Advanced Surveying Assignment

BIR TIKENDRAJIT UNIVERSITY
ASSIGNMENT
NAME : JOB BENNY

NAMBERIL
COURSE : BACHELOR OF
TECH IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
BRANCH : CIVIL
SEMESTER :V
SUBJECT NAME: ADVANCED

SURVEYING
ADVANCED SURVEYING ASSIGNMENT
PART I
1. Name the equipments used for base line measurement.
Ans: Baseline measurement is an important aspect in the surveying operations

such as traversing, triangulation, trilateration, setting out etc. The measurement
of baseline was in the past century carried out by instruments such as tapes,
chains bands before the advent ofElectromagnetic Distance Measuring
Instrument (EDM).
2. List the different types of tape correction.

Ans:
Tape Correction
 Correction for Standardization.
 Correction for Slope.
 Correction of Pull.
 Correction for Temperature.
 Correction for Sag.
 Normal Tension.
 Correction for Misalignment.
 Reduction of length to mean sea level.
3. Quote the applications of Gale’s table.
Ans:
Gale's traverse table is useful to find out independent coordinates of theodolite
traverse by applying necessary corrections to consecutive co-ordinates of the
same traverse. Further these independent co-ordinates are useful to draw the
accurate traverse without linear and angular errors.
4. Describe the satellite station and reduction to centre
Ans:
The offset of a side auxiliary telescope requires a correction to observed
horizontal angles, and the offset of a top auxiliary telescope requires a correction
to observed vertical angles. The process of computing the correct angle from the
observed angle is called reduction to center.
5. List the factors to be considered while choosing the site for baseline.
Ans:
If possible, line through the whole length of area should be drawn. All triangles
should be well defined. A check line should be provided in each triangle. Survey
lines should be as few as possible.
 Availability of Raw-materials:
 Nearness to the Market
 Nearness to Sources of Operating Power
 Labor Supplies
 Transportation
 Finance
 Climate
 Industrial Inertia and Others.
 Personal Preferences
 Government Policy
 6. Define control surveying.
Control survey means a survey that provides horizontal or vertical position data
for the support or control of subordinate surveys or for mapping.
7. Distinguish the sag correction and temperature correction
Ans:
In surveying, tape correction(s) refer(s) to correcting measurements for the effect
of slope angle, expansion or contraction due to temperature, and the tape's sag,
which varies with the applied tension.
10. Discuss few lines about the effect of curvature of the earth
Ans:
The effect of curvature being greater than that of refraction, the combined effect
causes the points to appear to be lower than they actually are. Earth has a curved
face which is assumed to be a level surface but the line of sight as furnished by
the leveling instrument is horizontal and not the level line. The Earth's curvature
will only have significant effects on massive structures that are sensitive to small
errors. With the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, we are talking about a structure with
a size on the order of a 1000 feet and the effect of the Earth's curvature is ~1 inch.
11. Classify traversing. Illustrate with neat sketch.
Ans:
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines
form the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are
measured with the help of an angle measuring instrument and tape or chain
respectively.
12. How to apply the figure adjustment in triangulation?
Ans:
The geometric figures used in triangulation system are (i) Triangles (ii)
Quadrilaterals (ii) Quadrilaterals, Pentagon, hexagons with centre angle. This
arrangement although simple and economical but less accurate since the number
of conditions involve in its adjustment is small.
Station adjustment ==> sum of angle is 180
Figure adjustment ==> sum of angles is 400 grad or 360
Quadrilateral; adjust ==> (all the angles are horizontal)
14. Explain the principle involved in second order triangulation.

Ans:
The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the
framework of primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals so
that the sizes of the triangles formed are smaller than the primary triangulation.
The instruments and methods used are not of the same utmost refinement. The
general specifications of the secondary triangulation are:
I. Average triangle closure : 3 sec

II. Maximum triangle closure : 8 sec
III. Length of base line : 1.5 to 5 km
IV. Length of sides of triangles : 8 to 65 km
V. Actual error of base : 1 in 150,000
VI. Probable error of base: 1 in 500,000
VII. Discrepancy between two measures of a section : 20 mm kilometers
VIII. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 50,000

IX. Probable error in astronomic azimuth: 2.0 sec
15. Explain the main principle involved in triangulation.
Ans:
In this process, an area is divided into triangles, which are used to measure
distances. If the triangle angles and the base line of the triangle are known, the
missing lengths can be calculated easily with trigonometry.
16. Compare the Horizontal and Vertical controls in hydrographic surveying.
Ans:
Horizontal and vertical control is developed to create a framework around which
other surveys can be adjusted. These control surveys are used for accurate
mapping projects in the construction of underground utility systems, roadways,
power lines, tunnels, and many other high precision projects.
18. Prepare a base line for the survey work and give its definition.
Ans:
The Baseline Survey is an early element in the monitoring and evaluation plan and
uses the log frame structure to systematically assess the circumstances in which
the project commences. It provides the basis for subsequent assessment of how
efficiently the activity is being implemented and the eventual results achieved.
19. Conclude few lines about the trigonometrically leveling.
Ans:
Trigonometric Leveling is the branch of Surveying in which we find out the vertical
distance between two points with the help of some measurements of the vertical
angles and the known distances. The known distances are either assumed to be
horizontal or the geodetic lengths at the mean sea level (MSL)
20. When would you recommend the triangulation system in surveying projects?
Ans:
Surveyors use triangulation to measure unknown distances. They do this by
establishing a baseline length.
Triangulation
From each point, surveyor’s measure angles of distant points use instruments
such as theodolites. When we know the lengths and angles, triangulation
determines the distances by forming triangles, as shown in the diagram above.
For example, surveyors gathered approximately 26,000 stations from Meade’s
Ranch in Kansas to create the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27). But the
Global Positioning System uses the World Geodetic Survey (WGS84) to reference
positions.
PART IA
2. Two triangulation stations A and B are 60 km apart and have elevations 240m
and 280m. Identify the minimum height of signal required at B so that the line of
sight may not pass the ground than 2metres.The intervening ground may be
assumed to have a uniform elevation of200metres
Ans:
2. After measuring the length of a base line, the correct length of the line is
computed by applying various applicable corrections. Discuss the following
corrections and provide expressions for a. Correction for temperature. b.
Correction for pull. c. Correction for sag d. Correction for absolute length e.
Correction for slope

Ans:
Baseline Correction for Absolute Length:
It is given by the formula
Where CA = Correction for absolute length L = measured length of base l =

Nominal length of measuring unit C = Correction to measuring unit
Sign of CA is the same as that of C
Nominal length: The designated length i.e 50 tape, 100 tape (30 m tape)
Absolute length: The actual length under specified conditions
Correction for Temperature:
It is given by the formula :
Where Ct = Correction for temp = co-efficient of thermal Tm = Mean Temperature

during To = Temp at which the measuring is standardized
Steel = 0.0000099-0.000012/c
Steel = 0.0000055 – 0.0000070/ F
The sign of ‘Ct’ is plus or minus according to as ‘Tm’ is greater or less then ‘to’
Correction for Pull or Tension :
Where CP = Correction for pull Pm = Pull applied during measurement Po = Pull at

which the measurement unit (tape) is standardized L = length measured A =
Cross-Sectional area of measuring unit E = Modulus of elasticity of measuring unit
E steel = 21 x 105 kg / cm2
E steel = 30 x 106 /bs/in2
The sing of this correction is always plus (T) as the effect of pull is to increase the
length of the tape and consequently to decrease the measured length of the base.
Correction for Sag:
Correction for sag is the deference in length between them are and its chord i.e
b/t the curved length of the laps and the distance between the supports. It’s us
required only when the tape is suspended During measurement. Since the effect
of sag is to make the measured length too large, it is always subtractive.
It is given by the formula:
Where Cs = Correction for Sag L1 = Distance b/t supports. W = wt of tape per unit
length Pm = applied pull
W = wt of tape b/t supports. If there are ‘n’ equal space per tape length, L = nL1
Sag correction per tape length is
Total sag correction to measures length
Cs = N x Cs/ + Cs/
Where N = no of whole tape length Cs/ = Sag correction per tape length. Cs/ = Sag
correction for any tape length
Normal tension:
The normal tension of a tape is a tension which will cause the effects of pull and
sag to neutralize each other. It may be obtained by equating the corrections for
pull and sag
Where Pn = normal tension W = wt of tape b/w supports

Pn is determine by trial
Correction for Slope or Vertical Alignment:
This correction is required when the points of supports are not exactly at the
same level L1, L2------------ = Successive length of uniform garages B1, b2------------
= Difference of elevation b/t the extremities of each of these grades. Cg = corr for
slope Cg = B1C1 = AC1 – AB1 = l –D
This correction is always negative for measured length.

• If grades are given in terms in terms of vertical angle
5. (i)How the triangulation systems are classified?
Ans:
The basis of the classification of triangulation figures is the accuracy with which
the length and azimuth of a line of the triangulation are determined.
Triangulation systems of different accuracies depend on the extent and the
purpose of the survey. The accepted grades of triangulation are:

1. First order or Primary Triangulation
2. Second order or Secondary Triangulation
3. Third order or Tertiary Triangulation
First Order or Primary Triangulation:
The first order triangulation is of the highest order and is employed either to
determine the earth’s figure or to furnish the most precise control points to which
secondary triangulation may be connected. The primary triangulation system
embraces the vast area (usually the whole of the country). Every precaution is
taken in making linear and angular measurements and in performing the
reductions. The following are the general specifications of the primary
triangulation:
1. Average triangle closure : Less than 1 second

2. Maximum triangle closure : Not more than 3 seconds
3. Length of base line : 5 to 15 kilometers
4. Length of the sides of triangles : 30 to 150 kilometers
5. Actual error of base : 1 in 300,000
6. Probable error of base : 1 in 1,000,000
7. Discrepancy between two measures of a section : 10 mm kilometers
8. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 60,000 to 1 in 250,000
9. Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 0.5 seconds
Secondary Order or Secondary Triangulation
The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the
framework of primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals so
that the sizes of the triangles formed are smaller than the primary triangulation.
The instruments and methods used are not of the same utmost refinement. The
general specifications of the secondary triangulation are:
I. Average triangle closure : 3 sec

II. Maximum triangle closure : 8 sec
III. Length of base line : 1.5 to 5 km
IV. Length of sides of triangles : 8 to 65 km
V. Actual error of base : 1 in 150,000
VI. Probable error of base : 1 in 500,000
VII. Discrepancy between two measures of a section : 20 mm kilometers
VIII. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 50,000
IX. Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 2.0 sec
Third Order or Tertiary Triangulation:
The third-order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the

framework of secondary triangulation, and forms the immediate control for
detailed engineering and other surveys. The sizes of the triangles are small and
instrument with moderate precision may be used. The specifications for a third-
order triangulation are as follows:
1. Average triangle closure : 6 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 12 sec
3. Length of base line : 0.5 to 3 km
4. Length of sides of triangles : 1.5 to 10 km
5. Actual error of base : 1 in 75, 0000
6. Probable error of base : 1 in 250,000
7. Discrepancy between two Measures of a section : 25 mm kilometers
8. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 5,000 to 1 in 20,000
9. Probable error in astronomic Azimuth : 5 sec.
(ii) Calculate sag correction for 30 m steel under a pull of 100 N in three equal
spans of 10 m each. Weight of one cubic cm of steel =0.078 N. Area of cross-
section of tape =0.08 sq.cm
PART II
1. Define most probable value
Ans:
value, most probable—That value of a quantity which is mathematically
determined from a series of observations and is more nearly free from the effects
of blunders and errors than any other value that might be derived from the same
series of observations.
2. State the principle of least square.
Ans:
Least squares adjustment can be defined, as “a model for the solution of an
overdetermined system of equations based on the principle of least squares of
observation residuals.” For surveyors, “overdetermined systems” are the

networks of related coordinates used to establish boundaries, locate points on
Earth
3. Define the term true error.
Ans:
The difference between the observed value of a quantity and its true value. 
Residual error : The difference between the observed value of a quantity and its
most probable value.
5. Name the different kinds of error possible in survey work
Ans:
Errors of measurement are of three kinds: (i) mistakes, (ii) systematic errors, and
(iii) accidental errors. Errors of measurement are of three kinds: (i) mistakes, (ii)
systematic errors, and (iii) accidental errors.
7.Distinguish between the observed value and the most probable value of a
quantity.
Ans:
Measured value is the value of the quantity we measure in any way, may be with
an instrument or bare hands. True value is the value of the same quantity or the
variable which is its actual value. ... The measured value is compared with these
true values to check the accuracy of the measurement we have done.
8.Differentiate the most probable error from residual error
The maximum error of a quantity is almost impossible to determine absolutely.
Thus, often 99.9% error is taken as the maximum error in surveying.
The residual errors obtained, after the adjustment of sequential misclosures, in
four different survey processes, are analysed by the method of least squares.
Values are obtained for the average error of each of the residual error
distributions, on the assumption that the latter are normally distributed.
9.Distinguish between the true error and residual error

Ans:
The value of quantity free from all the error is known as true value of quantity.
The residual errors obtained, after the adjustment of sequential misclosures, in
four different survey processes, are analysed by the method of least squares.
Values are obtained for the average error of each of the residual error
distributions, on the assumption that the latter are normally distributed.
15.Explain normal equations.

Ans:
A normal equation is formed by the multiplication of unknown coefficients by
which, the obtained equation is added and leads to the formation of normal
equation. If the number of equations formed is equal to the number of unknowns
the n the most probable value values can be found by the equations
18.How do you prepare the figure adjustments in triangulation?
Ans:
Triangulation of ordinary precision, the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to
180o. For large triangles, covering big area, correction for spherical excess is to be
applied because sum of angles of a spherical triangle will be more than 180o and
the correction to be applied is as an addition for 01'' for every 75 square miles.
For triangle ABC
19. Compare the systematic and accidental errors.
Ans:
Systematic errors are caused by the surveying equipment, observation methods,
and certain environmental factors. Under the same measurement conditions,
these errors will have the same magnitude and direction (positive or negative).
Accidental Errors: Surveying errors can occur due to unavoidable circumstances
like variations in atmospheric conditions which are entirely beyond the control of
the observer. Errors in surveying due to imperfection in measuring instruments
and even imperfection of eyesight fall in this category
PART IIA
1.(i)Define the following terms
(1) True error
Ans:
The true error is the difference between the true value of a quantity and the
observed measurement.
True error is also sometimes defined as the difference between the true value
found by a calculation, and the approximate value found by using a numerical
method. As an example, the derivative, which gives a precise value for the slope
at a point, can be approximated by the equation f′(x) ≈ (f(x + h) – f(x)) / h; The
difference between these two values is the true error.

(2) Residual error
Ans:
The difference between a group of values observed and their arithmetical mean
(3) Most probable error.
Ans:
Probable error is the coefficient of correlation that supports in finding out about
the accurate values of the coefficients. It also helps in determining the reliability
of the coefficient.
(ii)The angle of triangle ABC was recorded as follows:
A = 77° 14’20” weight 4
B = 49° 40’35” weight 3
C = 53° 04’52” weight 2
Identify the corrected value of the angles.
Ans:
PART III
1. Name the equipment inventory required for a total station.
Ans:
The Following are few major components of total station to operate it which are
listed below:
Electronic transit theodolite
Electronic distance meter (EDM)
Microprocessor
Electronic data collector & storage system
In addition to the significant parts, the Total station likewise needs some extra
function keys. Such include the control panel, keyboard, data collectors,
memories, etc.
2. Define EDM.
Ans:
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length
between two points using electromagnetic waves. EDM instruments are highly
reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and can be used to
measure distances of up to 100 kilometers.
3. List out the types of EDM.
Ans:
The electronic distance measuring equipment is differentiated into three types as,
microwave instrument, infra red equipment and light wave equipment.
4. Define traverse.
Ans:
Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks. It is
also used in geodesy. Traverse networks involve placing survey stations along a
line or path of travel, and then using the previously surveyed points as a base for
observing the next point.
5. Define total station surveying.
Ans:
A Total Station is a modern surveying instrument that integrates an electronic
theodolite with an electronic distance meter. ... Total Stations use electronic
transit theodolites in conjunction with a distance meter to read any slope
distance from the instrument to any particular spot.
6. What is called trilateration in modern positioning system?
Ans:
Trilateration is determining a position by knowing your distance from at least 3
known points. In GPS those known points are the satellites themselves. It is
important to understand that this is a simple exercise in trilateration itself, and
not an exact representation of how the process of GPS positioning works.
7. Distinguish between triangulation and trilateration.
Ans:
While trilateration relies on signal strength as an analog for distance, triangulation
relies on timing differences in the reception of tags' signals. Because these signals
travel at the speed of light, the time differences in transmission are very small.
This makes measuring instruments more expensive.
9.Discuss the atmospheric and scale corrections factors of total stations

Ans:
Atmospheric Corrections in Total Station
Meteorological data corrections to observed EDM slope distances may be
significant over longer distances. Usually for most topographic surveying over
short distances, nominal (estimated) temperature and pressure data is acceptable
for input into the data collector. Instruments used to measure atmospheric
temperature and pressure must be periodically calibrated. This would include
psychrometers and barometers.
Surveyors take care of small but vital modifications to their field surveys
constantly. The surveyors should have sound knowledge on how the scale factor
utilized with field observations and office calculations is vital while handling grid
coordinates i.e. Map Grid of Australia (MGA94). The challenge for surveyors is to
apply GPS devoid of misinterpretation what the scale factors are. It will turn out
to be more complex while introducing a Total Station that creates ground
distances, incorporated with GPS. It forms coordinates which are associated with
a predefined datum.
A map projection offers an ideal way of illustrating the curved surface of the earth
on a plane surface in order that coordinate grids are described and maps are
drawn. The relative positions of points on the grid are partly modified from their
ground positions because of applying Transverse Mercator Projection to form the
curvature of the earth.
The formula for the scale factor is given as :-
Scale Factor = Grid Distance/Measured Distance (at MSL)
As for instance, choose these two coordinates
• A=1882281.927 , 182474.093
• B=1882314.193 , 182458.059
• The grid distance (measured distance) on the map is provided as 36.03
• Namely √((1882281.927 -1882314.193)²+(182474.093-182458.059)²)=36.030
10.Discuss the principle behind the linear distance measurement of a total

station.
Ans:
Although taping and theodolites are used regularly on site - total stations are also
used extensively in surveying, civil engineering and construction because they can
measure both distances and angles.Because the instrument combines both angle
and distance
measurement in the same unit, it is known as an integrated total station which

can measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as slope distances.
Using the vertical angle, the total station can calculate the horizontal and vertical
distance components of the measured slope distance. To use the total station, it
is set over one end of the line to be measured and some reflector is positioned at
the other end such that the line of sight between the instrument and the reflector
is unobstructed.
-The reflector is a prism attached to a detail pole

-The telescope is aligned and pointed at the prism
-The measuring sequence is initiated and a signal is sent to the reflector and a
part of this signal is returned to the total station.
-This signal is then analysed to calculate the slope distance together with the
horizontal and vertical angles.
-Total stations can also be used without reflectors and the telescope is pointed at
the point that needs to be measured
-Some instruments have motorised drivers and can be use automatic target
recognition to search and lock into a prism - this is a fully automated process and
does not require an operator.
-Some total stations can be controlled from the detail pole, enabling surveys to be
conducted by one person.
11. Illustrate the application of traversing.

Ans:
The traversing is performed by four different methods and these methods are
classified according to the survey instrument used. The methods are as follows.
Chain Traversing: - Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only.
Hence, chain or tape is enough for chain traversing. The angle between the
adjacent traverse lines is measured using the chain angles concept. Chain
traversing is performed in areas such as ponds etc. where it is difficult to adopt
triangulation.
Compass Traversing: - In the case of compass traversing, both linear and angular
measurements of traverse lines are taken by using chain and prismatic compass
respectively. Both fore bearing and back bearings are measured and required
corrections for local attraction are applied. If any closing error is obtained while
plotting of traverse, then Bowditch rule is applied for the adjustment of error.
Theodolite Traversing: - In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear
measurements are done by using chain or stadia method and angular
measurements are done by theodolite. Using theodolite, the magnetic bearing of
the first traverse line is measured and from that magnetic bearing of other sides is
calculated. This method is very accurate compared to other methods.
Plane Table Traversing: - In the case of plane table traversing, the measuring and
plotting of the traverse on the paper are done simultaneously. The plane table
equipment is set up at every traverse station one by one in a clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction. The sides of
each traverse station are drawn on paper to a suitable scale. If there is any closing
error, graphical methods are used for its adjustment.
12.Classify the types of accuracy related to total station.

Ans:
Typical total station can measure distances up to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) with an
accuracy of about 1.5 millimeters (0.059 in) ± 2 parts per million. Reflector less
total stations can measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in color,
up to a few hundred meters. But it all depends on your set up and calibration of
settled properly you will get an accurate result. If not there will be errors.
14. Classify total station surveying.

Ans:
1. ELECTRO- OPTICAL SYSTEM
1.1 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT: - When a distance is measured with a total station,
am electromagnetic wave or pulse is used for the measurement - this is
propagated through the atmosphere from the instrument to reflector or target
and back during the measurement.
2. ASER DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

In many total stations, distances are obtained by measuring the time taken for a
pulse of laser radiation to travel from the instrument to a prism (or target) and
back. As in the phase shift method, the pulses are derived an infrared or visible
laser diode and they are transmitted through the telescope towards the remote
end of the distance being measured, where they are reflected and returned to the
instrument.
Since the velocity v of the pulses can be accurately determined, the distance D
can be obtained using 2D = vt, where t is the time taken for a single pulse to travel
from instrument - target - instrument.
This is also known as the timed-pulse or time-of-flight measurement technique.
15. Explain the principle of electro optical system.

Ans:
Electro-optical sensors are electronic detectors that convert light, or a change in
light, into an electronic signal. These sensors are able to detect electromagnetic
radiation from the infrared up to the ultraviolet wavelengths. They are used in
many industrial and consumer applications.
17.When do you substitute the total station instead of conventional surveying

instruments?
Ans:
If you have zero coordinates or one coordinate, or you have two points, then a
total station will work best. Resectioning, finding area, control and detail
surveying, missing line measurement and remote distance measurement are
examples of tasks a total station can accomplish.
18.Design the fundamental parameters of a total station Distance Measurement

Ans:
Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of total station.
Its range varies from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from
5 mm to 10 mm per km measurement. They are used with automatic target
recognizer. The distance measured is always sloping distance from instrument to
the object.
Angle Measurements
The electronic theodolite part of total station is used for measuring vertical and
horizontal angle. For measurement of horizontal angles any convenient direction
may be taken as reference direction. For vertical angle measurement vertical
upward (zenith) direction is taken as reference direction. The accuracy of angle

measurement varies from 2 to 6 seconds.
Data Processing
This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor
averages multiple observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and
horizontal angles measured, when height of axis of instrument and targets are
supplied, the microprocessor computes the horizontal distance and X, Y, Z
coordinates. The processor is capable of applying temperature and pressure
corrections to the measurements, if atmospheric temperature and pressures are
supplied.
Display
Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc). The
capacity of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data.
Surveyor can unload the data stored in note book to computer and reuse the note
book.
19.What are the precautions to be decided while using a total station?

Ans:
Precaution to be taken while using a total station:
use both hands to hold the total station handle.
set up the tripod as stable as possible.
do not move or carry a tripod with the total station fixed on it, except for centring
20. How do you decide a total station is set up over a point during the field.
Ans:
Laser would point directly over the point market on ground.
PART IIIA
1. Define total station surveying? Describe its working principle.
Ans:
A theodolite uses a movable telescope to measure angles in both the horizontal
and vertical planes. Traditionally they are manual instruments that come in two
types – transit, which rotates in a full circle in the vertical plane, and non-transit,
rotating in a half-circle.
Total Stations use electronic transit theodolites in conjunction with a distance
meter to read any slope distance from the instrument to any particular spot. They
are hence two essential surveying instruments in one and when used with other
technology such as mapping software are able to deliver the ‘total’ surveying
package, from measuring to mapping.
working principle :-
The total station consists of a built-in emitter, capable of emitting microwaves and
infrared signals. The wavelength of these emitted waves helps in calculating the
distance between the points.
Distance = velocity * time
Here the distance is calculated by multiplying the time taken to cover a certain
distance by the velocity. However, Triangulation and trigonometry methods are
adopted for computing the angles and determining the coordinates.
2. List the components of total station? Describe them briefly and also tell about
its care and maintenances.
Ans:
Components of total station
Handle, Handle securing screw, Data input/output terminal (Remove handle to
view), Instrument height mark, Battery cover, Operation panel, Tribrach clamp,
Base plate, Leveling foot screw, Circular level adjusting screws, Circular level,
Display, Prism and prism pole, Objective lens, Tubular compass slot, The optical
plummet focusing ring, Optical plummet reticule cover, Optical plummet
eyepiece, Horizontal clamp, A horizontal fine motion screw, Data input/output
connector, External power source connector, Plate level, Plate level adjusting
screw, Vertical clamp, A vertical fine motion screw, Telescope eyepiece, Telescope
focusing ring, Peep sight, Instrument centre mark
3. Describe the function and operation of total station.
A total station is an optical instrument commonly used in construction, surveying

and civil engineering. It is useful for measuring horizontal angles, vertical angles
and distance — it does this by analyzing the slope between itself and a specific
point.
Important Operations
Important operations of a total station are distance management, angle
measurements, data processing, display and electronic book.
Distance Management: Distance management can be done by EDM or Electronic
distance measuring instrument. EDM is an important part of the total station. The
range of EDM varies from 2.8 to 4.2 km and the measurement accuracy mostly
varies from approximately 5 to 10 mm per km. An automatic target recognizer
helps in EDM.
Angle Measurements: The electronic theodolite of a total station plays a vital role
in angle measurements. The horizontal and vertical angle is accurately measured
by the theodolite. For horizontal angle measurement, any direction is taken as a
reference direction and for the measurement of vertical angle, the vertical
upward or zenith direction can be taken as a reference direction. The angle
measurement accuracy mostly varies from 3 to 6 seconds.
Data Processing: Most of the total stations is designed with the inbuilt
microprocessors. These microprocessors can average the multiple observations.
By measuring the slope distance, horizontal and vertical angles, the
microprocessors can easily compute all kinds of horizontal distances and X, Y & Z
coordinates.
Displaying: Electronic display of a total station is used for displaying different
values when the keys are pressed. The component can show vertical distance,
horizontal distance, the difference between the point elevations, vertical and
horizontal angles and other important data.
Electronic Book: Last but not least, an electronic notebook or compact disc is used
to store each data and measurement. The capacity of this book mostly varies
from 2000 to 4000 points data. Surveyors can clear the stored data from the
notebook and save it in the computer for further use.
So, these are the important operations of a total station. The components of this
instrument work together to give accurate data. This instrument is very useful
and widely used for property and land surveying.
4. What are the important precautionary measures and maintenance of Total

Station instruments?
Ans:
PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING A TOTAL STATION:

Use both hands to hold the total station handle.
Set up the tripod as stable as possible.
Do not move or carry a tripod with the total station fixed on it, except for
centering.
Store the battery pack with the battery discharged.
Do not over tighten any of the clamp screws.
Take maximum care when the tri-branch is removed from the total station.
Care of Theodolites and Total Stations
Although the instruments are ruggedly built, careless or rough use and
unnecessary exposure to the elements can seriously damage them. If handled
reasonably, they will provide consistently good result with a minimum of
downtime for repair or adjustment. Some general guidelines for the care of
instruments are:
Lifting – instruments should be removed from the case with both hands, gripping
the micrometer knob standard and base on the older instruments. Newer
instruments are equipped with a carrying handle; the other hand should support
the base. One hand should continually support the instrument until the tribrach
lock is engaged and the tripod fixing screw secured.
Carrying Tripod - In most cases, the instrument should be removed and re-cased
for transportation to a new point. If the point is nearby, the instrument should be
carried in the vertical position (tripod legs pointing straight down). An instrument
should never be “shouldered” or carried horizontally.
Adjusting collimation – The collimation error of theodolites and total stations is
determined by following the procedure outlined in the users’ manual. If the
collimation error is found to be consistently in excess of ten seconds on the
horizontal and twenty seconds on the vertical, the instrument should be adjusted.
The collimation adjustment should be made in the field only by a specially trained
individual. Otherwise, the instrument should be returned to an authorized repair
shop.
5. Discuss the different sources of errors for total station

Ans:
Following are different types of total station errors:
1. Horizontal Collimation or Line of Sight Error
Horizontal collimation or line of sight error is when the line of sight is not
perpendicular to the tilting axis of the instrument. This is an axial error.
Line of sight error effects the horizontal angle readings and increases with steep
sightings. The error can be overcome or eliminated by observing on two faces.
For single face measurements, an on-board calibration function is used to
determine the deviation (c)of actual line of sight and deviated line of sight. The
on-board software then apply a correction for each measured horizontal angles
reading automatically.
The catch is here if the deviation of line of sight from actual line of sight exceeds
more than a desired value, the instrument must be send to service centre or
manufacturer for manual calibration.
2. Tilting Axis Error or Tilt Error

Tilting axis or tilt error is the error when the axis to the total station is not
perpendicular to the vertical axis or plumb line. The error effect on horizontal
readings when the instrument is tilted (steep sightings) but have no effect on
sightings taken when the instrument is horizontal.
Like horizontal collimation error the tilting error can be eliminated by two face
measurement. Another method is to apply the measured tilting error at the time
of calibration process for all readings. If the tilt error is more than the specified
error for instrument, must be send to calibration lab.
3. Vertical Collimation Error or Vertical Index Error
If the horizontal base line of angle from 0° to 180° in the vertical circle does not
coincide with the vertical axis of instrument. This zero point error is present in all
vertical circle readings and like the horizontal collimation error, it is eliminated by
taking FL and FR readings or by determining i.
4. Compensator Index Error
This error is caused by not leveling the total station correctly and carefully. This
error can’t be eliminated by taking two face (face left and face right) readings
unlike the horizontal collimation error. If the instrument is fitted with a
compensator it will measure residual tilts of the instrument and will apply
corrections to the horizontal and vertical angles for these.
6. Describe the types of traversing and write its application.

Ans:
1. Open Traverse
A traverse is said to be open traverse when the traverse starts at one point and
terminates at another point as shown in the figure. Open traverse is also called as
unclosed traverse. It is suitable for surveying of roads, coastal lines, etc.
2. Closed Traverse
A traverse is said to be closed traverse when the traverse formed a closed circuit
as shown in the figure. In this case, both starting and terminating points of the
traverse coincide with each other. It is suitable for the survey of boundaries of
ponds, sports grounds, forests, etc.
7. Discuss about traversing and classical traversing methods.
Ans:
The traversing is performed by four different methods and these methods are
classified according to the survey instrument used.
Chain Traversing. Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only.
Compass Traversing
Theodolite Traversing.
Plane Table Traversing.
PART IV
1. Define GPS
Ans:
It is a system of earth-orbiting satellites which provides a precise location on

earth’s surface in latitude/longitude coordinates. GPS is a powerful and widely
used integrated tool (like in GNSS) that is used in Civil Engineering for collection of
tabulated location data.
2. State the basics of GPS

Ans:
The basic measurement in GPS positioning is the calculation of the receiver to
satellite distance. The most fundamental method to do this uses very accurate
satellite atomic clocks to generate a unique coded signal (Coarse Acquisition (C/A)
Code) for each satellite. This signal is sent on one of the two signal frequencies
broadcast by the satellites, the L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz).
The receiver on the ground generates the same coded signal, at the same time,
and compares the received code with the one being generated. The time offset
between the two codes gives the time of travel of the signal between the satellite
and receiver. The distance can then be calculated by:
(pseudo-)range to satellite = signal travel time x speed of light
3. List the different segments of GPS

Ans:
GPS is comprised of three segments: satellite constellation,

ground-control/monitoring network, and user receiving equipment. Formal GPS
JPO programmatic terms for these components are space, control, and user
equipment segments, respectively.
4. What is meant by Anti spoofing?

Ans:
Anti spoofing is a technique that detects packets with false addresses. Quick
identification of detecting these addresses help in stepping up security measures.
Anti spoofing is what Internet Service Providers or ISPs or network operators
implement in the network.
5. Define GPS data processin
g.
Ans:
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based

radio navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by
the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS) that provides geo-location and time information to a GPS receiver
anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to
four or more GPS satellites.
6. Why GPS signal is so complicated.

Ans:
The signal is so complicated that it almost looks like random electrical noise.
Hence,the name “Pseudo-Random." There are several good reasons for that
complexity: First, the complex pattern helps make sure that the receiver doesn't
accidentally sync up to some other signal.
7. Distinguish between Space and User segment?
Ans:
Space segment:
 Composed of satellites that transmit signals from space, on the basis of
which time and position of the user is measured.
 Set of satellites is called as constellation.
 GPS uses two satellite constellations i.e. NAVSTAR and GLONASS.

 NAVSTAR (Navigation satellite timing and ranging)
 NAVSTAR composed of 24 satellites, arrayed in 6 orbital planes, inclined 55
degrees to the equator and with a 12 hours period.
 They orbit at altitudes of about 20,200km each.
 Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks, only one of which is in
used at a time.
 User segment:
 GPS User Segment consists of the GPS receivers and the user community.
 The typical receiver is composed of an antenna and pre-amplifier, radio
signal microprocessor, control and display device, data recording unit, and
power supply.
 GPS receivers convert SV signals into position, velocity, and time estimates.
A minimum of four satellites are required to compute the four dimensions
of X, Y, Z (position) and Time.
8. Comparison between Control and Space segment
Space segment:
 Composed of satellites that transmit signals from space, on the basis of
which time and position of the user is measured.
 Set of satellites is called as constellation.
 GPS uses two satellite constellations i.e. NAVSTAR and GLONASS.
 NAVSTAR (Navigation satellite timing and ranging)
 NAVSTAR composed of 24 satellites, arrayed in 6 orbital planes, inclined 55
degrees to the equator and with a 12 hours period.
 They orbit at altitudes of about 20,200km each.
 Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks, only one of which is in
used at a time.
 Control segment:
 Control segment consists of a group of 5 ground based monitor stations,
three antennas and a master control station.
 The Master Control facility is located at Schriever Air Force Base (formerly
Falcon AFB) in Colorado.
 The monitor stations measure signals from the SVs continuously and
provides data to the master control station.
 The master control station calculates satellite ephemeris and clock
correction coefficients and forwards them to an antenna.
 The antenna transmit the data to each satellite at least once a day. The SVs
then send subsets of the orbital ephemeris to GPS receivers over radio
signals
10.Explain shortly about Orbit Representation.

Orbit representation Orbit Representation is a means of representing a satellite
orbit as a continuous trajectory with discrete observation data at the time of
interest. The simplest orbit representation is the “osculating Keplerian elements”
method, which describes an orbit as an ellipse.
9. Classify the component of GPS.

Ans:
 Antenna with pre-amplifier

 RF section with signal identification and signal processing
 Micro-processor for receiver control, data sampling and data processing
 Precision oscillator
 Power supply
 User interface, command and display panel
 Memory, data storage
10. Illustrate the Signal processing in GPS.
Ans:
A GPS receiver processes the GPS signals received on its antenna to determine
position, velocity and/or timing. The signal at antenna is amplified, down
converted to baseband or intermediate frequency, filtered (to remove
frequencies outside the intended frequency range for the digital signal that would
alias into it) and digitalized; these steps may be chained in a different order.
11. Demonstrate the components of satellite signals.
Ans:
The two main components of satellite communication are:

The ground segment: This comprises either fixed or mobile transmission,
reception, and ancillary equipment.
The space segment: The satellite itself is known as the space segment. There are
three main units, and they are the fuel system, the satellite along with telemetry
controls, and the transponder. The prime role of the space segment is to reflect
electronic signals.
12. Explain in short about Satellite Configuration.
Ans:
Create a new IPSec tunnel config and select the type as GlobalProtect Satellite. To
have the satellite advertise the routes to the gateway, check "Publish all static
and connected routes to Gateway" to advertise all the static and connected
routes or only selected. Remember to commit the changes on the satellite.
13. State the applications of GPS.
Ans:
Applications or Uses of GPS:

* GPS and Satellite Image: GPS has been widely used to prepare map from
Satellite images especially topographic surveys and thematic mapping.
* Road Traffic Congestion: A navigation device has a GPRS receiver for receiving
real time information about or slow average speed on a stretch of motorway,
indicating congestion. The device calculates a new itinerary to avoid the
congestion, based on historically record speeds on secondary roads weighed by
the current average speed in the congestion area.
* GPS and Defense: Corps use GPS as a modern defensive purpose like trending
and rescued.
* Accidental Purpose: To find and rescue any crashes ship and airplanes, GPS
Plays very important role.
* Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement of earthquake
between earthquake GPS can be used to measure crustal motion and
deformation to estimate seismic strain build up for creating seismic hazard maps.
* GPS and Terrorism: GPS is very important to determine the location of terrorist
attacks. For example, on the surgical strike, Indian intelligence agencies had using
the GPS and Indian Army carried out surgical strike against terror launch pads on
and along the Line of Control (LoC) on 2016.
* GPS of Mining: The use of RTK GPS has significantly improved several mining
operations such as drilling, shoveling, vehicle tracking and surveying, RTK GPS
provides centimetre-level positioning accuracy
* GPS and Climatology: GPS plays very important role to prepare weather map
and computerized map.
* GPS and Tours: Location determines what content to display, for instance,
information about an approaching point of interest
* Navigation: Navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation
measurements. With the help of GPS roads or paths available, traffic congestion
and alternative routes, roads or paths that might be taken to get to the
destination. If some roads are busy then the best route to take, The location of
food, banks, hotels, fuel, airports or other places of interests, the shortest route
between the two locations, the different options to drive on highway or back
roads etc. are easily getting better result using GPS.
* Disaster Relief: GPS gives us the facility to measure the capabilities of
earthquake, flood wildfires.
* GPS-Equi Radio Sondes and Dropsondes: GPS Measure and calculate the
Atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction up to 27 km from the earth’s
surface.
* Fleet Tracking: The use of GPS technology to identify, locate and maintain
contact reports with one or more fleet vehicles in real time.
* Robotics: Self-navigation, autonomous robots using GPS sensors, which
calculate Latitude, Longitude, Time, speed and heading
* Surveying: Surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determines
property boundaries. The surveying and mapping community was one of the first
to take advantage of GPS because it dramatically increased the productivity and
resulted in more accurate and reliable data. Today, GPS is a vital part of surveying
and mapping activities around the world.
* Distance and Height Measurement: GPS helps to calculate the distances and
heights of different places on the earth surface.
* Agriculture: GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm
planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable
rate
applications, and yield mapping. GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility
field conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness.
* Topographic Mapping: In a Ground Control Point (GCP) system, GPS tool use to
prepare the topographic mapping of real world.
* GPS and Urban Planning: A special GPS technology has been used in urban
planning and engineering survey.

16.Classify the types of receiver.
1. Multi-Constellation. The expansion of satellite navigation systems brought on
the multi-constellation receivers. ...
2. Multi-Frequency.
3. Augmentation.
4. Differential.
5. Assistance.
6. Software Receivers.
18.How are personal GPS receivers different from survey-grade GPS receivers?
Justify.
Survey Grade GPS
The most accurate GPS device, the survey grade, does not come in handheld
models. It requires two units to operate: a base station and a rover, each of which
must receive signals from at least four separate satellites for a minimum total of
eight. The distance between the base station and rover varies, depending on the
particular location. A surveyor is responsible to know that the accuracy
specifications of a GPS device is within the requirements of the surveying project.
Typically, a survey grade GPS has an accuracy of within 1 centimeter horizontally
and 2 centimeters vertically.
Recreational Grade
Most handheld GPS receivers on the market have recreational grade accuracy.
You can use them to find your location when enjoying various recreational and
sporting events such as running, cycling, skiing, golfing, motorcycling, boating,
hiking or camping. Some models show only longitude, latitude and compass
bearings, and they must be compared to a map to identify the location. Others
have build-in mapping software and superimpose your location onto a selection
of maps. Specialized maps include details for areas such as ski resorts and golf
courses. Accuracy of recreational GPS receivers usually falls within 50 feet.
19.Compose a short note on Task of control segment
* Control segment consists of a group of 5 ground based monitor stations, three
antennas and a master control station.
* The Master Control facility is located at Schriever Air Force Base (formerly
Falcon AFB) in Colorado.
* The monitor stations measure signals from the SVs continuously and provides
data to the master control station.
* The master control station calculates satellite ephemeris and clock correction
coefficients and forwards them to an antenna.

* The antenna transmit the data to each satellite at least once a day. The SVs then
send subsets of the orbital ephemeris to GPS receivers over radio signals
PART IVA
Ans:
1. What are the space, control and user segments of GPS and their functions?
Space segment :- The space segment includes the satellites and the Delta rockets
that launch the satellites from Cape Canaveral, in Florida. GPS satellites fly in
circular orbits at an altitude of 10,900 nautical miles (20,200 km) and with a
period of 12 hours.
Control segment :- The control segment of the Global Positioning System is a
network of ground stations that monitors the shape and velocity of the satellites'
orbits.They record discrepancies between known and calculated positions caused
by slight variations in satellite orbits.
User segment :- The user segment includes the equipment of the military
personnel and civilians who receive GPS signals. In addition to basic navigation
activities, military applications of GPS include target designation, close air
support, "smart" weapons, and rendezvous.
2. List out the various measurements of GPS. Explain them.
Ans:
STATIC GPS BASELINE

A Static GPS Baseline is a technique used to determine accurate coordinates for
survey points. Baseline measurements achieve this by recording GPS observations
over time, then processing that data to provide the most accurate result.
The technique works by using two GPS receivers. These receivers are placed at
each end of a line to be measured. The receivers then collect GPS data
simultaneously for at least 20 minutes — the exact duration of the observation
period varies based on how long the line is and how accurate the measurements
need to be. Once all of the data is collected, a special type of software is used to
calculate the difference in position between the two receivers.
This GPS surveying technique is basic but highly useful and accurate, especially
when measuring particularly long distances. Because the GPS data is collected
over a long period of time, and the observations are collected at the same time at
each end of the baseline, the natural distortions that occur in GPS signals cancel
each other out. Generally speaking, the accuracy of Static GPS Baseline
measurements are one part per million, meaning that a 30 kilometer distance can
be measured with about 30 mm of uncertainty.
REAL-TIME KINEMATIC OBSERVATIONS
Real-Time Kinematic or RTK Observations are similar to baseline methods in that
they are used to measure distances between a base station and a second
receiver. The difference, however, is that instead of measuring the location of two
points over a long period of time, RTK Observations use multiple points in quick
succession.
Like the baseline method, the RTK method uses two receivers, one being a static
base station. The other receiver is the Rover Station, which moves to multiple
positions during the measurement period. The position of the Rover Station is
collected within a few seconds and stored. Once the measurement period is
complete, this data is stored and used as survey data.
RTK observations are nearly as accurate as the baseline technique, though they
are limited to a range of about 20 kilometers. This method maintains a high level
of accuracy by collecting data at the Base Station and the Rover Station
simultaneously and correcting data in real time — the exact position of the Base
Station is known, so any variations can be used to correct the position of the
Rover Station in real time. This method, therefore, can quickly gather survey data
for smaller areas.
CONTINUOUSLY OPERATING REFERENCE STATIONS
Continuously Operating Reference Stations or CORS operate using the same
principles as the other measurement techniques described. The primary
difference is that the base station is installed in a permanent known location. This
allows measurements to be taken at any point in the district using the permanent
base station as a starting point.
With a CORS-based system, receivers can be placed anywhere in the local area to
collect data. When data collection is complete, the surveyors can combine the
collected data with data from the CORS to calculate positions, correcting any
anomalies to obtain an accurate position. In some cases, if multiple CORS are
available, receiver data may be compared to the data of multiple CORS to achieve
even more accurate results.
CORS are commonly used for major engineering projects that require continuous
surveying over a long period of time — some examples include local government
projects, mining sites and tectonic plate studies for scientific organizations. One
specific example is the Australian Regional GPS Network, or ARGN, which uses an
online processing system to provide positions that are accurate within a few
centimeters in under 24 hours. Some countries even have CORS systems that
cover their entire nation, allowing for more accurate and reliable GPS positioning
anywhere in the country for both commercial and consumer applications.
3. Briefly explain the Characteristics of GPS Navigation and Satellite navigation?
Characteristics of GPS Navigation

• 24 Satellites
• 6 Orbits
• 4 Satellites per orbit

• Orbit Period = approx 12 hrs
• Orbit Radius = 26600 Km (approx)
• Satellites’ Altitude = 20,200 Km(approx)
• Inclination with Earth = 55 degree
• Angle b/w Orbital Planes = 60 degrees
• Satellites do not rotate w.r.t. Earth but w.r.t distant stars
• 6 to 11 satellites are always in sight from earth surface
• For this purpose the 4 satellites are not evenly spaced (900)
• They are spaced at 30, 105, 120, 105 degrees
• 4 satellites are sufficient for GPS receiver
Characteristics of Satellite navigation

The satellites in the GPS constellation are arranged into six equally-spaced orbital
planes surrounding the Earth. Each plane contains four "slots" occupied by
baseline satellites. This 24-slot arrangement ensures users can view at least four
satellites from virtually any point on the planet.
5.(i) What are the types of GPS receivers? (ii) Explain the task of control segment
in GPS
i) The Types of GNSS Receivers
1. Multi-Constellation. The expansion of satellite navigation systems brought on
the multi-constellation receivers. ...
2. Multi-Frequency.
3. Augmentation.
4. Differential.
5. Assistance.
6. Software Receivers.
ii) The control segment of the Global Positioning System is a network of ground
stations that monitors the shape and velocity of the satellites' orbits. The
accuracy of GPS data depends on knowing the positions of the satellites at all
times.
6.(i)Describe briefly about sources of errors in GPS (ii)Explain the hand held
receiver and geodetic receiver of GPS.
i) 1. Satellite Errors:
* Slight inaccuracies in time keeping by the satellites can cause errors in
calculating positions.
* Satellites drift slightly from their predicted orbits which contributes to errors.
2. Satellite Orbits
Slight shifts of the orbits are possible due to gravitation forces
* Sun and moon have a weak influence on the orbits
* The resulting error being not more than 2 m
3. Multi-path error:
As the GPS signal finally arrives at the earth’s surface, it may be reflected by local
obstructions before it gets to the receiver’s antenna. This is called multi-path
error as the signal is reaching the antenna in single line path as well as delayed
path. The effect is similar to a double image on a tv set.
4. Atmospheric Effects :
The GPS signals have to travel through charged particles and water vapors in the
atmosphere which delays its transmission. Since the atmosphere varies at
different places and at different times, it is not possible to accurately compensate
for the delays that occur.
ii) handheld receiver
A GPS-based unit that is designed for handheld operation or
windshield/dashboard mounting in a vehicle. Portable GPS devices offer many of
the navigation features of in-dash units and can run for several hours on battery
before being plugged into the car's power outlet.
geodetic receiver
Geodetic GPS is a GPS device that has a high scale used for the purposes of the
survey. Geodetic GPS has a sufficiently high measurement accuracy.
7.How the Traversing and Triangulation is to be done Using GPS? Explain.
Triangulation:-
Trilateration is a method of determining the relative positions of objects using the
geometry of triangles. To "triangulate," a GPS receiver measures distance using
the travel time of radio signals. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate
timing which it achieves with some tricks.

Traversing:-
9.Classify the main components of GPS receiver and explain them briefly
Space segment :- The space segment includes the satellites and the Delta rockets
that launch the satellites from Cape Canaveral, in Florida. GPS satellites fly in
circular orbits at an altitude of 10,900 nautical miles (20,200 km) and with a
period of 12 hours.
Control segment :- The control segment of the Global Positioning System is a
network of ground stations that monitors the shape and velocity of the satellites'
orbits.They record
discrepancies between known and calculated positions caused by slight variations
in satellite orbits.
User segment :- The user segment includes the equipment of the military
personnel and civilians who receive GPS signals. In addition to basic navigation
activities, military applications of GPS include target designation, close air
support, "smart" weapons, and rendezvous.
PART V
1. What is Hydrographic Survey?
Hydrographic survey is the science of measurement and description of features

which affect maritime navigation, marine construction, dredging, offshore oil
exploration / offshore oil drilling and related activities.
2. Define Sounding.
Sound absorption is the measure of the amount of energy removed from the
sound wave as the wave passes through a given thickness of material. Fig. 3.31 is
a schematic representation of sound absorption and reflection of an insulating
wall. While propagating from air into an absorbing material, the sound wave
could experience reflection or absorption thereby losing energy, experiencing
dampening effects.
3. List the functions of transition curves.
• To gradually introduce the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve thereby avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle.
• To increase the comfort of passengers.
• To introduce designed superelevation at a desirable rate
• To enable the driver to turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
security
4. What is Mean sea level?
Mean sea level (MSL) (often shortened to sea level) is an average level of the
surface of one or more of Earth's bodies of water from which heights such as
elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datum – a
standardised geodetic datum – that is used, for example, as a chart datum in
cartography and marine navigation, or, in aviation, as the standard sea level at
which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently,
aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level
standard is instead the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a
particular location.
5. Enumerate the objectives of route surveys.
• To determine the relative position of any objects or points of the earth.

• To determine the distance and angle between different objects.
• To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plan.
• To develop methods through the knowledge of modern science and the
technology and use them in the field.
• To solve measurement problems in an optimal way.
6. State the differences between lunar tides and solar tides.
The height of the tides is also influenced by the Sun. The Sun's gravity is stronger
than the Moon's, but the Sun is also 400 times farther than the Moon. So the
lunar tides are more than twice as strong as the solar tides.
7. Distinguish between compound and reverse curves.
A compound curve is formed by the combination of two circular curves of

different radii curving in the same direction. A reverse curve is formed by the
combination of two circular curves with opposite curvatures. A common
transition curve may be provided between the two circular curves of a reverse
curve.
8. Describe the Azimuth.
Azimuths are defined as horizontal angles that are measured from the reference
meridian in the clockwise direction. Azimuths are also called a whole circle
bearing system(W.C.B). Azimuths are used in compass surveying, plane surveying,
where it is generally measured from the north.
9. Describe Fathometer.
Since a traditional pre-SI unit of water depth was the fathom, an instrument used
for determining water depth is sometimes called a fathometer. The first practical
fathometer was invented by Herbert Grove Dorsey and patented in 1928. Most
charted ocean depths use an average or standard sound speed. Where greater
accuracy is required average and even seasonal standards may be applied to
ocean regions.
10. Distinguish between terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry
Both being branches of photogrammetry, aerial and terrestrial photogrammetry

are used for mapping and measurement related issues. However, the methods
are different, thus giving different results when at work.
a) Aerial photogrammetry requires a high-end infra support: specially designed
and programmed planes being just one of them.
Terrestrial photogrammetry comparatively needs much less investment and
technical skill to carry out.
b) The aerial kind of photogrammetry is suitable when we are trying to map a
large piece of land. That is longitudinal knowledge and calculations are an integral
part of this photogrammetry operation.
Terrestrial photogrammetry is a preferred method when designers and planners
aim to monitor and map bridges, pipeline networks, transport network, etc. The
axis of the camera takes care of the area surface to be covered.
Many state-of-the-art environmental projects that map the movements of
glaciers use terrestrial photogrammetry methods. The static positioning of the
camera produces a data set needed for this kind of studies
c) Security processes benefit from aerial photogrammetry in many cases. Finding
archaeological sites also benefits from the fact that we get to see a large piece of
land at one go.
Terrestrial photogrammetry is more suitable for movement related issues on a

land mass that is relatively smaller than that covered in the other kind.
d) Urban planning takes advantage of both the methods. Using aerial
photogrammetry, planners and designers collaborate on the best possible
perspective for a specific project. An aerial view of the proposed project along
with its surroundings helps to generate a clear idea about the right perspective.
11. Classify the types of curves.
Simple Curve. As we know, a curve is a line that is not straight.

Closed Curve. A curve in which the starting point and ending point match is
known as a closed curve.
Simple Closed Curve.
Algebraic and Transcendental Curve.
Algebraic Curve.
Transcendental Curve.
12. Classify the different equipment’s needed for soundings.
1. Multibeam Sonars. Multibeam echo sounders (MBES), like other sonar systems,
transmit sound energy and analyze the return signal (echo) that has bounced off
the seafloor or other objects.
2. Side Scan Sonars.
3. Lidar.
4. Laser Scanners.
5. Sound Speed Profilers.
6. GPS for Surveys.
7. Measuring Water Levels.
14.What do you infer about station pointer?

A station pointer is used for plotting a ship's position from horizontal sextant
angles taken between two or more objects or geographical features. To use it, the
angles measured by the sextant are used to set the positions of the movable arms
around the circle on the station pointer.
15.Classify the instrumental methods for setting out a circular curve
The following are some of the linear methods used for setting out simple circular
curves: (i) Offsets from long chord (ii) Successive bisection of chord (iii) Offsets
from the tangents–perpendicular or radial (iv) Offsets from the chords produced.
16.Write the equation of time
Time = Distance ÷ Speed
17.Explain the term Right Ascension (R.A).
Right ascension, in astronomy, the east–west coordinate by which the position of
a celestial body is ordinarily measured; more precisely, it is the angular distance
of a body's hour circle east of the vernal equinox, measured along the celestial
equator.
18.Write a short note on echo-sounding.
Ans:
Echo sounding is a type of sonar used to determine the depth of water by
transmitting acoustic waves into water. The time interval between emission and
return of a pulse is recorded, which is used to determine the depth of water along
with the speed of sound in water at the time.
20.Summarize the applications of remote sensing.
Ans:
1. Analyzing the condition of rural roads
Rural road conditions are now possible to be analyzed using various GIS technique
and Remote Sensing techniques with an inch to inch accuracy. It saves a lot of
time and money from transporters.
2. Creating a base map for visual reference
Nowadays many modern mapping technologies are based on Remote Sensing
including Google maps, open street maps, Bing maps, NASA’s Globe view, etc.
3. Computing snow pack
Snow melt ratio can be easily understood by using Remote Sensing technology,
NASA uses LIDAR along with a spectrometer in order to measure the absorption
of sunlight.
4. Collecting earth’s pictures from space
Many space organization has a collection containing images of earth. Interesting
patterns of earth’s geometry including atmosphere, oceans, land, etc can be seen
in it. EO-1, Terra, and Landsat are used to collect this data.
5. Controlling forest fires
Information acquired by satellites using Remote Sensing enables firefighters to be
dispatched on time and over correct locations so the damage from such fires can
be decreased to minimal.
6. Detecting land use and land cover
Remote Sensing technologies are used to determine various physical properties of
land and also what it is being used for (land use).

7. Estimating forest supplies
MODIS, AVHRR, and SPOT are regularly used to measure the
increment/decrement in global forests since forests are the source of valuable
materials such as paper, packaging, construction materials, etc.\
8. Locating construction and building alteration
Tax revenue agencies use satellite data in several countries including Greece,
Athens, etc. They locate signs of wealth using this technology. Early in the year of
2013, there were 15000 swimming pools (unclaimed to steal taxes) in those
countries.
9. Figuring out fraud insurance claims
Many insurance companies use Landsat’s red and infrared channels to figure out
vegetation growth in particular land. This information can be used to verify
seeded crops and fight against crop insurance fraud.
10. Observing climate changes
Satellites such as CERES, MODIS, AMSRE, TRMM, and MOPITT has made it
possible to observe climate changes from up above the skies. It is also possible to
compare past climate situation with the current one.
11. Predicting potential landslides
Landslides cause noticeable death and wealth loss around the globe. INSAR uses
interferometry remote sensing technique for providing an early warning regarding
potential landslides.
PART VA
1. With the help of suitable sketches, describe the following methods of locating
soundings. (i) Location by range and one angle from the shore. (ii) Location by two
angles from the shore.
Ans:
i) In this method, boat is kept in range line with the help of two signals on
the shore. The boat is moved and the point where sounding is
measuring is observed by the theodolite or sextant and angle is noted.
Using this angle, we can fix the point in the range. Likewise, all other
soundings are observed from different stations. The angle should be
more than 30 degrees otherwise fix should be poor.so, whenever the
angle is less than 30o, new instrument station is selected. This method is
so accurate and easy for plotting the sounding details.
ii) In this method, two instrument stations are fixed on the shore with proper
distance. Two instruments and two instrument men are required to do this job.
From the two instrument stations, angular observations are made and a point is
located where sounding is measured. If the angle made by instrument is less than
300 then new instrument station is selected. In this case, primary setting out and
erecting range signals are eliminated. This method is useful when water currents
are strong and difficult to row the boat along range line.
2. What is a three point problem in hydrographic surveying? List the various

solutions for the problem? Explain in detail.
Ans:
In surveying, a method used to orient underground workings via three plumblines
suspended in a vertical shaft. ii. The problem in plane table surveying of locating
precisely the point at which the table is set up, using three fixed points that are
visible from the plane table.
Three point problems are solved by three methods :-
1. Tracing Paper Method
2. Using Station Pointer
3. Graphical method
4. Analytical method
3. (i) What is Eco Sounding? Explain the Advantages.

Ans:
A Fathometer is used in ocean sounding where the depth of water is too much,
and to make a continuous and accurate record of the depth of water below the
boat or ship at which it is installed. It is an echo-sounding instrument in which
water depths are obtained be determining the time required for the sound waves
to travel from a point near the surface of the water to the bottom and back. It is
adjusted to read depth on accordance with the velocity of sound in the type of
water in which it is being used. A fathometer may indicate the depth visually or
indicate graphically on a roll which continuously goes on revolving and provide a
virtual profile of the lake or sea.
Advantage of echo-sounding
Echo-sounding has the following advantages over the older method of lead line
and rod:
1. It is more accurate as a truly vertical sounding is obtained. The speed of the
vessel does deviate it appreciably from the vertical. Under normal water
conditions, in ports and harbors an accuracy of 7.5 cm may be obtained.
2. It can be used when a strong current is running and when the weather is
unsuitable for the soundings to be taken with the lead line.
3. It is more sensitive than the lead line.
4. A record of the depth is plotted immediately and provides a continuous record
of the bottom as the vessel moves forward.
5. The speed of sounding and plotting is increased.
6. The error due to estimation of water level in a choppy sea is reduced owing to
the instability of the boat.
7. Rock underlying softer material is recorded and this valuable information is
obtained more cheaply than would be the case where sub-marine borings are
taken.
(ii) Define the term MSL. How it is established?
Mean sea level is the average height of the sea over longer periods of time
(usually a month or year), with the shorter-term variations of tides and storm
surges averaged out. Eustatic (or absolute) mean sea level reflects only the
change in sea height, whereas relative mean sea level represents the change in
sea height and changes in the level of the land at a local or regional scale.
Changes in sea height are caused by changes in water volume or mass, and by
variations in the shape of the oceanic basins over geological time scales. The main
factors that increase the volume or mass of the ocean are: (1) the melting of land-
based sources of ice (glaciers and ice caps, and the ice sheets of Greenland and
Antarctica); (2) thermal expansion of seawater as it heats up; and (3) changes in
water storage on land. Vertical land movements arise from both natural
geological and anthropogenic processes. Natural processes include tectonics (i.e.
earth quakes) and glacial isostatic adjustment (i.e. the ongoing adjustment of the
earth following the reduction of ice coverage from the last glacial maximum
25,000 years ago). Anthropogenic processes usually result in subsidence, caused
for example, by withdrawal of ground water.
6.(i) Classify the different types of tides? Explain any two.

Ans:
 The theory of tides is based upon Newton’s equilibrium theory. All celestial
bodies exert a force of attraction (gravitational force) which is directly
proportional to masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
 Thus the ocean on the Earth are under influence of the Sun and the Moon,
however influence of the Moon is more due to its proximity with the Earth.
 The generally accepted tidal theory has two important assumptions: (i) the
Earth is covered all around by an ocean of uniform depth (ii) the sea is
capable of taking, instantaneously, any new position as per the forces
exerted on it.
Lunar Tides
 Lunar tides are the variations in the ocean surface level due to the moon.
 The moon has two types of motion, i. e., rotation about its own axis and
revolves around the Earth.
 The fig above shows the situation of lunar tides. Let; Me be the centre of
mass of the earth Mm be the centre of mass of the moon Mc be the
common centre of gravity
 At first, consider the gravitational attraction between them without the
motion. This force is not uniform as the distance of mass particles from the
moon varies for different locations of the earth.
 Secondly, the rotation of the earth will cause centrifugal forces on its mass
particles. This force will be almost uniform all around.
 The non-uniform force of moon will have more effect the earth face nearer
to the moon and less effect on the surface away from the moon.
 The water rises to the maximum level on the side facing the moon and this
is known as superior tide. On the opposite face, the water rises to a
minimum level and known as inferior lunar tide.
 On the other two surfaces, the water level will be low and this is the phase
of low tide.
 Rotation of the earth about its own axis, will keep on changing the positions
of the numbers shown as 1, 2, 3, 4 facing the moon with time and further
the motion of the moon also changes due to its motion around the earth.
Thus the tidal positions keep on changing and all the points will experience
high and low tides at some point of time.
Solar Tides
 Tidal phenomenon due to the sun is of the same pattern as the same due to
the noon. If Dm is the distance between the earth and the moon.
 As known that (Ms / Mm)= 27111716 and (Dm/ Ds ) = 0.00257; the tide
producing force due to the Sun is 0.46 times that due to the moon.
(ii) Explain the various sounding methods
Fieldworks in sounding is done with following steps;
(i) As the sounding party moves along in a boat, the sounding man, standing at
the end of the boat, dips the rod at a forward position. The reading is taken when
the rod becomes vertical. A large number of such readings are taken.
(ii) If a lead line is used, it is thrown forward and the boat keeps on moving. The
reading is taken when the line becomes vertical. This action requires experience
so for soundings experienced staff is required.
(iii) In placid water, the above methods are used. In turbulent water, tide gauge is
required and the water level variations are noted with time. The sounding party
will also note the time of reading of the sounding. It may now be possible to
reduce the readings to a common datum.
8.Explain the Tilt Distortion with neat sketch in Photographic method.
Ans:

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BIR TIKENDRAJIT UNIVERSITY

NAME : JOB BENNY

SUBJECT NAME: ADVANCED

Ans: Baseline measurement is an important aspect in the surveying operations

2. List the different types of tape correction.

3. Quote the applications of Gale’s table.

4. Describe the satellite station and reduction to centre

7. Distinguish the sag correction and temperature correction

11. Classify traversing. Illustrate with neat sketch.

12. How to apply the figure adjustment in triangulation?

14. Explain the principle involved in second order triangulation.

I. Average triangle closure : 3 sec

VIII. Probable error or computed distance : 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 50,000

15. Explain the main principle involved in triangulation.

19. Conclude few lines about the trigonometrically leveling.

Correction for slope

Where CA = Correction for absolute length L = measured length of base l =

Where Ct = Correction for temp = co-efficient of thermal Tm = Mean Temperature

Where CP = Correction for pull Pm = Pull applied during measurement Po = Pull at

Where Pn = normal tension W = wt of tape b/w supports

This correction is always negative for measured length.

5. (i)How the triangulation systems are classified?

purpose of the survey. The accepted grades of triangulation are:

1. Average triangle closure : Less than 1 second

I. Average triangle closure : 3 sec

IX. Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 2.0 sec

Third Order or Tertiary Triangulation:

The third-order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the

1. Average triangle closure : 6 sec

1. Define most probable value

observation residuals.” For surveyors, “overdetermined systems” are the

9.Distinguish between the true error and residual error

distributions, on the assumption that the latter are normally distributed.

15.Explain normal equations.

19. Compare the systematic and accidental errors.

difference between these two values is the true error.

1. Name the equipment inventory required for a total station.

5. Define total station surveying.

6. What is called trilateration in modern positioning system?

7. Distinguish between triangulation and trilateration.

9.Discuss the atmospheric and scale corrections factors of total stations

10.Discuss the principle behind the linear distance measurement of a total

measurement in the same unit, it is known as an integrated total station which

-The reflector is a prism attached to a detail pole

11. Illustrate the application of traversing.

12.Classify the types of accuracy related to total station.

14. Classify total station surveying.

2. ASER DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

15. Explain the principle of electro optical system.

17.When do you substitute the total station instead of conventional surveying

18.Design the fundamental parameters of a total station Distance Measurement

upward (zenith) direction is taken as reference direction. The accuracy of angle

19.What are the precautions to be decided while using a total station?

A total station is an optical instrument commonly used in construction, surveying

4. What are the important precautionary measures and maintenance of Total

PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING A TOTAL STATION:

5. Discuss the different sources of errors for total station

2. Tilting Axis Error or Tilt Error

6. Describe the types of traversing and write its application.

7. Discuss about traversing and classical traversing methods.