1.

1
Scientists seek to understand the fundamental principles that explain natural patterns and
processes. Science is more than just a body of knowledge, science provides a means to
evaluate and create new knowledge without bias. Scientists use objective evidence over
subjective evidence, to reach sound and logical conclusions.

An objective observation is without personal bias and the same by all individuals. Humans are
biased by nature, so they cannot be completely objective; the goal is to be as unbiased as
possible. A subjective observation is based on a person’s feelings and beliefs and is unique to
that individual.

Another way scientists avoid bias is by using quantitative over qualitative measurements
whenever possible. A quantitative measurement is expressed with a specific numerical value.
Qualitative observations are general or relative descriptions. For example, describing a rock as
red or heavy is a qualitative observation. Determining a rock’s color by measuring wavelengths
of reflected light or its density by measuring the proportions of minerals it contains is
quantitative. Numerical values are more precise than general descriptions, and they can be
analyzed using statistical calculations. This is why quantitative measurements are much more
useful to scientists than qualitative observations.

A person is looking into the canyon.

Canyons like this, carved in the deposit left by the May 18th, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens,
are sometimes used by purveyors of pseudoscience as evidence for the Earth being very
young. In reality, the non-lithified volcanic deposit is carved much more easily than other
canyons like the Grand Canyon.
Establishing truth in science is difficult because all scientific claims are falsifiable, which means
any initial hypothesis may be tested and proven false. Only after exhaustively eliminating false
results, competing ideas, and possible variations does a hypothesis become regarded as a
reliable scientific theory. This meticulous scrutiny reveals weaknesses or flaws in a hypothesis
and is the strength that supports all scientific ideas and procedures. In fact, proving current
ideas are wrong has been the driving force behind many scientific careers.

Falsifiability separates science from pseudoscience. Scientists are wary of explanations of

natural phenomena that discourage or avoid falsifiability. An explanation that cannot be tested or
does not meet scientific standards is not considered science, but pseudoscience.
Pseudoscience is a collection of ideas that may appear scientific but does not use the scientific
method. Astrology is an example of pseudoscience. It is a belief system that attributes the
movement of celestial bodies to influencing human behavior. Astrologers rely on celestial
observations, but their conclusions are not based on experimental evidence and their
statements are not falsifiable. This is not to be confused with astronomy which is the scientific
study of celestial bodies and the cosmos.

Many people are standing around and talking.

Geologists share information by publishing, attending conferences, and even going on field
trips, such as this trip to western Utah by the Utah Geological Association in 2009.
Science is also a social process. Scientists share their ideas with peers at conferences, seeking
guidance and feedback. Research papers and data submitted for publication are rigorously
reviewed by qualified peers, scientists who are experts in the same field. The scientific review
process aims to weed out misinformation, invalid research results, and wild speculation. Thus, it
is slow, cautious, and conservative. Scientists tend to wait until a hypothesis is supported by
overwhelming amount of evidence from many independent researchers before accepting it as
scientific theory.

1.2
method.
Modern science is based on the scientific method, a procedure that follows these steps:
Formulate a question or observe a problem
Apply objective experimentation and observation
Analyze collected data and Interpret results
Devise an evidence-based theory
Submit findings to peer review and/or publication
This has a long history in human thought but was first fully formed by Ibn al-Haytham over 1,000
years ago. At the forefront of the scientific method are conclusions based on objective evidence,
not opinion or hearsay.

STEP ONE: OBSERVATION, PROBLEM, OR RESEARCH QUESTION

The procedure begins with identifying a problem or research question, such as a geological
phenomenon that is not well explained in the scientific community’s collective knowledge. This
step usually involves reviewing the scientific literature to understand previous studies that may
be related to the question.

STEP TWO: HYPOTHESIS

There are 12 images of the horse, at least one has the legs off the ground.
A famous hypothesis: Leland Stanford wanted to know if a horse lifted all 4 legs off the ground
during a gallop, since the legs are too fast for the human eye to perceive it. These series of
photographs by Eadweard Muybridge proved the horse, in fact, does have all four legs off the
ground during the gallop.
Once the problem or question is well defined, the scientist proposes a possible answer, a
hypothesis, before conducting an experiment or field work. This hypothesis must be specific,
falsifiable, and should be based on other scientific work. Geologists often develop multiple
working hypotheses because they usually cannot impose strict experimental controls or have
limited opportunities to visit a field location.

STEP THREE: EXPERIMENT AND HYPOTHESIS REVISION

The setup is like an hourglass, and the black pitch sits in it
An experiment at the University of Queensland has been going since 1927. A petroleum product
called pitch, which is highly viscous, drips out of a funnel about once per decade.
The next step is developing an experiment that either supports or refutes the hypothesis. Many
people mistakenly think experiments are only done in a lab; however, an experiment can consist
of observing natural processes in the field. Regardless of what form an experiment takes, it
always includes the systematic gathering of objective data. This data is interpreted to determine
whether it contradicts or supports the hypothesis, which may be revised and tested again. When
a hypothesis holds up under experimentation, it is ready to be shared with other experts in the
field.

STEP FOUR: PEER REVIEW, PUBLICATION, AND REPLICATION

Scientists share the results of their research by publishing articles in scientific journals, such as
Science and Nature. Reputable journals and publishing houses will not publish an experimental
study until they have determined its methods are scientifically rigorous and the conclusions are
supported by evidence. Before an article is published, it undergoes a rigorous peer review by
scientific experts who scrutinize the methods, results, and discussion. Once an article is
published, other scientists may attempt to replicate the results. This replication is necessary to
confirm the reliability of the study’s reported results. A hypothesis that seemed compelling in
one study might be proven false in studies conducted by other scientists. New technology can
be applied to published studies, which can aid in confirming or rejecting once-accepted ideas
and/or hypotheses.

STEP FIVE: THEORY DEVELOPMENT

He is a male in a suit.
Wegener later in his life, ca. 1924-1930.
In casual conversation, the word theory implies guesswork or speculation. In the language of
science, an explanation or conclusion made in a theory carries much more weight because it is
supported by experimental verification and widely accepted by the scientific community. After a
hypothesis has been repeatedly tested for falsifiability through documented and independent
studies, it eventually becomes accepted as a scientific theory.

While a hypothesis provides a tentative explanation before an experiment, a theory is the best
explanation after being confirmed by multiple independent experiments. Confirmation of a
theory may take years, or even longer. For example, the continental drift hypothesis first
proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 was initially dismissed. After decades of additional
evidence collection by other scientists using more advanced technology, Wegener’s hypothesis
was accepted and revised as the theory of plate tectonics.

The theory of evolution by natural selection is another example. Originating from the work of
Charles Darwin in the mid-19th century, the theory of evolution has withstood generations of
scientific testing for falsifiability. While it has been updated and revised to accommodate
knowledge gained by using modern technologies, the theory of evolution continues to be
supported by the latest evidence.

1.3
Western scientific thought began in the ancient city of Athens, Greece. Athens was governed as
a democracy, which encouraged individuals to think independently, at a time when most
civilizations were ruled by monarchies or military conquerors. Foremost among the early
philosopher/scientists to use empirical thinking was Aristotle, born in 384 BCE. Empiricism
emphasizes the value of evidence gained from experimentation and observation. Aristotle
studied under Plato and tutored Alexander the Great. Alexander would later conquer the
Persian Empire, and in the process spread Greek culture as far east as India.

Aristotle applied an empirical method of analysis called deductive reasoning, which applies
known principles of thought to establish new ideas or predict new outcomes. Deductive
reasoning starts with generalized principles and logically extends them to new ideas or specific
conclusions. If the initial principle is valid, then it is highly likely the conclusion is also valid. An
example of deductive reasoning is if A=B, and B=C, then A=C. Another example is if all birds
have feathers, and a sparrow is a bird, then a sparrow must also have feathers. The problem
with deductive reasoning is if the initial principle is flawed, the conclusion will inherit that flaw.
Here is an example of a flawed initial principle leading to the wrong conclusion; if all animals
that fly are birds, and bats also fly, then bats must also be birds.

This type of empirical thinking contrasts with inductive reasoning, which begins from new
observations and attempts to discern underlying generalized principles. A conclusion made
through inductive reasoning comes from analyzing measurable evidence, rather than making a
logical connection. For example, to determine whether bats are birds a scientist might list
various characteristics observed in birds–the presence of feathers, a toothless beak, hollow
bones, lack of forelegs, and externally laid eggs. Next, the scientist would check whether bats
share the same characteristics, and if they do not, draw the conclusion that bats are not birds.

Both types of reasoning are important in science because they emphasize the two most
important aspects of science: observation and inference. Scientists test existing principles to
see if they accurately infer or predict their observations. They also analyze new observations to
determine if the inferred underlying principles still support them.

The drawing is black and white of a man

1271 drawing of Avicenna (Ibn Sina). He is among the first to link mountains to earthquakes and
erosion.
Greek culture was spread by Alexander and then absorbed by the Romans, who help further
extend Greek knowledge into Europe through their vast infrastructure of roads, bridges, and
aqueducts. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE, scientific progress in Europe stalled.
Scientific thinkers of medieval times had such high regard for Aristotle’s wisdom and knowledge
they faithfully followed his logical approach to understanding nature for centuries. By contrast,
science in the Middle East flourished and grew between 800 and 1450 CE, along with culture
and the arts.

Near the end of the medieval period, empirical experimentation became more common in
Europe. During the Renaissance, which lasted from the 14th through 17th centuries, artistic and
scientific thought experienced a great awakening. European scholars began to criticize the
traditional Aristotelian approach and by the end of the Renaissance period, empiricism was
poised to become a key component of the scientific revolution that would arise in the 17th
century.

Earth is at the center.

Geocentric drawing by Bartolomeu Velho in 1568
An early example of how Renaissance scientists began to apply a modern empirical approach is
their study of the solar system. In the second century, the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy
observed the Sun, Moon, and stars moving across the sky. Applying Aristotelian logic to his
astronomical calculations, he deductively reasoned all celestial bodies orbited around the Earth,
which was located at the center of the universe. Ptolemy was a highly regarded mathematician,
and his mathematical calculations were widely accepted by the scientific community. The view
of the cosmos with Earth at its center is called the geocentric model. This geocentric model
persisted until the Renaissance period when some revolutionary thinkers challenged the
centuries-old hypothesis.

By contrast, early Renaissance scholars such as astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

proposed an alternative explanation for the perceived movement of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
Sometime between 1507 and 1515, he provided credible mathematical proof for a radically new
model of the cosmos, one in which the Earth and other planets orbited around a centrally
located Sun. After the invention of the telescope in 1608, scientists used their enhanced
astronomical observations to support this heliocentric, Sun-centered, model.

The sun is in the center

Copernicus’ heliocentric model
This is a manuscript showing 4 moons of Jupiter.
Galileo’s first mention of moons of Jupiter.
Two scientists, Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, are credited with jump-starting the scientific
revolution. They accomplished this by building on Copernicus’s work and challenging
long-established ideas about nature and science.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was a German mathematician and astronomer who expanded on
the heliocentric model—improving Copernicus’ original calculations and describing the planetary
motion as elliptical paths. Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) was an Italian astronomer who used the
newly developed telescope to observe the four largest moons of Jupiter. This was the first piece
of direct evidence to contradict the geocentric model since moons orbiting Jupiter could not also
be orbiting Earth.
Galileo strongly supported the heliocentric model and attacked the geocentric model, arguing for
a more scientific approach to determine the credibility of an idea. Because of this, he found
himself at odds with prevailing scientific views and the Catholic Church. In 1633 he was found
guilty of heresy and placed under house arrest, where he would remain until his death in 1642.

Galileo is regarded as the first modern scientist because he conducted experiments that would
prove or disprove falsifiable ideas and based his conclusions on mathematical analysis of
quantifiable evidence—a radical departure from the deductive thinking of Greek philosophers
such as Aristotle. His methods marked the beginning of a major shift in how scientists studied
the natural world, with an increasing number of them relying on evidence and experimentation
to form their hypotheses. It was during this revolutionary time that geologists such as James
Hutton and Nicolas Steno also made great advances in their scientific fields of study.

1.4
As part of the scientific revolution in Europe, modern geologic principles developed in the 17th
and 18th centuries. One major contributor was Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686), a Danish priest
who studied anatomy and geology. Steno was the first to propose the Earth’s surface could
change over time. He suggested sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone and shale, originally
formed in horizontal layers with the oldest on the bottom and progressively younger layers on
top.

In the 18th century, Scottish naturalist James Hutton (1726–1797) studied rivers and coastlines
and compared the sediments they left behind to exposed sedimentary rock strata. He
hypothesized the ancient rocks must have been formed by processes like those producing the
features in the oceans and streams. Hutton also proposed the Earth was much older than
previously thought. Modern geologic processes operate slowly. Hutton realized if these
processes formed rocks, then the Earth must be very old, possibly hundreds of millions of years
old.

Hutton’s idea is called the principle of uniformitarianism and states that natural processes
operate the same now as in the past, i.e. the laws of nature are uniform across space and time.
Geologist often state “the present is the key to the past,” meaning they can understand ancient
rocks by studying modern geologic processes.

It shows two views of each jaw.

Cuvier’s comparison of modern elephant and mammoth jaw bones.
Prior to the acceptance of uniformitarianism, scientists such as German geologist Abraham
Gottlob Werner (1750-1817) and French anatomist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) thought rocks
and landforms were formed by great catastrophic events. Cuvier championed this view, known
as catastrophism, and stated, “The thread of operation is broken; nature has changed course,
and none of the agents she employs today would have been sufficient to produce her former
works.” He meant processes that operate today did not operate in the past. Known as the father
of vertebrate paleontology, Cuvier made significant contributions to the study of ancient life and
taught at Paris’s Museum of Natural History. Based on his study of large vertebrate fossils, he
was the first to suggest species could go extinct. However, he thought new species were
introduced by special creation after catastrophic floods.

It shows a rudimentary cross section

Inside cover of Lyell’s Elements of Geology
Hutton’s ideas about uniformitarianism and Earth’s age were not well received by the scientific
community of his time. His ideas were falling into obscurity when Charles Lyell, a British lawyer
and geologist (1797-1875), wrote the Principles of Geology in the early 1830s and later,
Elements of Geology. Lyell’s books promoted Hutton’s principle of uniformitarianism, his studies
of rocks and the processes that formed them, and the idea that Earth was possibly over 300
million years old. Lyell and his three-volume Principles of Geology had a lasting influence on the
geologic community and public at large, who eventually accepted uniformitarianism and
millionfold age for the Earth. The principle of uniformitarianism became so widely accepted, that
geologists regarded catastrophic change as heresy. This made it harder for ideas like the
sudden demise of the dinosaurs by asteroid impact to gain traction.

A contemporary of Lyell, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) took Principles of Geology on his five-year
trip on the HMS Beagle. Darwin used uniformitarianism and deep geologic time to develop his
initial ideas about evolution. Lyell was one of the first to publish a reference to Darwin’s idea of
evolution.

The next big advancement, and perhaps the largest in the history of geology, is the theory of
plate tectonics and continental drift. Dogmatic acceptance of uniformitarianism inhibited the
progress of this idea, mainly because of the permanency placed on the continents and their
positions. Ironically, the slow and steady movement of plates would fit well into a
uniformitarianism model. However, much time passed and a great deal of scientific resistance
had to be overcome before the idea took hold. This happened for several reasons. Firstly, the
movement was so slow it was overlooked. Secondly, the best evidence was hidden under the
ocean. Finally, the accepted theories were anchored by a large amount of inertia. Instead of
being bias-free, scientists resisted and ridiculed the emerging idea of plate tectonics. This
example of dogmatic thinking is still to this day a tarnish on the geoscience community.

He is an older man in this 1992 image.

J. Tuzo Wilson
Plate tectonics is most commonly attributed to Alfred Wegener, the first scientist to compile a
large data set supporting the idea of continents shifting places over time. He was mostly ignored
and ridiculed for his ideas, but later workers like Marie Tharp, Bruce Heezen, Harry Hess,
Laurence Morley, Frederick Vine, Drummond Matthews, Kiyoo Wadati, Hugo Benioff, Robert
Coats, and J. Tuzo Wilson benefited from advances in sub-sea technologies. They discovered,
described, and analyzed new features like the mid-ocean ridge, the alignment of earthquakes,
and magnetic striping. Gradually these scientists introduced a paradigm shift that revolutionized
geology into the science we know today.
1.5
Geologists apply the scientific method to learn about Earth’s materials and processes. Geology
plays an important role in society; its principles are essential to locating, extracting, and
managing natural resources; evaluating the environmental impacts of using or extracting these
resources; as well as understanding and mitigating the effects of natural hazards.

Geology often applies information from physics and chemistry to the natural world, like
understanding the physical forces in a landslide or the chemical interaction between water and
rocks. The term comes from the Greek word geo, meaning Earth, and logos, meaning to think or
reckon with.

1.5.1
Geology plays a key role in how we use natural resources—any naturally occurring material that
can be extracted from the Earth for economic gain. Our developed modern society, like all
societies before it, is dependent on geologic resources. Geologists are involved in extracting
fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum; metals such as copper, aluminum, and iron; and water
resources in streams and underground reservoirs inside soil and rocks. They can help conserve
our planet’s finite supply of nonrenewable resources, like petroleum, which is fixed in quantity
and depleted by consumption. Geologists can also help manage renewable resources that can
be replaced or regenerated, such as solar or wind energy, and timber.

The power plant has smoke coming from it

Coal power plant in Helper, Utah.
Resource extraction and usage impacts our environment, which can negatively affect human
health. For example, burning fossil fuels releases chemicals into the air that are unhealthy for
humans, especially children. Mining activities can release toxic heavy metals, such as lead and
mercury, into the soil and waterways. Our choices will have an effect on Earth’s environment for
the foreseeable future. Understanding the remaining quantity, extractability, and renewability of
geologic resources will help us better sustainably manage those resources.

Buildings toppled from liquefaction during a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Japan.

Buildings toppled from liquefaction during a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in Japan.
Geologists also study natural hazards created by geologic processes. Natural hazards are
phenomena that are potentially dangerous to human life or property. No place on Earth is
completely free of natural hazards, so one of the best ways people can protect themselves is by
understanding geology. Geology can teach people about the natural hazards in an area and
how to prepare for them. Geologic hazards include landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, floods,
volcanic eruptions, and sea-level rise.

The mountain has a large hole in the center that is filled with the lake.
Oregon’s Crater Lake was formed about 7700 years ago after the eruption of Mount Mazama.
Finally, geology is where other scientific disciplines intersect in the concept known as Earth
System Science. In science, a system is a group of interactive objects and processes. Earth
System Science views the entire planet as a combination of systems that interact with each
other via complex relationships. This geology textbook provides an introduction to science in
general and will often reference other scientific disciplines.

Earth System Science includes five basic systems (or spheres), the Geosphere (the solid body
of the Earth), the Atmosphere (the gas envelope surrounding the Earth), the Hydrosphere(water
in all its forms at and near the surface of the Earth), the Cryosphere (frozen water part of Earth),
and the Biosphere (life on Earth in all its forms and interactions, including humankind).

Rather than viewing geology as an isolated system, earth system scientists study how geologic
processes shape not only the world but all the spheres it contains. They study how these
multidisciplinary spheres relate, interact, and change in response to natural cycles and
human-driven forces. They use elements from physics, chemistry, biology, meteorology,
environmental science, zoology, hydrology, and many other sciences.

1.5.2
The most fundamental view of Earth’s materials is the rock cycle, which describes the major
materials that comprise the Earth, the processes that form them, and how they relate to each
other. It usually begins with hot molten liquid rock called magma or lava. Magma forms under
the Earth’s surface in the crust or mantle. Lava is molten rock that erupts onto the Earth’s
surface. When magma or lava cools, it solidifies through a process called crystallization in which
minerals grow within the magma or lava. The resulting rocks are igneous rocks. Ignis is Latin for
fire.

This grey rock has round circles left by raindrops

Lithified raindrop impressions over wave ripples from Nova Scotia.
Igneous rocks, as well as other types of rocks on Earth’s surface, are exposed to weathering
and erosion, which produces sediments. Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown of
rocks into smaller fragments. Erosion is the removal of those fragments from their original
location. The broken-down and transported fragments or grains are considered sediments, such
as gravel, sand, silt, and clay. These sediments may be transported by streams and rivers,
ocean currents, glaciers, and wind.

Sediments come to rest in a process known as deposition. As the deposited sediments

accumulate—often underwater, such as in a shallow marine environment—the older sediments
get buried by the new deposits. The deposits are compacted by the weight of the overlying
sediments and individual grains are cemented together by minerals in groundwater. These
processes of compaction and cementation are called lithification. Lithified sediments are
considered sedimentary rock, such as sandstone and shale. Other sedimentary rocks are made
by direct chemical precipitation of minerals rather than eroded sediments, and are known as
chemical sedimentary rocks.

Swirling bands of light and dark minerals.

Migmatite, a rock which was partially molten. (Source: Peter Davis)
Pre-existing rocks may be transformed into a metamorphic rock; meta- means change and
-morphos means form or shape. When rocks are subjected to extreme increases in temperature
or pressure, the mineral crystals are enlarged or altered into entirely new minerals with similar
chemical make up. High temperatures and pressures occur in rocks buried deep within the
Earth’s crust or that come into contact with hot magma or lava. If the temperature and pressure
conditions melt the rocks to create magma and lava, the rock cycle begins anew with the
creation of new rocks.

1.5.3
The theory of plate tectonics is the fundamental unifying principle of geology and the rock cycle.
Plate tectonics describes how Earth’s layers move relative to each other, focusing on the
tectonic or lithospheric plates of the outer layer. Tectonic plates float, collide, slide past each
other, and split apart on an underlying mobile layer called the asthenosphere. Major landforms
are created at the plate boundaries, and rocks within the tectonic plates move through the rock
cycle. Plate tectonics is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

Places with mountain building have a deeper moho.

The global map of the thickness of the crust.
Earth’s three main geological layers can be categorized by chemical composition, or the
chemical makeup: crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and is composed of
mostly silicon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, and magnesium. There are two types, continental crust,
and oceanic crust. The continental crust is about 50 km (30 mi) thick and is composed of
low-density igneous and sedimentary rocks. The oceanic crust is approximately 10 km (6 mi)
thick and made of high-density igneous basalt-type rocks. The oceanic crust makes up most of
the ocean floor, covering about 70% of the planet. Tectonic plates are made of crust and a
portion of the upper mantle, forming a rigid physical layer called the lithosphere.

The crust and lithosphere are on the outside of the Earth and are thin. Below the crust is the
mantle and core. Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere.
The layers of the Earth. Physical layers include lithosphere and asthenosphere; chemical layers
are crust, mantle, and core.
The mantle, the largest chemical layer by volume, lies below the crust and extends down to
about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) below the Earth’s surface. The mostly solid mantle is made of
peridotite, a high-density composed of silica, iron, and magnesium. The upper part of the mantle
is very hot and flexible, which allows the overlying tectonic plates to float and move about on it.
Under the mantle is the Earth’s core, which is 3,500 km (2,200 mi) thick and made of iron and
nickel. The core consists of two parts, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core. Rotations
within the solid and liquid metallic core generate Earth’s magnetic field (see figure).

1.5.4
One of the early pioneers of geology, James Hutton, wrote this about the age of the Earth after
many years of geological study. Although he wasn’t exactly correct—there is a beginning and
will be an end to planet Earth—Hutton was expressing the difficulty humans have in perceiving
the vastness of geological time. Hutton did not assign an age to the Earth, although he was the
first to suggest the planet was very old.
Today we know Earth is approximately 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years old. This age was first calculated
by Caltech professor Clair Patterson in 1956, who measured the half-lives of lead isotopes to
radiometrically date a meteorite recovered in Arizona. Studying geologic time, also known as
deep time, can help us overcome a perspective of Earth that is limited to our short lifetimes.
Compared to the geologic scale, the human lifespan is very short, and we struggle to
comprehend the depth of geologic time and the slowness of geologic processes. For example,
the study of earthquakes only goes back about 100 years; however, there is geologic evidence
of large earthquakes occurring thousands of years ago. And scientific evidence indicates
earthquakes will continue for many centuries into the future.

The Geologic Time Scale with an age of each unit shown by a scale
Geologic time scale showing time period names and ages. (Source: Belinda Madsen)
Eons are the largest divisions of time, and from oldest to youngest are named Hadean,
Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The three oldest eons are sometimes collectively
referred to as Precambrian time.

Life first appeared more than 3,800 million of years ago (Ma). From 3,500 Ma to 542 Ma, or
88% of geologic time, the predominant life forms were single-celled organisms such as bacteria.
More complex organisms appeared only more recently, during the current Phanerozoic Eon,
which includes the last 542 million years or 12% of geologic time.

The name Phanerozoic comes from phaneros, which means visible, and zoic, meaning life. This
eon marks the proliferation of multicellular animals with hard body parts, such as shells, which
are preserved in the geological record as fossils. Land-dwelling animals have existed for 360
million years, or 8% of geologic time. The demise of the dinosaurs and subsequent rise of
mammals occurred around 65 Ma, or 1.5% of geologic time. Our human ancestors belonging to
the genus Homo have existed since approximately 2.2 Ma—0.05% of geological time or just
1/2,000th the total age of Earth.

The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Paleozoic
means ancient life, and organisms of this era included invertebrate animals, fish, amphibians,
and reptiles. The Mesozoic (middle life) is popularly known as the Age of Reptiles and is
characterized by the abundance of dinosaurs, many of which evolved into birds. The mass
extinction of the dinosaurs and other apex predator reptiles marked the end of the Mesozoic and
the beginning of the Cenozoic. Cenozoic means new life and is also called the Age of
Mammals, during which mammals evolved to become the predominant land-dwelling animals.
Fossils of early humans, or hominids, appear in the rock record only during the last few million
years of the Cenozoic. The geologic time scale, geologic time, and geologic history are
discussed in more detail in chapters 7 and 8.
In its simplest form, a geologist’s tool may be a rock hammer used for sampling a fresh surface
of a rock. A basic tool set for fieldwork might also include:

Magnifying lens for looking at mineralogical details

Compass for measuring the orientation of geologic features
Map for documenting the local distribution of rocks and minerals
Magnet for identifying magnetic minerals like magnetite
Dilute solution of hydrochloric acid to identify carbonate-containing minerals like calcite or
limestone.
In the laboratory, geologists use optical microscopes to closely examine rocks and soil for
mineral composition and grain size. Laser and mass spectrometers precisely measure the
chemical composition and geological age of minerals. Seismographs record and locate
earthquake activity, or when used in conjunction with ground penetrating radar, locate objects
buried beneath the surface of the earth. Scientists apply computer simulations to turn their
collected data into testable, theoretical models. Hydrogeologists drill wells to sample and
analyze underground water quality and availability. Geochemists use scanning electron
microscopes to analyze minerals at the atomic level, via x-rays. Other geologists use gas
chromatography to analyze liquids and gases trapped in glacial ice or rocks.

Technology provides new tools for scientific observation, which leads to new evidence that helps
scientists revise and even refute old ideas. Because the ultimate technology will never be
discovered, the ultimate observation will never be made. And this is the beauty of science—it is
ever-advancing and always discovering something new.

1.6
Introductory science courses usually deal with accepted scientific theory and do not include
opposing ideas, even though these alternate ideas may be credible. This makes it easier for
students to understand the complex material. Advanced students will encounter more
controversies as they continue to study their discipline.

Some groups of people argue that some established scientific theories are wrong, not based on
their scientific merit but rather on the ideology of the group. This section focuses on how to
identify evidence-based information and differentiate it from pseudoscience.

1.6.1
Science denial happens when people argue that established scientific theories are wrong, not
based on scientific merit but rather on subjective ideology—such as for social, political, or
economic reasons. Organizations and people use science denial as a rhetorical argument
against issues or ideas they oppose. Three examples of science denial versus science are: 1)
teaching evolution in public schools, 2) linking tobacco smoke to cancer, and 3) linking human
activity to climate change. Among these, denial of climate change is strongly connected with
geology. A climate denier specifically denies or doubts the objective conclusions of geologists
and climate scientists.
Shows three pillars labeled "Undermine the Science", "Claim the Result is Evil", and "Demand
Equal Time".
Three false rhetorical arguments of science denial (Source: National Center for Science
Education)
Science denial generally uses three false arguments. The first argument tries to undermine the
credibility of the scientific conclusion by claiming the research methods are flawed or the theory
is not universally accepted—the science is unsettled. The notion that scientific ideas are not
absolute creates doubt for non-scientists; however, a lack of universal truths should not be
confused with scientific uncertainty. Because science is based on falsifiability, scientists avoid
claiming universal truths and use language that conveys uncertainty. This allows scientific ideas
to change and evolve as more evidence is uncovered.

The second argument claims the researchers are not objective and are motivated by an
ideology or economic agenda. This is an ad hominem argument in which a person’s character is
attacked instead of the merit of their argument. They claim results have been manipulated so
researchers can justify asking for more funding. They claim that because the researchers are
funded by a federal grant, they are using their results to lobby for expanded government
regulation.

The third argument is to demand a balanced view, equal time in media coverage and
educational curricula, to engender the false illusion of two equally valid arguments. Science
deniers frequently demand equal coverage of their proposals, even when there is little scientific
evidence supporting their ideology. For example, science deniers might demand religious
explanations be taught as an alternative to the well-established theory of evolution. Or that all
possible causes of climate change be discussed as equally probable, regardless of the body of
evidence. Conclusions derived using the scientific method should not be confused with those
based on ideologies.

Furthermore, conclusions about nature derived from ideologies have no place in scientific
research and education. For example, it would be inappropriate to teach the flat earth model in
a modern geology course because this idea has been disproved by the scientific method.
Unfortunately, widespread scientific illiteracy allows these arguments to be used to suppress
scientific knowledge and spread misinformation.

The formation of new conclusions based on the scientific method is the only way to change
scientific conclusions. We wouldn’t teach Flat Earth geology along with plate tectonics because
Flat Earthers don’t follow the scientific method. The fact that scientists avoid universal truths
and change their ideas as more evidence is uncovered shouldn’t be seen as meaning that the
science is unsettled. Because of widespread scientific illiteracy, these arguments are used by
those who wish to suppress science and misinform the general public.

The lines are similar when comparing smoking and cancer

The lag time between cancer after smoking, plus the ethics of running human trials, delayed the
government in taking action against tobacco.
In a classic case of science denial, beginning in the 1960s and for the next three decades, the
tobacco industry and its scientists used rhetorical arguments to deny a connection between
tobacco usage and cancer. Once it became clear scientific studies overwhelmingly found that
using tobacco dramatically increased a person’s likelihood of getting cancer, their next strategy
was to create a sense of doubt about the science. The tobacco industry suggested the results
were not yet fully understood and more study was needed. They used this doubt to lobby for
delaying legislative action that would warn consumers of the potential health hazards. This
same tactic is currently being employed by those who deny the significance of human
involvement in climate change.

1.6.2
In the age of the internet, information is plentiful. Geologists, scientists, or anyone exploring
scientific inquiry must discern valid sources of information from pseudoscience and
misinformation. This evaluation is especially important in scientific research because scientific
knowledge is respected for its reliability. Textbooks such as this one can aid this complex and
crucial task. At its roots, quality information comes from the scientific method, beginning with the
empirical thinking of Aristotle. The application of the scientific method helps produce unbiased
results. A valid inference or interpretation is based on objective evidence or data. Credible data
and inferences are clearly labeled, separated, and differentiated. Anyone looking over the data
can understand how the author’s conclusion was derived or come to an alternative conclusion.
Scientific procedures are clearly defined so the investigation can be replicated to confirm the
original results or expanded further to produce new results. These measures make a scientific
inquiry valid and its use as a source reputable. Of course, substandard work occasionally slips
through and retractions are published from time to time. An infamous article linking the MMR
vaccine to autism appeared in the highly reputable journal Lancet in 1998. Journalists
discovered the author had multiple conflicts of interest and fabricated data, and the article was
retracted in 2010.

Logo for The Geological Society of America, one of the leading geoscience organizations. They
also publish GSA Bulletin, a reputable geology journal.
In addition to methodology, data, and results, the authors of a study should be investigated.
When looking into any research, the author(s) should be investigated. An author’s credibility is
based on multiple factors, such as having a degree in a relevant topic or being funded by an
unbiased source.

The same rigor should be applied to evaluating the publisher, ensuring the results reported
come from an unbiased process. The publisher should be easy to discover. Good publishers will
show the latest papers in the journal and make their contact information and identification clear.
Reputable journals show their peer-review style. Some journals are predatory, where they use
unexplained and unnecessary fees to submit and access journals. Reputable journals have
recognizable editorial boards. Often, a reliable journal will associate with a trade, association, or
recognized open-source initiative.
One of the hallmarks of scientific research is peer review. Research should be transparent to
peer review. This allows the scientific community to reproduce experimental results, correct and
retract errors, and validate theories. This allows the reproduction of experimental results,
corrections of errors, and proper justification of the research to experts.

Citation is not only imperative to avoid plagiarism, but also allows readers to investigate an
author’s line of thought and conclusions. When reading scientific works, it is important to confirm
the citations are from reputable scientific research. Most often, scientific citations are used to
reference paraphrasing rather than quotes. The number of times a work is cited is said to
measure of the influence an investigation has within the scientific community, although this
technique is inherently biased.

summary
Science is a process, with no beginning and no end. Science is never finished because the full
truth can never be known. However, science and the scientific method are the best way to
understand the universe we live in. Scientists draw conclusions based on objective evidence;
they consolidate these conclusions into unifying models. Geologists likewise understand
studying the Earth is an ongoing process, beginning with James Hutton who declared the Earth
has “…no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end.” Geologists explore the 4.5 billion-year
history of Earth, its resources, and its many hazards. From a larger viewpoint, geology can
teach people how to develop credible conclusions, as well as identify and stop misinformation.

● Approximately when did the meteor that caused Meteor Crater hit the surface
of the Earth?

50,000 years ago

● How big is the meteor estimated to have been?

50 meters across in size

● What was thought to be the cause of the crater before scientists determined
that it was a meteor impact?

thought to be the result of a volcano

● Was Daniel M. Barringer using inductive or deductive reason when he

proposed that the crater actually resulted from the impact of a meteor?

inductive
 ● What's wrong with the sentence "Later on, mining engineer Daniel M.
Barringer theorized that it was an impact crater from a large iron meteorite"?
Hint: one of the words is inaccurate.

It should be Hypothethised