full version reads
y
e
= d
4

(
cos 2t log n
1
n
2
1

cos 2t log n
2
n
2
2
)
2
+ (
sin2t log n
1
n
2
1

sin 2t log n
2
n
2
2
)
2
(cos
1
2
arctan
sin 2t log n
1
n
2
1

sin2t log n
2
n
2
2
cos 2t log n
1
n
2
1

cos 2t log n
2
n
2
2
+ sin
1
2
arctan
sin2t log n
1
n
2
1

sin 2t log n
2
n
2
2
cos 2t log n
1
n
2
1

cos 2t log n
2
n
2
2
) (77)
and we simplify it by writing
y
e
= d

M(cos + sin ) = d

M(sin cos ). (78)

Respectively, we simplify the extended version of (74) as
y
a
= d

M(cos + sin ). (79)

The modulus M can be developed into
M =

(
1
n
2
1
)
2
+ (
1
n
2
2
)
2

1
n
2
1
1
n
2
2
2 cos(2t log n
1
2t log n
2
) (80)
which as a form of the law of cosines denes certain distances. For (2t log n
1
2t log n
2
) =
2k with k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... it equals
M =

(
1
n
2
1

1
n
2
2
)
2
. (81)
Then, upon substitution in (78) we obtain
y
e
= d

1
n
2
1

1
n
2
2
(sin cos ) (82)
which precisely equals the value from the trivial case of intersection after rotation as
dened in (66) and (67) for = 0. These are the same type of complex values as
w
1,2
= 0 y which we associate with the poles in the integral evaluation in (37) since
for = 2k and k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... we can write
y
e
= 0 d

1
n
2
1

1
n
2
2
. (83)
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 129
From (76) and (83) and since in the trivial case of intersection zeros are not directly
revealed we can write
z
int
1,2
=
d
n

1
d

1
n
2
1

1
n
2
2
(84)
for the positions of intersection in the absence of rotation. These complex-valued positions
are the familiar ones from the trivial case and thus

2
z
int
1,2
= d
2
(
1
n
2
1

1
n
2
2
) =
1

e

e
=
1

2
z
int
1,2
.
(85)
When rotation is considered we have the necessary formulation for the rotation of the
x-place of intersection (75) which is recognized as the representation of the extended x-
axis. We have to consider the representation of the y-axis in the form (83), i.e. a rotation
around the origin instead of a certain displacement which can dene an aliation of this
vector to the parallel transported pair of objects through the ane transformations (66)
and (67) with the requirement for uniform rotation
1
2
arctan
sin2t log n
1
n
2
1

sin 2t log n
2
n
2
2
cos 2t log n
1
n
2
1

cos 2t log n
2
n
2
2
= = t log n
1
. (86)
The rotation of the inversion pole is at -radians by denition and this is the angle
between the complex vector z
pole
inv
and the real line. The angle between (82) and the real
line is

= arctan
cos
sin
= arctan(cot ). Then + arctan(cot ) =

2
because of the
trigonometric identity tan(

2
) = cot and thus [ + arctan(cot )] =

2
. The
complex vectors (82) are perpendicular to the complex vector z
pole
inv
. Then they are parallel
to the rotated and translated imaginary parts of the complex vectors (66) and (67) and
equal in size. The wave numbers and wavelengths of interest derived in (68) and (69) for
the parallel transported and rotated complex are the same as these calculated in (85),
namely
1

e
= d
2
(
1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
). (87)
Thus for = t log n
1
parallelism and identities between points, vectors and trajecto-
ries are preserved as a function of some continuous parameter t.
As previously stated the expression for the real intersection does not supply satisfac-
tory information about the behavior of the parallel transported complex. Equation (79)
is similar to the expression for the positions of the limiting points or the centers of the
circular objects as derived in (63) and (64) for = 0 instead of being of the same type as
the complex-valued intersection. However, we can benet from this inconvenience since
generally
d
d
y
a
= y
e
(88)
and thus the derivative of a representation related to position equals the representation
related to wave numbers and correspondingly to momentum.
130 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
One can introduce discrete values of t related to the familiar values of wave numbers
as
t
n
= d

1
n
2k
1

1
n
2k
2
(89)
where certain unique amount of rotation and unique positions of objects from (75) and
(82) are obtained. The same can be dened for the ane transformation (66) and (67)
for = = t
n
log n
1
. In addition, relation to eigenvalues can be revealed for log n
1
=

and we can, for example in (79) write

y
a
= d

1
n
2
1

1
n
2
2
e

1
n
2
1

1
n
2
2
= t
n
e
t
n

. (90)
For ,= t log n
1
the requirement for uniform rotation is not fullled but parallelism
and equality still hold between vectors which can be associated with the (66), (67) and
(82) vectors. This is equivalent to a rotation of the real vectors (0, t
n
) and (, t
n
) per-
formed with the matrix
R

(, t, n
1
) =

cos t log n
1
sin
sin t log n
1
cos

. (91)
Within this rotation the vector (0, t
n
)R

is not perpendicular to the vector (, 0)R

but
it is still parallel and equal to the (, t
n
)R

vector. If such an ane transformation is
considered from the perspective of the trivial case of intersection, i.e. the positions are
considered before the rotation it represents the intersection of two circles placed above
and below the real line but centered at dierent positions from the origin with the x-
place of intersection still equal to . This conguration does not aect the value of the
positions of intersection along the radical axis between the objects and thus the relation
to wavelengths.
Similar consideration about discreteness and continuity can be applied for the values
of M from (80). Besides the familiar discrete values (81) for (2t log n
1
2t log n
2
) = 2k
another set of unique discrete values of this metric can be obtained for the possible
values of t
n
from (89). For (t log n
1
t log n
2
) ,= k and t ,= constant the complex-valued
positions (78) and (79) represent wave-like trajectories and the same can be assigned to
the ane transformed positions (66) and (67) following the considerations for equality
and parallelism.
Generally, representation (73) is developed as a combination of contours which dene
the analytic continuation of zeta. The zeta function for s-complex variable is itself derived
from (73) where the relations to wave numbers and wavelengths and thus to energy states
are preserved. (s) remains a function of the sum of observed wavelengths within a given
series of the hydrogen spectrum for d
2
= C
R
R
H
and for specic discrete values of
the other parameters involved. Otherwise, it can serve to represent innitely many values
and positions within some general continuum.
Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134 131
7. Fractals
The generalized formula for the volume of a sphere can be written as
V =
2
s

s
2
(
s
2
)
R
s
(92)
and the formula for the related surface can be written as
A = 2

s
2
(
s
2
)
R
s1
, (93)
where R is the size of the radius of some sphere of dimension s.
One can re-write the functional relation

s
2
(
s
2
)(s) =

1s
2
(
1 s
2
)(1 s) (94)
which is satised by the Riemann zeta function in the form
(
s
2
)

s
2

R
1
R
s
=
(
1s
2
)

1s
2

R
1
R
1s
=
(
1s
2
)

1s
2

R
R
s1
(95)
for n = R
n
. Without loss of generality we can re-arrange (95) into
2

1s
2
(
1s
2
)

R
n
1
R
s
n
= 2

s
2
(
s
2
)

R
n
R
s1
n
. (96)
The right hand side is exactly a summation over surfaces of spheres dened by integer-
sized radii R
n
. The variable s is clearly endowed with a meaning of dimension with (s1)
- the dimension of the surfaces. The summation over volumes of spheres of dimension s
and with radii (
1
R
n
) can be derived from
2

1s
2
(
1s
2
)

R
n
1
R
s
n
= H(s)
2
s

s
2
(
s
2
)

R
n
(
1
R
n
)
s
, (97)
where H(s) = s
12s
2
(
s
2
)
(
1s
2
)
.
Then we recall that Riemann by making use of the equation

0
e
nx
x
s1
dx =
(s)
n
s
derives the integral (s)(s) =

0
x
s1
e
x
1
dx. Instead of a linear transformation of the x
coordinate into nx with n - integer we consider this modication as a contour deformation
into the length of an arc n R of radius R and is the subtended angle by the arc.
The new variable of the integrand of

0
(nx)
s1
e
nx
d(nx) =

0
(R)
s1
e
R
d(R) (98)
is thus the length of an arc which extends into a circle for 2 and this consideration
is again about contours of the
c
-type (37) related to the analytic continuation of the
132 Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics 10, No. 28 (2013) 111134
zeta function. A set of consecutive concentric circles is dened with R
n
= 1, 2, 3, ... . In
relation to the functional equation and the considerations (96) and (97) we can extend
these contours with another set of circles with radii equal to the unit fractions
1
R
n
for
R
n
= 1, 2, 3, ... . If the former set of concentric circles extends outwards from the unit
circle for R = n = 1, the latter extends inwards from the unit circle and towards the
origin and includes the discontinuity at the origin. Then we shall consider these two sets
of concentric circles as fractals, since concentricity satises basic requirements for the
denition of fractals, namely the self-similarity property. Fractals are used to model a
number of physical problems like dierences between densities, potential dierences and
attractors, i.e. objects and events which are related to the energy-concept discussed in
this paper. The concept of interest to the present survey is the box-counting dimension
of the fractal set E = 0
1
n
: n = 1, 2, 3, ... which is
D
box
(E) =
1
2
. (99)
This set can be associated with the above described set of concentric circles with radii
equal to the unit fractions and extending inwards from the unit circle towards and in-
cluding the zero at the origin. Since the dimension s of some fractal set E can be dened
as
s = lim
size0
log bulk(E)
log size(E)
(100)
which is a representation of Theiler in [19], then in relation to (99) we can write
(size(E))
1
2
= (
1
R
n
)
1
2
= (bulk(E)). (101)
This appears to be a special case mostly because of the inclusion of the terms
1
R
n
in
the interpretation of the functional equation and the contours associated with the zeta
function. The inclusion of the zero at the origin makes the s =
1
2
box-counting dimension
unique. One can treat (97) in a dierent manner and to re-arrange it as
2

1s
2
(
1s
2
)

R
n
1
R
s
n
= H

(s)
1
2
s
2
s
s
2

R
n
1
R
s
n
, (102)
where H

(s) =
4
1
2
s
1s
2

s
2
. This is a summation over the inverse volumes of spheres with radii
R
n
which can be physically interpreted as summation over certain amounts of pressure.
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