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Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

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DOI: 10.5644/Herb.16.2.01

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 Herbologia, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2017

DOI: 10.5644/Herb.16.2.01

ALIEN GRASSES OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Semir Maslo
Primary School, Lundåkerskola, Södra Storgatan 45, 332 33 Gislaved, Sweden
E.mail: [email protected]

Abstract
This paper contains a preliminary list of alien grass species recorded
in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Poaceae family in Bosnia and Herzego-
vina is represented by 32 alien species. Thirteen alien Poaceae species
are naturalized (40.63%), of which four can be characterized as invasive
species (12.50%) and 19 are casuals (59.37%). Most of the alien grass
species originate in Asia 13 (40.63%), followed by those that originate in
the Americas 9 (28.13%), Eurasia 5 (15.63%) and Africa 2 (6.26%). Three
species have unknown origins. Many of these species are important crop
plant and some are regarded as weeds.
Keywords: alien flora, grasses, crops, weeds, distribution, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Introduction
The grass family, Poaceae (Gramineae) is in many ways the world’s
most successful family of plants. Grasslands, such as savannas, prairies and
steppes, covers almost a quarter of the earth’s land surface. Many grass spe-
cies are cosmopolitans, which means they have spread worldwide (Anthox-
antum odoratum, Glyceria fluitans, Phragmites australis, Poa annua, and
others). The most important cultural plants of the world belong to this group
(wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, rice, etc). Grass family, comprising around
11000 species distributed in about 700 genera. This makes the grass family
into the world’s fifth largest plant family after Orchidaceae, Fabaceae, Aster-
aceae and Rubiaceae. According to all acquired literature data (see Refer-
ences) the grass flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina comprises approximately
300 species. Among them, 32 species can be classified as alien which equals
ca 10% of the complete grass flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Materials and methods

This study is based on the author’s field observations from the spring
of 1998 to the end of 2016. Besides the field survey, the checking and

Copyright © 2017 by the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 S. Maslo

revision of herbarium material and relevant literature sources were used

for supplementation of the distribution records. In the list of alien grass
flora (Appendix 1), species were listed in alphabetic order. Designations
for: family, invasion status, history, mode of introduction, origin and first
records are provided. The distribution of 18 species in Bosnia and Herze-
govina was mapped on a 10 x 10 sq. km area using the UTM grid system
(Fig. 2,5). Digital photographs were taken in the field. The taxonomy and
nomenclature of species have been adjusted according to Nikolić (2012).
The terminology presented below has been adapted from Richardson et al.,
(2000) and Pyšek et al., (2004). All taxa are classified into three categories
depending on the degree of their naturalization: casual taxa (cas.), natu-
ralized non-invasive taxa (nat.) and naturalized invasive taxa (inv.), and
archaeophytes and neophytes with respect to the residence time.
– ALIEN (NON-NATIVE, NON-INDIGENOUS, INTRODUCED)
PLANTS. Plant taxa in a given area whose presence there is due to inten-
tional or accidental introduction as a result of human activity.
– CASUAL (TRANSIENT, EPHEMERAL) PLANTS. Alien plants
that may flourish and even reproduce occasionally in an area, but which do
not form self-replacing populations, and which rely on repeated introduc-
tions for their persistence.
– NATURALIZED PLANTS. Alien plants that reproduce consist-
ently and sustain populations over many life cycles without direct inter-
vention by humans; they often recruit offspring freely, usually close to
adult plants, and do not necessarily invade natural, seminatural or human-
made ecosystems.
– INVASIVE PLANTS (PLANT INVADERS). Naturalized plants
that produce reproductive offspring, often in very large numbers, at con-
siderable distances from parent plants, and thus have the potential to spread
over a large area.
– archaeophytes, established non-native plants introduced intention-
ally or unintentionally before 1500 A.D.
– neophytes, non-native plants introduced intentionally or uninten-
tionally after 1500 A.D.
Origin, i.e. type and time of immigration, was mainly accepted after
Pyšek et al. (2012). Modes in which species were introduced into the area
are arranged according to Pyšek et al. (2012) and marked by the following
abbreviations: del – deliberate (by planting) and acc – accidental.

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 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Analysis of the alien grass flora

The preliminary list of the alien grass flora of Bosnia and Herzego-
vina contains a total of 32 species, which is 10.67% of the complete grass
flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina (300 species). Representatives of alien
grass belong to 17 genera. An analysis of the geographical origin of the
alien grass (Appendix 1) showed that most grass species originated from
Asia, 13 species (40.63%). Grasses that originate from the Americas are
also significantly represented (9 species, 28.13%). The alien grass flora of
Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of 32 species, made up by 20 archaeo-
phytes (62.50%) and 12 neophytes (37.50%), see Appendix 1. Of those 32
species, 19 (59.37%) are classified as casual, 9 (28.13%) as naturalized
but non-invasive, and four (12.50%), as invasive. Among casual species
26.32% are neophytes and 73.68% archaeophytes, the corresponding fig-
ures being 44.44% and 55.56%, respectively, for naturalized, and 75.00%
and 25.00% for invasive species (Appendix 1). From this it follows that
invasive species are strongly over-represented among neophytes.
According to their modes of introduction (Appendix 1.) accidentally
introduced species barely surpass those which are deliberate, with 15 spe-
cies (46.87%) compared to 14 species (43.75%). The fewest species were
introduced in both ways, deliberately and accidentally (3 species, 9.38%).

Results and discussion

Arundo L includes three to five species distributed from the Mediter-
ranean Basin to tropical Asia. In the flora of Europe, Arundo is represented
by three species (Valdés et al., 2009). Only one species has been recorded
in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Beck, 1903).
Arundo donax L. Sp. Pl.: 81. 1753 (Syn Arundo scriptoria L. In
Amoen. Acad. 4: 150. 1759)
A. donax, Giant Reed (Fig. 3) is largest grass species in Europe. It
was introduced into Europe and the Mediterranean region from Asia be-
fore 1500 and is therefore considered as an archaeophyte in some Euro-
pean countries: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Monte-
negro, Albania and Greece (Valdés et al., 2009). It is widely naturalised in
ditches and rivers, sometimes planted for shelter and for manufacture of
baskets and fishing poles. The first finding of this species for Bosnia and
Herzegovina is coming from the city of Mostar, on the banks of Neretva
river (Struschka, 1880). Several new localities have been recorded during
my field investigations in the southern part of the Neretva valley: Karaotok

3
 S. Maslo

(Maslo, 2014), Klepci, Trebižat, Ljubuški and Počitelj. Significantly larger

stands were recently recorded in the Trebižat valley, between Ljubuški and
Čapljina (Fig. 2).

Figure 1.Some alien grass species in the flora of Bosnia & Herzegovina:
1. Bromus catharticus 2. Eleusine indica 3. Panicum capillare 4. Panicum
dichotomiflorum 5. Paspalum dilatatum 6. Paspalum paspalodes 7. Phalaris
canariensis 8. Sorghum bicolor 9. Zea mays (Photos: Semir Maslo except
photo nr. 4 by Šemso Šarić).

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 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Avena L., a genus of approximately 30, mostly annual species, is

native to temperate and cold regions of Europe, North Africa, and central
Asia (Röser et al., 2009). It has become nearly cosmopolitan through the
cultivation of cereal oats and the inadvertent introduction of the weedy
species. In the flora of Europe, Avena is represented by 12 species (Rocha
Afonso, 1980). According to Beck (1903) only four species of the genus
Avena were recorded in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina, two of which
are not native, Avena fatua L. and Avena sativa L.

Figure 2.The distribution of some alien grass species in the flora

of Bosnia & Herzegovina: 1. Arundo donax 2. Avena fatua 3. Bromus arvensis
4. Bromus catharticus 5. Bromus secalinus 6. Eleusine indica
7. Glyceria striata 8. Lolium temulentum 9. Panicum capillare (Indication of
localities: red circle - new chorological data;
black circle - old literature data).

5
 S. Maslo

Avena fatua L. Sp. Pl.: 80. 1753 (Syn Anelytrum avenaceum Hack.
In in Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 8: 519. 1910)
A. fatua, Wild-oat (Fig. 3) was introduced to the European region
from Asia prior to 1500 and is therefore considered an archaeophyte in
most European countries (Valdés et al., 2009). It was first mentioned in
Bosnia and Herzegovina in Tarčin, Mostar and Nevesinje (Murbeck, 1891).
During the last century the species has been found in many other localities
(Brandis, 1891; Vandas, 1889; Komša, 1928; Maly, 1928; Vasković, 1931;
Šarić and Elezović, 1991; Maslo, 2015) and can be described as a dan-
gerous weed in Bosnia (Fig. 2). According to Šarić and Elezović (1991)
Wild-oat was found in many localities, during their field research work
in West Bosnia carried out in 1986. Wild-oat in recent time has spread to
vast areas of Bosnia, particularly in the mountain valleys: Livanjsko, Du-
vanjsko and Glamočko, and especially in the district of Livno. The most
numerous populations of Wild-oat was in spring small grains, especially in
barley, and much less in winter cereals, peas, potato and other crops (Šarić
and Elezović, 1991).
Avena sativa L. Sp. Pl.: 79. 1753 (Syn Avena fatua subsp. sativa (L.)
Thell. In Fl. Advent. Montpellier: 110. 1912; Avena orientalis Schreb. In
Spic. Fl. Lips.: 52. 1771)
A. sativa, Cultivated Oat (Fig. 3) is native to Eurasia and it is widely
cultivated in most of Europe (Valdés et al., 2009). The first record for Bos-
nia comes from Banja Luka (Hofmann, 1882). Cultivated Oat is a common
crop in Bosnia and Herzegovina and it was found even like weed in barley
and maize fields in some areas (Vasković, 1931). It is a common escape or
relic of cultivation on arable land (Maslo 2014, 2015). According to Ohta
and Furuta (1993) Cultivated Oat was found on 4 localities during their
fieldresearch work in Bosnia and Herzegovina carried out in 1991.
Bromus L. is a genus with approximately 150 annual or perennial
species (Watson et al, 1992). In the flora of Europe, Bromus is represented
by 37 species (Smith, 1980). According to Beck (1903) and Maslo (2012)
19 species of the genus Bromus were recorded in the flora of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, three of which are not native, Bromus arvensis L. Bromus
catharticus Vahl. and Bromus secalinus L.
Bromus arvensis L. Sp. Pl.: 77. 1753 (Syn Serrafalcus arvensis (L.)
Godr. In Fl. Lorraine 3: 185. 1844)
B. arvensis, Field Brome (Fig. 3) is an archaeophyte with Eurasian
origin and now widely naturalized in most of Europe (Smith, 1980). First
reported for Bosnia from Banja Luka (Hofmann, 1882). During the last

6
 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

century the species has been found in many other localities, mostly like
weed in crop fields (Fig. 2). According to my own field work during the
past 20 years as well as herbarium and literature search it can be concluded
that this species was previously frequent but is now rare and decreasing in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. It grows along roadsides and as weed in fields.
Bromus catharticus Vahl., Symb. Bot. 2: 22. 1791. (syn. Bromus
unioloides (Willd.) Raspail, in Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. 5: 439. 1825, Bromus
wildenowii Kunth in Révis. Gramin.: 134. 1829, Ceratochloa cathartica
(Vahl) Herter, in Revista Sudamer. Bot. 6: 144. 1940
B.catharticus, Rescue Grass (Fig. 1), is a South American short-lived
perennial grass, widely introduced as winter forage and is found as an es-
capee in most temperate regions. It is locally naturalized in several Euro-
pean countries (Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Ger-
many, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Portugal, Spain,
Ukraine and the European part of Russia), (DAISIE, 2008). First reported
for Balkans from Zadar (Maly, 1928) as Bromus unioloides (Willd.) Ras-
pail (Leg. Adamović, 1887 as Brachypodium tenellum). The first finding
of this species for Bosnia and Herzegovina is coming from 2005 in the
area of Hutovo blato in South Herzegovina (Fig. 2) (Maslo, 2012, 2014).
Bromus secalinus L. Sp. Pl.: 76. 1753 (Syn Serrafalcus secalinus
(L.) Bab. In Man. Brit. Bot., ed. 1: 374. 1843)
B. secalinus, Rye Brome (Fig. 3) is an archaeophyte with Eurasian
origin and is now widely naturalized in most of Europe (Smith, 1980). It
is a noxious weed throughout much of Europe and North America. First
reported for Bosnia and Herzegovina from Banja Luka (Hofmann, 1882).
During the last century the species has been found in a few other localities
(Murbeck, 1891; Komša, 1928; Maly, 1928, 1948, 1952; Vasković, 1931;
Riter-Studnička, 1952; Ohta and Furuta, 1993; Maslo, 2015) but nowa-
days, it cannot be described as a dangerous weed in Bosnia and Herzego-
vina (Fig. 2). Previously it was fairly common in Bosnia and Herzegovina
but is now very rare and decreasing.
Eleusine Gaertn. is a small genus consisting of eleven species, five
annual and six perennial. These species are widely distributed in the tropi-
cal and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia and South America (Phillips,
1972). East Africa is considered to be the centre of diversity for the genus.
Three species occur in Europe (Valdés et al., 2009). Only one species has
been recorded in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Mišić, 1998).
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Fruct. Sem. Pl. 1: 8 (1788) (Syn Cyno-
surus indicus L. Sp. Pl.: 72. 1753)

7
 S. Maslo

E. indica, Wire Grass (Fig. 1) is a common weed in the warmer re-

gions of the world. It was reported as alien in several European countries
(Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Serbia,
Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and the Ukraine) (Valdés et al., 2009). The
first finding of this species for the Former Yugoslavia is coming from 1955
in Kotor, Piran and Umag (Hodak, 1960). The only records of this species
for the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were reported for the city of
Mostar (Mišić, 1998). The following 18 years this species was found in 12
localities in the southern part of the Neretva valley (Bijelo Polje, Blagaj,
Buna, Čapljina, Doljani, Karaotok, Ljubuški, Mogorjelo, Neum, Počitelj,
Stolac and Žitomislići) (Fig. 2). The first finding of this species in the
continental part of Bosnia was recorded in the city of Banja Luka in 1999.
I found only one specimen in this locality. Additional several new records
were recently reported from Central Bosnia, near Lukavac and Zavidovići,
on tips and waste ground, along road verges (personal communication,
Šarić, 2016). It was recently included in the Preliminary list of invasive
alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Maslo, 2016 c).
Glyceria R. Br. includes approximately 35 species, all of which
grow in wet areas. Twelve species occur in Europe (Valdés et al., 2009) of
which three are not native. In the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina, until
now, Glyceria was represented by only three native species (Beck, 1903).
Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitchc. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 41: 157
(1928) (Syn Glyceria nervata (Willd.) Trin. in Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.-
Pétersbourg, Sér. 6, Sci. Math. 1: 365. 1831).
G. striata Fowl Mannagrass (Fig. 3) is a North American species
that has been naturalized locally in various parts of Europe: Austria, Czech
Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Lichtenstein, Poland, Russia,
Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland and the Ukraine (Piwowarski and Barto-
szek, 2012). It grows on various types of wetlands: swampy meadows, wet
woods, bank of streams, ditches and roadsides. In the summer of 2009,
the species has been found in the Gorski Kotar region (NW Croatia), close
to the Slovenian border (Šegota et al., 2016). Recently it was found in
West Bosnia and Herzegovina on Klekovača Mountain, in ditches along
the road to Veliko vrelo (Milanović et al., 2015) (Fig. 2).

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 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Figure 3.Some alien grass species in the flora of Bosnia & Herzegovina: 10.
Arundo donax 11. Avena fatua 12. Avena sativa 13. Bromus arvensis 14. Bromus
secalinus 15. Glyceria striata 16. Panicum miliaceum 17. Setaria italica 18.
Sorghum halepense (Photos: Semir Maslo except photo nr. 15 by Đorđije
Milanović.

Hordeum L. is a genus of 32 annual or perennial species that grow in

temperate and adjacent subtropical areas. The genus is native to Eurasia, the
Americas, and Africa (Barkworth et al., 2007). In the flora of Europe, Hor-

9
 S. Maslo

deum is represented by 11 species (Humphries, 1980). According to Beck

(1903), Maly (1908, 1928), Riter-Studnička (1954), seven species of the
genus Hordeum were recorded in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina, two
of which are not native, Hordeum distichon L. and Hordeum vulgare L.
Hordeum distichon L. Sp. Pl. 85 (1753) (Syn Hordeum vulgare sub-
sp. distichon (L.) Körn. in Zeit. Ges. Brauw. 5: 125. 1882)
H. distichon, Two-rowed Barley (Fig. 4), cultivated as a cereal in
most of Europe (Humphries, 1980), origin obscure, probably SW Asia
(Ryves et al, 1996). First record for Bosnia and Herzegovina comes from
Travnik (Brandis, 1891). According to Kovačević, cultivated only on a
small scale in Bosnia (Kovačević, 1950). Recently found in Central Bos-
nia as escape or relic of cultivation on arable land (personal communica-
tion, Šarić, 2016).
Hordeum vulgare L. Sp. Pl. 84 (1753) (Syn Hordeum hexastichum L.
Sp. Pl.: 85. 1753; Hordeum polystichon Haller f. in Novi Comment. Soc.
Regiae Sci. Gott. 6: 5. 1776)
H. vulgare, Six-rowed Barley (Fig. 4), cultivated as a cereal in most
of Europe (Humphries, 1980), origin obscure, probably SW Asia (Ryves
et al., 1996). The first record for Bosnia and Herzegovina comes from Mo-
star (Struschka, 1880). According to Kovačević (1950), it was common in
cultivation already during the 1950s in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Accord-
ing to Ohta and Furuta (1993) six-rowed Barley was found on 17 localities
during their field research work in Bosnia and Herzegovina carried out
in 1991. It was found also as a weed in fields, roadsides and waste places
(Maslo, 2015, Maslo and Abadžić, 2015).
Lolium L. is a relatively small genus including only five species in
Europe and eight species in the whole world (Terrell 1968, Humphries,
1980). ). According to Beck (1903), Maly (1908, 1928), five species of the
genus Lolium were recorded in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Lolium temulentum L. Sp. Pl. 83 (1753) (Syn Lolium arvense With.
In Arr. Brit. Pl., ed. 3, 2: 168).
L. temulentum, Darnel. Perhaps native in the Mediterranean region,
formerly widespread in most of Europe as a weed of cereal crops, but now
only a casual ruderal in most of the N. & C. Europe (Humphries, 1980).
During the last century the species has been found in many other locali-
ties, mostly like weed in crop. The first record for Bosnia and Herzegovina
comes from Mostar (Struschka, 1880). Previously it was fairly common
in Bosnia and Herzegovina but is now rare and decreasing (Šarić et al.,
2000).(Fig. 2).

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 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Oryza L. is a tropical and subtropical genus of 23 species that grow

in shallow water, along streams, rivers, or lake edges (Vaughan et al.,
2003). Of these, two are cultivated in Europe, O. rufipogon Griff. and O.
sativa L. (Valdés et al., 2009). Only one species has been recorded in the
flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Beck, 1903).
Oryza sativa L. Sp. pl. 1:333. (1753)
O. sativa, Rice is one of the three most economically valuable cere-
als. Origin obscure, probably SE Asia (Ryves et al., 1996). According to
Valdés et al. (2009) it is cultivated as a cereal (rice) in S. & S.C. Europe.
During the 19’s, rice was still cultivated in Herzegovina, which probably
was brought to Balkans by the Turks. According Fiala (1982), Blau noted
cultivation of rice during his visit to Herzegovina in the late 19th century,
near the villages Trebižat and Lukoč in the vicinity of Ljubuški (Fiala,
1982). Later, however, rice cultivation has been completely abandoned
(Fiala 1892).
The genus Panicum L. is one of the largest genera of grasses, and
comprises approximately 300 species of worldwide distribution. The ma-
jority of species are of tropical or subtropical origin (Zuloaga & Soder-
strom, 1985). In the flora of Europe, Panicum is represented by only elev-
en species (Valdés et al, 2009).
In the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina only two species of the genus
Panicum have been recorded so far: Panicum capillare L. and Panicum
miliaceum L. (Beck, 1903, Slavnić, 1960). Recently two new species were
found in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. (Ma-
slo and Šarić, 2016) and Panicum riparium H.Scholz (Nobis et al., 2015).
Panicum capillare L. Sp. Pl. 58 (1753)
P. capillare Witch-grass (Fig. 1). A native of N America is locally
naturalized in C and S Europe. First record for Bosnia and Herzegovina
comes from Sarajevo (Slavnić, 1960). During the last 50 years the species
has been found in a few other localities, mostly in C Bosnia and Herzego-
vina: Konjuh Zvijezda; Mala Maoča, Olovo; Župeljeva, Olovo.; Svatovac,
Lukavac; Ribnica, Zavidovići. Vozuća Zavidovići; Stog, Zavidovići (Fig.
2) (personal communication, Šarić, 2016). It was recently included in the
Preliminary list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herze-
govina (Maslo, 2016c).
Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx., Fl. Bor. Amer. 1: 48 (1803) (Syn
Panicum chloroticum Nees ex Trin.)

11
 S. Maslo

Figure 4. Some alien grass species in the flora of Bosnia & Herzegovina:
19. Hordeum distichon 20. Hordeum vulgare 21. Secale cereale 22. Triticum
aestivum 23. Triticum dicoccon 24. Triticum monococcum 25. Triticum
polonicum 26. Triticum spelta 27. Triticum turgidum (Photos: Semir Maslo).

P. dichotomiflorum, Autumn Millet (Fig. 1). The native distribution

range is North and South America and has been naturalized locally in vari-
ous parts of Europe: Azerbaijan, Albania, Austria, Belgium with Luxem-
bourg, Czech Republic, Croatia, France, Germany, Georgia, Great Britain,
Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Spain, Switzerland, Turkey and Ukraine (Valdés & Scholz, 2009). The first
finding of this species for Bosnia and Herzegovina is coming from Central

12
 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia 2015, in the village Hadžine Vode in the vicinity of Zavidovići, on

the banks of Krivaja river (Fig. 5) (Maslo and Šarić, 2016).
Panicum miliaceum L. Sp. Pl. 58 (1753)
P. miliaceum, Proso Millet (Fig. 3) is native to Asia, where it has
been cultivated for thousands of years. It later spread into Europe and has
been found in agricultural settlements dating back about 3000 years. Its
popularity declined in Europe after the introduction of maize and it re-
mains cultivated sporadically, mainly in E Europe. Proso Millet is now
naturalized and fairly common as a weed of cereal crops, or a casual rud-
eral in most of Europe (Valdés & Scholz, 2009). The first record for Bos-
nia and Herzegovina comes from Mostar (Struschka, 1880). According to
Kovačević (1950), it was common in cultivation in the late 19th century in
the vicinity of Banja Luka, W Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fig. 5).
Panicum riparium H.Scholz in Feddes Repert. 113: 275. 2002. (Syn
Panicum barbipulvinatum Nash, Mem. New York Bot. Gard., 1: 21. 1900.
P. riparium is a North American species that has been recently de-
scribed as a new species from the Elbe Valley in Germany (Scholz, 2002).
Its taxonomic status is debated, and according to Amarell (2013) P. ri-
parium is the same taxon as P. barbipulvinatum. It was reported recently
as alien in several European countries: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, France,
Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy and Switzerland (Kiraly and Ale-
gro, 2015). Recently described as a new neophyte to the flora of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, ruderal places in the vicinity of Bihać (Fig. 5) (Nobis et
al., 2016).
The genus Paspalum L. includes about 160, mainly tropical species.
In the flora of Europe, Paspalum is represented by eight species (Valdés et
al, 2009). Only two species of genus Paspalum has been recorded in the
flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina, namely Paspalum dilatatum Poir. and
Paspalum paspalodes (Michx.) Scribn.
Paspalum dilatatum Poir., in Lam., Encycl. Meth. Bot. 5: 35 1804.
(syn Digitaria dilatata (Poir.) Coste, Fl. Descr. France 3: 553. 1906).
P. dilatatum Dallis-grass (Fig. 1) is a South American tufted perenni-
al grass which is native to the humid subtropics of southern Brazil, Argen-
tina and Uruguay. It was reported as casual in several European countries
(Belgium, Croatia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Swit-
zerland and the European part of Turkey) (DAISIE, 2008). It was found
in the area of Former Yugoslavia in the Montenegrin coastal region for
the first time (Ilijanić and Topić, 1986).The first finding for Bosnia and
Herzegovina was recorded in the city of Mostar in 1996 (Šilić & Abadžić,

13
 S. Maslo

2000; Maslo, 2015). I found the species again in July 2011 in the area of
Mogorjelo near Čapljina (Maslo, 2016a). Additionally a new record was
recently reported from Sarajevo, in the city quarter Mejtaš (personal com-
munication, Sarajlić, 2016).
Paspalum paspalodes (Michx.) Scribn., in Mem. Torrey Bot. Club
5: 29. 1894. (syn Paspalum distichum L., Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 2: 855. 1759)
P. paspalodes Knotgrass (Fig. 1), this adventive species of neotropi-
cal origin was reported as alien in several European countries: Albania,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Portugal,
Slovenia, Spain and the European part of Turkey (Valdés & Scholz, 2009).
It was first found in the area of Former Yugoslavia in 1947 in the Ner-
etva River valley, near Metković (Horvatić, 1949). The first finding of this
species for Bosnia and Herzegovina is coming from Hutovo blato (Bajić,
1954). Several new localities have been recorded during my field investi-
gations in the southern part of the Neretva valley: Mostar (Maslo, 2015),
Žitomislići, Mogorjelo and Počitelj (Fig 5). It was recently included in the
Preliminary list of invasive alien plant species in Bosnia and Herzegovina
(Maslo, 2016c).
The genus Phalaris L. includes 22 species (Anderson, 1961) of
which 11 have been recognized in the flora of Europe (Valdés & Scholz,
2009). There are only four species of Phalaris in the flora of Bosnia and
Herzegovina (Beck, 1903: Maslo, 2016b).
Phalaris canariensis L. Sp. Pl. 54 (1753)
P.canariensis, Canary-grass (Fig. 1) is native to southern Europe
and the Canary Islands, but is now widespread in the rest of the world,
frequently being grown for birdseed (Anderson, 1961). First reported for
Bosnia and Herzegovina from Sarajevo (Hofmann, 1882). A casual of tips,
bird-seed and grain; possibly an escape from cultivation, sometimes per-
sistent for a few years, mainly in the south Herzegovina (Fig. 5).
The genus Secale L. includes only three species distributed from the
Mediterranean Basin to western Asia, S. cereale, S. strictum and S. sylves-
tre (Frederiksen & Petersen, 1998). In the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina
only two species of the genus Secale have been recorded so far: Secale
cereale L. and Secale strictum (C. Presl) C. Presl. (Beck, 1903).
Secale cereale L. Sp. Pl. 84 (1753)
S. cereale L. Rye (Fig. 4) is native of W. Asia and it is widely culti-
vated in most of Europe (Valdés et al., 2009). First reported by Struschk
in Herzegovina (Struschka, 1880). During the last century the species
has been widely cultivated in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but might have

14
 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

decreased lately (Kovačević, 1950). It was found also as a weed in fields,

roadsides and waste places (Maslo, 2015, Maslo and Abadžić, 2015).

Figure 5.The distribution of some alien grass species in the flora of Bosnia
& Herzegovina: 10. Panicum dichotomiflorum 11. Panicum miliaceum
12. Panicum riparium 13. Paspalum dilatatum 14. Paspalum paspalodes
15. Phalaris canariensis 16. Sorghum bicolor 17. Sorghum halepense 18.
Sporobolus vaginiflorus (Indication of localities: red circle - new chorological
data; black circle - old literature data).

Setaria P. Beauv. is a cosmopolitan genus of grasses with 114 species

mostly from tropical and subtropical regions but including several that oc-
cur in cold regions of both hemispheres. In the flora of Europe, Setaria is
represented by 9 species (Valdés et al., 2009). There are only five species of
Setaria in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Beck, 1903: Maslo, 2016b).

15
 S. Maslo

Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. Ess. Agrostogr.: 51. 1812 (Syn Pani-
cum italicum L. Sp. Pl.: 56. 1753)
S. italica (L.) P. Beauv. Foxtail Millet (Fig. 3) is one of the world`s
oldest cultivated crops. It is regarded as a native of China and it was re-
ported as alien in several European countries (Valdés & Scholz, 2009).
It is sometimes cultivated in South Europe, but it is better known as a
weed in moist ditches. First reported for Bosnia and Herzegovina in Banja
Luka (Hofmann, 1882). According to Kovačević it was cultivated only on
a small scale in Herzegovina (Kovačević, 1950). During the last century
the species has been found only in a few other localities (Formanek, 1888:
Beck, 1903: Kovačević, 1950: Maslo, 2015).
The genus Sorghum Moench includes approximately 25 species
mostly from tropical and subtropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere,
of which only six have been recognized in the flora of Europe (Valdés &
Scholz, 2009). In the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina only two species of
the genus Sorghum have been recorded so far: Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moe-
nch and Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. (Beck, 1903).
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench Methodus: 207. 1794 (Syn Andropo-
gon sorghum (L.) Brot. In Fl. Lusit. 1: 88. 1804)
S. bicolor (L.) Moench Durra (Fig. 1). It probably originated in Ethi-
opia and has spread to other parts of the world. Durra is the world`s fifth
most important cereal crop after rice, wheat, maize and barley. It is now
cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions and it is cultivated in
some parts of Europe (Valdés et al., 2009). First reported for Bosnia and
Herzegovina in Mostar (Struschka, 1880). During the last century the spe-
cies has been widely cultivated in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but might have
decreased lately (Kovačević, 1950). It was also found as a weed in fields,
roadsides and waste places (Maslo, 2014, 2015).
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 101 (1805) (Syn Andropo-
gon halepensis (L.) Brot. In Fl. Lusit.: 1. 1804)
S. halepense (L.) Pers. Johnson grass (Fig. 3) is native of southern
Eurasia to India and occurs as a weed in most tropical and temperate areas
of the world. Listed as one of the world`s worst weeds in warmer parts of
the world. It invades riverbanks communities and disturbed sites, fields,
agronomic and vegetable crops. Also found in orchards, vineyards and
ditchbanks. The species is, however, an important forage crop in many
areas of the world. Johnson grass is now naturalized and fairly common
as a weed of cereal crops, or a casual ruderal in most of Europe (Valdés
& Scholz, 2009). First reported for Bosnia and Herzegovina in Mostar

16
 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

(Struschka, 1880). During the last century the species has been found in
many other localities, mostly like weed in crop (Fig. 5). According to Šarić
et al. (2000) Johnson grass is fairly common as a weed of cereal crops to
vast areas of North Bosnia and spread to the south parts of the country,
in the last few decades. It was recently included in the Preliminary list of
invasive alien plant species in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Maslo, 2016c).
The genus Sporobolus R.Br.is a cosmopolitan genus of grasses with
about 200 species (Simon et al., 2011), predominantly distributed in the
tropical and suptropical areas of the world. In the European vascular flora
five species have been recorded (Valdés and Scholz 2009), among which
three are present in neighboring Croatia: native S. pungens (Schreb.) Kunth.
and two alien species, S. neglectus Nash. and S. vaginiflorus (A. Gray) A.
W. Wood (Nikolić 2012). So far, no species of the genus Sporobolus has
been registered for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Recently, a new species was
found in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sporobolus vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood
(Nobis et al., 2015).
Sporobolus vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood Class-book, Bot. ed. 1861,
775 (1861) (Syn Vilfa vaginiflora A. Gray N. Amer. Gram. 1: no. 3. 1834)
S. vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood. Sheated Dropseed is a neophyte from
North America (Hansen, 1980), which was first reported in Europe (Italy)
in 1951 (Wilhalm, 1998). Due to its rapid expansion, it later reached more
European countries and it was recently reported as an alien species in Aus-
tria, Croatia, France, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland (Valdés and Scholz
2009). Additionally a new record was recently reported from Montenegro
(Srešević & Jogan, 2006). Recently described as a new neophyte to the
flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina in ruderal places in the vicinity of Bosan-
ski Petrovac, 3 km west of Jasenovac, on the shoulders of an asphalt road
to Bosanski Petrovac (Fig. 5). (Nobis et al., 2016). The species has not
been previously noted to the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina, although it
probably was previously present, but it was overlooked. This is indicated
by the fact that the species has been present in the neighbouring areas of
Croatia since the 1950s (Horvatić & Gospodarić, 1960).
Triticum L. is a genus of approximately 30 wild and domesticated
annual species (Hammer et al., 2011). Triticum is native to western and
central Asia. It was first cultivated in western Asia at least 9,000 years ago
and is now the world`s most important crop. In the flora of Europe, Triti-
cum is represented by nine species (Humphries, 1980). All of these species
have been recorded for the Balkans (Hayek, 1933). According to Beck

17
 S. Maslo

(1903) and Kovačević (1950) seven species of the genus Triticum were
recorded in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Triticum aestivum L. In Sp. Pl. 85 (1753) (syn Triticum sativum
Lam., in Fl. Franç. 3: 625. 1779; Triticum vulgare Vill. In Hist. Pl. Dau-
phine 2: 153. 1787).
T. aestivum, Bread Wheat (Fig. 4). Origin obscure, probably SW
Asia. Probably of ancient hybrid origin involving species of Triticum and
Aegilops (Ryves et al., 1996). It is the most widespread wheat in cultiva-
tion today. First reported by Struschka, Herzegovina (Struschka, 1880).
According to Pavičević (1970), Bread Wheat was common in cultivation
already during the 1970s in SE Herzegovina. According to Ohta and Fu-
ruta (1993) Bread Wheat was found on 20 localities during their field re-
search work in Bosnia and Herzegovina carried out in 1991. It was found
also as a weed in fields, roadsides and waste places (Maslo, 2015, Maslo
and Abadžić, 2015).
Triticum dicoccon Schrank In Bayer. Fl. 1: 389 (1789) (syn Triticum
turgidum subsp. dicoccon (Schrank) Thell. in Naturwiss. Wochenschr., ser.
2, 17: 470. 1918).
T. dicoccon, Emmer (Fig. 4). Origin obscure, probably SW Asia.
Emmer is one of the most ancient cultivated cereals. Cultivated as a cereal
locally in S.E. Europe and E.C. Russia (Humphries, 1980). First reported
by Kovačević, cultivated only on a small scale (Kovačević, 1950). Ac-
cording to Percival (1921) Emmer was one of the main cultural plants in
southern Europe in the Neolithic Age, and this grain from the Neolithic pe-
riod has been found at Ripač near Bihać in Bosnia. Emmer is almost com-
pletely disappeared from the production in E Herzegovina and remained
in cultivation during the 1970s almost only in the vicinity of Trebinje on
the edge of Popovo Polje, together with T. monococcum (Pavičević, 1972).
According to Ohta and Furuta (1993) Emmer was found on 9 localities
during their field research work in Bosnia and Herzegovina carried out in
1991 (eight fields where emmer and einkorn grew together were found at
the village Sovići, S Herzegovina).
Triticum durum Desf. In Fl. Atl. 1: 114 (1798) (syn Triticum turgi-
dum subsp. durum (Desf.) Husn. Graminées 4: 80. 1899)
T. durum Pasta Wheat (Fig. 4) is domesticated wheat that is grown
in temperate climates throughout the world. Origin obscure (Ryves et al.,
1996). Cultivated as a cereal widely in the Mediterranean region (Hum-
phries, 1980). First reported by Kovačević, cultivated only on a small scale
(Kovačević, 1950). It was formerly widespread in the Mediterranean re-

18
 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

gion of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Today in this area, Pasta Wheat is sown
very rarely. In Herzegovina the species is still grown in areas of Trebinje,
Stolac and Dabar field (Pavičević, 1970).
Triticum monococcum L. In Sp. Pl. 86 (1753) (syn Crithodium mono-
coccum (L.) Á. Lövei n Feddes Repert. 95: 490. 1984)
T. monococcum Einkorn (Fig. 4). Origin obscure, probably SW Asia
(Ryves et al., 1996), a staple food of early farmers for many thousand
years, today is cultivated only on a small scale in Balkans (Humphries,
1980).  First reported by Beck, but without locality (Beck, 1903). Accord-
ing to Kovačević (1950) it was cultivated only on a small scale in the
area of Podveležje in the vicinity of Mostar. It was cultivated until the
1970s in SE Bosnia and East Herzegovina (Pavičević, 1972). Einkorn is
almost completely disappeared from the production of E Herzegovina and
remained in cultivation during the 1970s almost only in the vicinity of Tre-
binje on the edge of Popovo Polje, together with T. dicoccon (Pavičević,
1972). According to the same author Einkorn was still harbored in the area
of Posušje and in the vicinity of Domanovići. According to Ohta and Fu-
ruta (1993) Einkorn was found in 14 localities during their field research
work in Bosnia and Herzegovina carried out in 1991 (a pure cultivation
of einkorn and eight fields where emmer and einkorn grew together were
found at the village Sovići, S Herzegovina).
Triticum polonicum L. In Sp. Pl. ed. 2: 127 (1762) (syn Triticum
turgidum subsp. polonicum (L.) Thell. in Naturwiss. Wochenschr., ser. 2,
17: 470. 1918)
T. polonicum Polish Wheat (Fig. 4). Cultivated, but only locally and
on a small scale as a minor crop, in N. Spain, Baleares and Italy (Hum-
phries, 1980). It differs from other domesticated wheats in its unusual-
ly long, chartaceous glumes and lemmas. First reported for Bosnia and
Herzegovina from Banja Luka (Hofmann, 1882). Polish wheat, which is
unsuitable for bread-making, was formerly grown in Bosnia but, as with
many other “uneconomic” species, it has been replaced by T. aestivum.
Triticum spelta L. Sp. Pl. 86 (1753) (syn Triticum aestivum subsp.
spelta (L.) Thell. in Naturwiss. Wochenschr., ser. 2, 17: 471. 1918)
T. spelta Spelt. A hybrid of obscure ancient origin, (Ryves et al,
1996). Cultivated as a cereal in C. & N.W. Europe, mainly in hill-country
(Humphries, 1980). First reported for Bosnia and Herzegovina from Banja
Luka (Hofmann, 1882). According to Kovačević (1950) Spelt grown only
sporadically in some parts of Bosnia.

19
 S. Maslo

Triticum turgidum L. Sp. Pl. 86 (1753) (syn Triticum compositum L.

Sp. Pl., ed. 2: 126. 1762)
T. turgidum Rivet Wheat (Fig. 4) is the tallest of the wheat, and dif-
fers from other species of domesticated wheat in having branched-spike
forms. A hybrid of obscure origin, probably SW Asia (Ryves et al., 1996).
Cultivated as a cereal locally throughout a large part of Europe, but main-
ly in the south (Humphries, 1980). First reported for Bosnia and Herze-
govina from Banja Luka (Hofmann, 1882). It was formerly widespread
in the Mediterranean region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to
Kovačević (1950) Rivet Wheat was cultivated only sporadically in some
parts of Herzegovina. In Herzegovina the species is still grown in the
areas of Trebinje, Stolac and Dabar field (Pavičević, 1970). According to
Kovačević (1950) Rivet Wheat was still harbored in the 1950s in the area
of the Central and W Bosnia and W Herzegovina.
Zea L. is an American genus of five species, four of which are na-
tive to Mexico and Central America (Barkworth et al., 2007). In the flora
of Europe, Zea is represented by only one species, namely Zea mays L.
(Valdés and Scholz 2009).
Zea mays L. Sp. Pl. 971 (1753)
Z. mays L. Maize (Fig. 1) was first domesticated about 7000 years
ago and soon became widely planted in the Americas. It is now grown in
all warmer parts of the world and it is the world’s third most important
crop plant (Barkworth et al., 2007). It is also widely cultivated in most of
Europe (Valdés et al., 2009). First reported for Bosnia and Herzegovina
in Mostar (Struschka, 1880). According to Kovačević (1950) maize has
been in cultivation in Herzegovina since the 1800`s, which probably was
brought to Balkans by the Turks, and nowadays is common in cultiva-
tion throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was found also as a casual
plant in fields, roadsides and waste places (Maslo, 2014, 2015, Maslo and
Abadžić, 2015).

Conclusion
The majority of alien grass species were introduced accidentally,
15 species (46.87%). The group of species introduced deliberately and
which later escaped from cultivation, includes 14 species (43.75%). The
remaining three species (9.38%) were introduced in Bosnia and Herzegov-
ina in both ways, deliberately and accidentally. Cereal immigrants prevail
among deliberately introduced grass species. The majority of cereal immi-
grants introduced were Asian, cereals (Avena sativa, Hordeum distichon,

20
 Alien grasses of Bosnia and Herzegovina

H. vulgare, Oryza sativa, Secale cereale, Triticum aestivum, T. dicoccon,

T. durum, T. monococcum, T. spelta and T. turgidum). Only one cereal was
introduced to Bosnia and Herzegovina from the areas of Americas, namely
Zea mays. On the other hand, neophytes prevail among accidentally intro-
duced grass species (60%). These include some dangerous weed species,
some of which appear to be in the initial stages of expansion: Eleusine
indica, Panicum capillare, P. dichotomiflorum, Paspalum dilatatum and
P. paspalodes, and three of these species were recently included in the
Preliminary list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herze-
govina (Maslo, 2016c).
Only 10 species (31.25%) of the total number of all alien grasses in
Bosnia and Herzegovina are common or locally abundant; others are rare,
based on a single locality or no longer present. Fiala (1982) reported Oryza
sativa which is currently not grown in fields in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
and it should be treated as extinct from the flora of the country.
Similar to some other Mediterranean countries, the number of alien
Poaceae is relatively low here. However, the Flora of Croatia list included
only 41 alien grass species (Nikolić, 2015), Flora of Greece, 48 (Arianout-
sou et al., 2010) and Flora of Italy, 88 (Celesti-Grapow et al., 2009). On
the other hand the vascular flora of the British Isles contains 580 taxa of
alien grasses (Ryves et al., 1996). In the whole territory of Europe there
has so far been 597 species of alien grasses recorded (Pyšek et al., 2009).

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank to Aldin Boškailo on the mapping of distribution of species as well as my
colleague Jessica Andersson for improving the English of this paper.

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