Entomology

What is Entomology?

It is the branch of science that deals with the study of insects, their characteristics, physiology,
behavior as well as their relationship with other organisms and environment.

What is an insect?

The term ‘insect’ is derived from the Latin word insectum, which means ‘cut into’. Insects are
the organisms with segmented bodies. They are divided in mainly three parts: head, thorax and
abdomen.

What are the main characteristics of Insects:

Arthropods are characterized by having the following features:

● a hard external skeleton (called a exoskeleton)

● a segmented body

● at least three pairs of jointed legs

● The typical insect mouth has a pair of lower jaws (maxillae) and upper jaws (mandibles)
which are designed to bite.

● They have different types of mouth parts such as, chewing, sucking and piercing.

● Insects have one pair of antennae located on the head

● Most insects have one or two pairs of wings although some insects such as lice, fleas,
bristletails and silverfish are completely wingless.

Role of Insects:

Insects are both harmful and beneficial for the environment. The harmful insects are considered
pests to man as pests of cultivated crops, animals, stored products, carries of human diseases
and pests of household and industrial articles.

They are also helpful in many ways such as producers of honey, lac, silk, dyes, etc., pollinators
of crops and as natural enemies of crop pests. They also decompose dead and waste to recycle
the nutrients. Some of the insects are considered to be as friends of human being

Types of Insects:

There are two types of insects. Eg: Beneficial and harmful.

Beneficial Insects:
Insects are beneficial for us in many ways as we can use them as the bio control agents,
producers, pollinaters and decomposers. There are two types of beneficial insects. That are
Productive and Helpful.

I) Productive insects

Silk worm: - The silk worm filament secreted from the salivary gland of the larva helps us in
producing silk.

Honey bee: - Provides us with honey and many other byproducts like bees wax and royal

jelly.

Lac insects: - The secretion from the body of these scale insects is called lac. Useful in

making vanishes and polishes.

(II) Helpful insects

Parasites: These are small insects which feed and live on harmful insects by completing
their life cycle in a host and kill the host insect. E.g. egg, larval and pupal parasitoids

Predators: These are large insects which capture and devour harmful insects.E.g.
Coccinellids and Preying Mantid.

Pollinators: Many cross pollinated plants depend on insects for pollination and fruit set.
E.g. Honey bees, aid in pollination of sunflower crop.

Scavengers: Insects which feed on dead and decaying matter are called scavengers.They
important for maintaining hygiene in the surroundings.E.g. Carrion beetles, Rove beetles
feed on dead animals and plants.

Harmful Insects

Pests of cultivated plants (crop pests)

Each cultivated plant damage by many insect pests which feed on them reduces the
yield of the crop. E.g. cotton bollworm, Rice stem bores.

Storage pests

Insects feed on stored products and cause economic loss. E.g. Rice weevil, Pulse beetle.

Pest attacking cattle and domestic animals

Cattle are affected by pests like Horse fly, Flesh fly, and Lice. These insects suck blood of the
animals and sometimes cause and spread the diseases.

House hold and disease carrying insects

They harm our economy as household pests and some of them carry diseases in humans for
eg: mosquitoes, houseflies, bed bugs, fleas etc. Household pests include cockroaches, ants,
etc.

Feeding habits According to food nature：

● Omnivorous : An omnivorous animal can eat both plants and also other animals.
● Herbivorous : are animals whose primary food source is plant-based.
● Carnivorous : Carnivorous animals eat the flesh of other animals.

Feeding habits according to the food spectrum

● Polyphagous : many species of different families

● Ologophagous：some species of one family

● monophagous：only one species

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 Prof. Mochi A. S. (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)

INSECT INTEGUMENT
 The vertebrates have internal skeleton known as endoskeletonwhile in insects it is
located outside the body forming exoskeleton.
 Insect cuticle provides space for attachment of muscles of antenna and mouthparts,
called as tentorium.
 Insect body wall iscalled as Integument or Exoskeleton. It is the external covering of
the body which is ectodermal in origin. It is rigid, flexible, lighter, stronger and
variously modified in different body parts to suit different modes of life.
 Integument consists of 3 layers:-
1) Cuticle (Upper)
2) Epidermis (or) hypodermis(Middle)
3) basement membrane (Inner)

1. Cuticle:-
 It is outermost thick layer of integument secreted by epidermis.
 It is non-cellular.
 It is divided in to two regions:-Epicuticle (Upper) and Procuticle(Inner)

A. Epicuticle:

 It is a thin outermost layer varying in thickness from 1-4μ. Chitin is absent in

epicuticle.It consists of the following 4 layers

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 Cement layer:It is secreted by dermal glands and is composed of lipoprotein.It

protects the body from external damage.
 Wax layer: Itconsisting of long chain hydrocarbons, esters of fatty acids and
alcohols. It serves as water proof layer preventing water loss from the body
 Polyphenol layer: It is a non-static layer containing various types of phenols
which are mainly used in the formation of the proteins.It is resistant to acids and
organic solvents.
 Cuticulin layer: It is an amber coloured thin layer over the surface of the
epidermis which is strengthened by outer polyphenol layer.It serves the purpose of
permeability and also acts as growth barrier.

B. Procuticle:

 It is differentiated in to exo and endocuticle.

 Exocuticle: It is darkly pigmented, hard and sclerotized. This layer is made up of
chitin and sclerotin.
 Endocuticle: It is soft, light coloured and unsclerotized. This layer is made up of
chitin and arthropodin.
 Pore canals: These are numerous fine vertical channels traversing both exo and
endocuticle. Pore canals present in the exocuticle helps in the deposition of epicuticle.
They are useful in transportation of cuticular material and enzymes to the outer pro
and epicuticle parts.

 Composition of cuticle:
♣ Two major components of insect cuticle are; i) Chitin,ii) Proteins.

i) Chitin:

 It is a nitrogenous polysaccharide.
 It consists of high molecular weight polymer of anhydro-N-acetyl glucosamine
residues joined by β-glycosidic linkages.It is water insoluble but soluble in dilute
acids, alkalies and organic solvents.

ii) Proteins:Cuticle has 3 types of proteins

 Arthropodin:An untanned protein means it is soft water soluble protein present in

endocuticle. The conversion of arthopodin in to sclerotin is known as sclerotization or
tanning.
 Sclerotin:It is also called tanned protein which is amber coloured and present only in
exocuticle.This is water insoluble.
 Resilin:It is a rubber like elastic protein which is colourless and present in joints such
as wing hinge ligaments, leg joints, clypeolabral joints or suture and tergosternal
joints.

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2. Epidermis (or) hypodermis:

 It is an inner unicellular layer resting on basement membrane with the following
function.
i. Cuticle secretion
ii. Digestion and absorption of old cuticle
iii. Wound repairing
iv. Gives surface look
 Adjacent epidermal cells are held together by means of certain cytoplasmic processes
which are known as desmosomes.
 All the epidermal cells are glandular and secrete cuticle and the enzymes involved in
production and digestion of old cuticle during moulting.
 The epidermal cells get differentiated in to following types based on the function they
perform and may modify in to;
a)Dermal glands producing cement layer
b)Trichogen cell producing hair like seta or trichome.
c)Moulting glands secreting moulting fluid which digests the old cuticle
d)Peristigmatic glands around the spiracles in case of Dipteran larvae

3. Basement membrane:
 It is the basal part of the body wall formed from degenerated epidermal cells and
appears as non-living amorphous (shapeless) granular layer of integument.
 It is about 0.5µ in thickness and consists of fibrous protein, glycosaminoglycans
which are polymers of disaccharides.
 The basement membrane forms a continuous sheet beneath the epidermis, where
muscles are attached and become continuous with sarcolemma of the muscles.

Functions of Insect Integument

o It provides protection to the internal organs enclosed by it.
o It gives shape and size to the insects.
o It provides surface for the attachment of muscles.
o It conserves moisture and prevents desiccation.
o It prevents entry of pathogens and insecticides.
o It forms sense organ.
o It contains pigments to make insects attractive.

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CUTICULAR/ INTEGUMENTAL MODIFICATIONS:

Cuticular modification

Cuticular Cuticular
out growths invagination

Cuticular Setae Apodemes

appendages
Spurs

Apophyses
Cuticular Aculei
processes
Spines

A. Cuticular out growths:

 They are divided into cuticular appendages and cuticular processes depending on
the presence or absence of membranous articulations.

I. Cuticular appendages:

 These are the outgrowths of the cuticle / integument connected with it by means of a
membranous joint. They arise from modified epidermal cells. These are classified in
to setae and spurs.

(1) Seta/ Macrotrichia:

♣ Commonly known as hairs and arise from a cup like alveolus or pit. Setae are hollow
structures developed as extension of exocuticle and are produced by a single enlarged
hypodermal cell called ‘ trichogen’ cell. Articular membrane is usually produced by a
second hypodermal cell called ‘tormogen’ cell.
♣ Setae have role of taxonomic importance and vary with species to species. Study of
arrangement of setae is known as ‘chaetotaxy’.
(2) Spurs:
♣ Occur on the legs of many insects and differ from setae in beingmulticellular in
origin.
II. Cuticular processes:
 They have no membranous articulation; They are of two types
(1) Microtrichia / fixed hairs / aculei:
♣ These are minute hair like structures found on wings of Mecoptera and certain
Diptera.
(2) Spines:
♣ Outgrowths of the cuticle which are more or less thorn like in form.
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Sr. Spurs Spines

No.
1 Cuticular appendages Cuticular processes
2 Movable, multicellular structures and thick These are immovable outgrowths of cuticle
walled
3 E.g.: present on tibia of plant hoppers and honey E.g.: hind tibia of grasshopper and leaf
bees hoppers
B. Cuticular invagination:
 The body wall or cuticle of the body wall invaginate internally and grow in to definite
structures which are of two types.
♠ Apodemes- Hollow cuticular invaginations whichprovide area for muscle attachment
♠ Apophyses- Solid invaginations of the cuticle which gives mechanical support to
various organs by forming distinct skeletal structures.

MOULTING PROCESS
 Process of periodical shedding of old cuticle and formation of new cuticle this process
is known as moulting. Itis a complex process which involves: - Apolysis, Ecdysis and
Sclerotization.
 Apolysis : [Apo = formation ; Lysis = dissolution]
 The dissolution of old cuticle and formation of new one is known as apolysis.
 It starts with repeated mitotic division of epidermal cells resulting in increase in
number and size of epidermis, Because of this change, the epidermal cells exert
tension on cuticular surface and as a result get separated them from the cuticle.
 Due to separation of epidermis from the cuticle a sub cuticular space is created and
the epidermal cells starts producing their secretion i.e. moulting fluid and cuticular
material into this space.
 Ecdysis :
 The stage where the insect has both newly formed epi and procuticle.
 The ecdysial membrane starts splitting along the line of weakness due to muscular
activity of the inner developing insect and also because of swallowing of air & water
resulting in the distention of the gut and also due to the pumping of blood from
abdomen to thorax through muscular activity.
 After the breakage of old cuticles, the new instar comes out bringing its head followed
by thorax, abdomen and appendages.
 Sclerotization :
 After shedding of old cuticle the new cuticle which is soft, milky white coloured
becomes dark and hard through the process known as tanning (or) sclerotization.
 Three types of hormones involved in the process of moulting which are as follows-
 JH: Juvenile Hormone: Produced from corpora allata of brain that helps the insects
to be in immature stage.
 MH: Moulting hormone: Produced from prothoracic glands of brain that induces the
process of moulting.
 Eclosion Hormone: Released from neurosecretory cells in the brain that help in the
process of ecdysis or eclosion.

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BODY SEGMENTATION OF INSECT

 Cockroach, Periplanata americana is a typical insect as it possesses all important
characters of class insect.
 In general, insect body is divided in to a series of rings or segments are known as
“somites” or “metameres”.
 During the process ofevolution, these somites get fused with each other in different
ways forming the body parts of the existing arthropods.
 The type of arrangement of these body segments in embryonic stage is known as
primary segmentation while in adult insects is known as the secondary
segmentation.
 Insect body is divided in to three regions or tagmata namely head, thorax and
abdomen. This grouping of body segments in to regions is known as tagmosis.
 Head consists of 6 segmentspossessesmouthparts, compound eyes, simple
eyes (ocelli) and a pair of antennae.
 Thorax consists of 3 segments i.e. prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax,
Meso and metathorax are together known as pterothorax. All the three thoracic
segments possess a pair of legs and meso and meta thorax possess one pair of
wings.
 Abdomen has 11 segments with genital appendages on 8th and 9th segments.
 The insect body generally consists of 20 segments.

Fig. General Organization of Insect Body

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INSECT HEAD
 It is the foremost part in insect body consisting of 6 segments that are fused to form a
head capsule.
 The head segments can be divided in to two regions i.e. procephalon and
gnathocephalon (mouth).
 Head is attached or articulated to the thorax through neck or cervix.
 Head capsule is sclerotized and the head capsule excluding appendages formed by the
fusion of several sclerites is known as cranium.
 Inside the head, an endoskeletal structure called the tentoriumwhich give supports to
the brain, and provides a rigid origin for muscles of the mandibles and other
mouthparts.
 Head is concerned with feeding and sensory perception.

Segment Appendages
I Pre antennary segment Procephalon Pair of compound eyes&
three ocelli (Simple eyes)

II Antennary segment Pair of Antennae

III Intercalary segment Single labrum
IV Mandibular segment Gnathocephalon Pair of Mandibles

V Maxillary segment Pair of Maxillae

VI Labialsegment Single Labium

Types of head position:

The orientation of head with respect to the rest of the body varies. According to the
position or projection of mouth parts the head of the insect can be classified as;

(a) Hypognathous (Hypo – Below: Gnathous – Jaw )

The head remain vertical and is at right angle to the long axis of the body and mouth
parts are ventrally placed and projected downwards. This is also kwown as Orthopteroid type.

Eg: Grass hopper, Cockroach.

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CockroachGrass hopper

(b) Prognathous : (Pro – infront: Gnathous – Jaw )

The head remains in the same axis to body and mouth parts are projected forward.
This is also known as Coleopteroid type.Eg: beetles

Beetles

(c) Opisthognathous : (Opistho – behind: Gnathous Jaw )

It is same as prognathous but mouthparts are directed backward and held inbetween the fore
legs. .This is also kwown as Hemipteroid or Opisthorhynchous type.Eg: bugs

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Mosquito Red cotton bug

SCLERITES AND SUTURES OF HEAD

The head capsule is formed by the union of number of sclerites or cuticular plates or areas
which are joined together by means of cuticular lines or ridges known as sutures or any of
the large or small sclerotized/harden areas of the body wall.

These sutures provide mechanical support to the cranial wall.

Suture: The sclerites separated from each other by means of thin impressed line called
suture.(Sometimes referred as a sulcus).

General insect possess the following sclerites-

1. Labrum:It is small sclerite that forms the upper lip of the mouth cavity. It isfreely
attached clypeus by means of clypolabral suture.

2.Clypeus:It is situated above the labrum, separated by fronto-clypeal suture & also
separated from gena by clypogenal suture.

3.Frons: It is unpaired, facial part of the head capsule lying between the arms of
epicranial suture.

4. Gena: It is the area extending from below the compound eyes to just above the
mandibles. It is separated from frons by frontoganal suture and from clypeus clypogenal
suture.

5. Epicraniun: It forms the upper part of the head extending from frons to the neck.

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6. Vertex: It is the top portion of epicranium which lies behind the frons or the area
between the two compound eyes.

7. Epicranial Suture: Starting from the dorsal portion of the epicranium is an inverted Y
shape suture known as epicranial suture or ecdysial line. The head capsule breaks open
along this line at the time of moulting.

8. Occiput: It is an inverted “U” shaped structure representing the area between the
epicranium and post occiput.

9. Post occiput: It is the extreme posterior part of the insect head that remains before the
neck region.

10. Occular sclerites: These are cuticular ring like structures present around each
compound eye.

11. Antennal sclerites: These form the basis for the antennae and present around the
scape.

Anterior view or face view

The common sutures present in head are:

1. Clypeolabral suture:It is the suture present between clypeus and labrum.

2. Clypeofrontal suture or epistomal suture: The suture present betweenclypeus and
frons.
3. Epicranial suture: It is an inverted ‘Y’ shaped suture distributed above thefacial
region extending up to the epicranial part of the head. It consists of two arms called
frontal suture occupying the frons and stem called as coronal suture. This epicranial
suture is also known as line of weakness or ecdysial suture because the exuvial
membrane splits along this suture during the process of ecdysis.
4. Occipital suture: It is ‘U’ shaped or horseshoe shaped suture between epicranium
and occiput.

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5. Post occipital suture: It is the only real suture in insect head. Posterior end of the
head is marked by the post occipital suture to which the sclerites are attached. As this
suture separates the head from the neck, hence named as real suture.
6. Genal suture: It is the sutures present on the lateral side of the head i.e. gena.
7. Occular suture: It is circular suture present around each compound eye.
8. Antennal suture: It is a marginal depressed ring around the antennal socket.

INSECT THORAX
 It is the middle part of the body consisting of 3segmentssuch as prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax, each possessing a pair of legs and a pair of wings on
meso and meta thoracic segment. Meso and meta thoracic segments bear a pair of
wings each together known as pterothorax (Ptera = wings).

 Thorax generally concerned with locomotion.

 The body wall of a typical insect is divided into four regions;

 The dorsal (Upper) region is called dorsum or tergum/notum.
 |The ventral (Lower) region is called as venter or sternum.
 The two lateral regions are known as pleurae/pleuron.
 Sclerites–The cuticle hardens at localized areas form sclerites.

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 Sutures – The sclerites are separated from each other by means of thin impressesd
lines called as sutures.
 Sclerites forming these regions are called as tergites, sternites and pleurites,
respectively.

 Sclerites of thoracic segments:-

1. Sclerites of tergum (tergites) - The dorsal sclerites consists of three
segmental plates (nota) called pro-notum, meso-notum and meta-notum. Each
notum is again divided into three parts i.e pre-scutum, scutum and scutellum.
2. Sclerites of pleuron (pleurites) –it is fully developed in winged insects. It is
divided into two parts, anterior episternum and posterior epimeron. It is absent
in prothorax.
3. Sclerites of sternum (sternites)–It is divided into eusternum and
spinasternum.

INSECT ABDOMEN
 The abdomen in the embryo usually consists 11 segments.
 The abdominal segments are sometimes designated as uromeres.
 The terminal region of abdomen is called telson which bears anus.
 The 1st abdominal segment gets fused to metathorax forming propodeum. (In ants,
bees and wasps).
 The first eight abdominal segments carry a pair of spiracles each.
 Thorax generally concerned with reproduction and metabolic activity.
 Appendages of abdomen–
1. Non reproductive appendages –
a) Cerci –They are present on 11th segment in most of the insects. It is
present inmale cockroach, silverfish, grasshopperCerciusuallyact as
tactile organ or sound receptors in grasshopper. They become a part of
male genitalia in caddis fly. In earwigs, cerci are modified into
defensive organ.
b) Prolegs in insect larvae- The larvae of Lepidoptera bear five pairs of
abdominal legs called Prolegs on 3rd 4th 5th 6th and 10th segments.
These Prolegs bear spines like structures called crochets, on terminal
ends to grip the plant surfaces. In case of larvae of sawfly there are
eight pairs of Prolegs but are without crochets.
c) Abdominal gills-
It is present in aquatic insects for respiration. eg. Nymph of odonata.
d) Cornicles: Aphids have a pair of short tubes known as cornicles or
siphonculi projecting from dorsum of fifth or sixth abdominal segment.

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They permit the escape of waxy fluid which perhaps serves for
protection against predators.
2. Reproductive appendages –
 It includes abdominal Segments from 1 to 7 are pregenital
segments, 8th and 9th are known as genital segments as they
form genital appendages i.e. ovipositor in females and aedeagus
or penis in males. 10thand11thsegments are known as
postgenital segments. These organs are specially concern with
mating in male and deposition of eggs in females. They are
collectively called as external genitalia or gonapophysis.
 Male external genitalia-The9th sternum bears two styli and
pair of claspers which help to hold female during copulation.
The aedeagus lies between claspers.
 Female external genitalia-It has a special egg laying organs
called ovipositor for egg lying on 8th and 9th segments.The
ovipositor of house fly& fruit fly is called pseudoovipositor.

INSECT ANTENNAE
 Antennae are a pair of sensory preoral appendages arising from the 2nd or antennal
segment of the head possessing nerves coming from deutocerebrum of the brain.
 Antennae are also called feelers.
 They are well developed in adults and poorly developed in immature stages.
 Antennae are absent in order protura and class Arachnida whereas 2 pairs of
antenna (antennules) are present in class Crustacea.
 Aantennal socket (antennifer) is provided with an antennal suture. The base of socket
is connected to the edge of the socket by an articulatory membrane. This permits free
movement of antennae

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 Antenna consists of 3 parts:-

1) Scape: It is the first segment of antenna. It articulates with the head capsule through
antennifer which provides movement for the scape.

2) Pedicel: It is the 2nd or middle segment of antenna that forms a joint between scape and
flagellum. It consists of the special auditory organ known as “Jhonston’s organ”.

3) Flagellum: It is the last antennal segment which consists of many segments that varies in
shape and size.

Types of Insect antennae

SrN Type of antennae Example

o.
1 Filiform (Thread like) Grasshopper
2 Setaceous(Whip/ bristle like) Cockroach

3 Moniliform (Like string of beads) Termites& Thrips

4 Pectinate (Comb like) Female mulberry silk
moth

5 Bipectinate (Double comb) Male mulberry silk moth

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Theory Notes on Fundamentals of Entomology
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6 Serrate(Saw like) Pulse beetle, Mango stem

borer
7 Clavate (Clubbed) Butterflies, Moths

8 Clavate with hook Skipper butterflies

9 Capitate (Clubbed with knob) Red flour beetle

10 Geniculate (Elbowed) Ants, honey bees, Wasps

11 Lamellate (plate like) Rhinoceros beetles, dung

rollers,chaffer beetles

12 Plumose(Feather like) Male Culex mosquito,

stylopids

13 Pilose (brush like hairs) Female Culex mosquito

14 Aristate (antennae with arista) House fly

15 Stylate (antennae with style) Jassids, Robber fly

Term Mean

1. Gustatory Related with stimulus of taste

2. Olfactory Related with stimulus of smell

3. Tactile Related with stimulus of touch

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Functions of Antennae
1. To feel and find the its way

2. To detect danger

3. To find food

4. To find the opposite sex

5. To communicate with each other e.g. (Ants)

6. To smell – bears olfactory organ e.g. (House fly)

7. To perceive the sound Chorodontonal organe.g. (male mosquito)

8. To serve secondary sexual characters

9. It possesses hydro fuse hairs to form air funnel eg. (Water beetle)

10. Taste hairs occur on antennae e.g. (Cockroach)

11. Helps in mating by holding opposite sex eg. (Flea, Spring tails)

12. Useful for clasping the female during copulation

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Theory Notes on Fundamentals of Entomology
 Insect Digestive System
Definition:
The digestive system of insects is a specialized mechanism responsible for the
breakdown and absorption of food.

Importance:
It enables insects to obtain essential nutrients for growth, development, and
survival.

1. General Structure
A. Foregut
1. Mouthparts: Designed for food ingestion and manipulation.
2. Esophagus: Tube-like structure connecting the mouth to the midgut.
3. Crop: Temporary storage organ for food.

B. Midgut
1. Stomach: Enzymatic digestion and nutrient absorption take place.
2. Gastric ceca: Outgrowths from the stomach, involved in enzyme production
and digestion.

C. Hindgut
1. Intestine: Absorption of water, ions, and remaining nutrients.
2. Rectum: Stores and eliminates waste.

2. Digestive Processes
A. Ingestion
1. Mastication: Food particles are broken down by the mandibles or other
mouthparts.
2. Salivation: Saliva aids in the initial digestion of carbohydrates.

B. Digestion
1. Mechanical digestion: Food is physically broken down into smaller pieces.
2. Chemical digestion: Enzymes break down complex molecules into simpler
forms.
C. Absorption
1. Nutrient absorption: Occurs in the midgut, where nutrients are transported
across the gut wall into the insect's body.
2. Water absorption: Takes place in the hindgut, where excess water is
reabsorbed.

D. Elimination
1. Waste elimination: Undigested material and metabolic waste products are
expelled through the rectum as feces.

3. Specializations and Adaptations

A. Gut Microbes: Many insects harbor symbiotic bacteria or protozoa in their
digestive system to aid in digestion and nutrient synthesis.
B. Detoxification: Insects possess specialized enzymes to detoxify plant secondary
compounds that may be present in their diet.
C. Crop Specialization: Certain insects, such as bees, have a highly developed
crop for nectar storage and processing.
D. Extraoral Digestion: Some insects produce enzymes outside their bodies to
pre-digest food before ingestion.

4. Variation Among Insect Orders

A. Herbivorous Insects: Adapted to digest plant material rich in cellulose and
other complex carbohydrates.
B. Carnivorous Insects: Equipped with specialized mouthparts and enzymes to
digest animal tissues.
C. Omnivorous Insects: Capable of digesting both plant and animal matter.
D. Scavengers and Detritivores: Digestion of decaying organic matter.

5. Conclusion
A. The digestive system of insects is a diverse and specialized structure, enabling
them to exploit a wide range of food sources.
 B. Understanding insect digestion is crucial for pest management, insect
conservation, and studying insect-plant interactions.

Reproductive System of Insects:

1. Sexual Dimorphism:
In many insect species, there is a clear distinction between males and females in
terms of physical characteristics. Males are often smaller and have specialized
reproductive structures, while females are typically larger and possess structures
for egg production.

2. Male Reproductive System:

 Testes: Insects have one or more pairs of testes that produce sperm cells.
 Vas Deferens: Sperm cells from the testes pass through the vas deferens, which
is a tube that carries the sperm to the male reproductive organs.
 Accessory Glands: Insects have accessory glands that contribute fluids to the
sperm, which aid in sperm viability and function.
 Copulatory Organ: Male insects possess a copulatory organ called the aedeagus
or phallus, which is used to transfer sperm into the female during mating.

3. Female Reproductive System:

 Ovaries: Female insects have a pair of ovaries that produce eggs.
 Oviducts: The eggs move through the oviducts, which are tubes that transport
the eggs from the ovaries to the female reproductive structures.
 Spermatheca: During mating, female insects store sperm in a specialized organ
called the spermatheca. Sperm can be stored here for extended periods, allowing
females to fertilize eggs over time.
 Accessory Glands: Female insects possess accessory glands that contribute
substances such as nutrients and protective coatings to the eggs.
 Ovipositor: The ovipositor is a structure found in many female insects that is
used to lay eggs. It can be modified in various ways depending on the species,
allowing for different methods of egg deposition.

4. Mating and Fertilization:

 Insects typically engage in external fertilization, where the male transfers sperm
to the female's reproductive tract during mating.
 Some insects engage in elaborate courtship behaviors to attract mates, which
may involve pheromone communication, visual displays, or sound production.
 After mating, the female stores the sperm in the spermatheca until she is ready
to fertilize her eggs.
 Fertilization occurs when the stored sperm is released and meets the eggs in the
female's reproductive system.

5. Reproductive Strategies:
 Insects exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, including sexual
reproduction, parthenogenesis (development of offspring without fertilization),
and various forms of reproductive behavior.
 Some insects display complex reproductive behaviors such as mating rituals,
territoriality, and mate guarding.
 Insect reproductive strategies are often influenced by environmental factors,
including resource availability, population density, and seasonal changes.
4/11/2016 ENT 425 | General Entomology | Resource Library (Tutorials)

Home > Tutorials > Thorax  > Legs

Legs
Most insects have three pairs of walking legs ­­ one pair on each thoracic segment.   Each leg
contains five structural components (segments) that articulate with one another by means of hinge
joints:
1. Coxa The term pretarsus
2. Trochanter refers to the terminal
3. Femur segment of the tarsus and
4. Tibia any other structures
5. Tarsus attached to it, including:
ungues ­­ a pair of claws
arolium ­­ a lobe or
adhesive pad between the
claws
empodium ­­ a large
bristle (or lobe) between
the claws
pulvilli ­­ a pair of adhesive pads
Leg Adapations and Modifications:
 
Characteristic Appearance Example(s)

Ground beetles
Cursorial ­­ adapted for running and 
Cockroaches

Raptorial ­­ adapted for catching and holding prey Praying mantids

Diving bugs
Natatorial ­­ adapted for swimming and
Water beetles

Fossorial ­­ adapted for digging in soil Mole crickets

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4/11/2016 ENT 425 | General Entomology | Resource Library (Tutorials)

Saltatorial ­­ adapted for jumping Grasshoppers

Return to THORAX | Go to WINGS

© 2016 by John R. Meyer 
Last Updated:   24 March 2016 
Disclaimer

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 Insect Mouth parts
Labrum / upper lip

Mandible Hypopharynx
Upper jaw orTongue

Maxilla
Lower Jaw

Labium / Lower lip

(2nd maxilla)
1. Labrum

-”upper lip”

- contains chemosensory sensilla

2. Mandibles / upper jaw
Paired structures
Molar surface- for grinding
Has a group of short and
blunt teeth

Incisor surface -for cutting

 3. Maxilla / lower Jaw

Cardo

Stipes

Palp-
to taste food
Lacinia

Galea
 4. Labium – Lower Lip
(2nd Maxilla)

Submentum
Post-mentum
Mentum

Prementum
Glossa
Palp
Paraglossa

can be fused to form a

Ligula
 5. Hypopharynx – Tongue
➢Tongue like structure
➢Situated behind the mouth
➢Salivary ducts opens on the lower side of its base
 Modifications of mouth parts
1. Chewing or Biting types – grasshoppers, beetles,
lepidotera larvae
2. Piercing and Sucking types –eg. Bugs, hoppers, jassids,
flies - contain long, slender beak like proboscis / stylets
3. Sponging type (Licking-sucking) – eg. House flies
Probiscs modified as short-thick, elbow-shaped
4. Siphoning type (Nectar collecting)- eg. Butterflies, moths
Coiled probiscs
5. Chewing-lapping type (Sucking-licking)- eg. Honey bees,
wasps – combination of chewing & lapping (licking) type