CORDILLERA QUEST

Center for Complementary Education and Social Work Services, Inc.

IC-15 Betag, Km.6, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines
Tel/Fax (074) 422-6322/ Email Add: [email protected]

RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED SAFETY, SECURITY AND SANITATION

Why is personal hygiene important?

Practicing good personal hygiene is important for helping keep the body healthy and clean.

In this article, we outline the importance of personal hygiene. We also discuss different types of
hygiene, self-care routines, and what may happen if hygiene practices lapse.

What is it? 

Good personal hygiene involves keeping all parts of the external body clean and healthy. It is
important for maintaining both physical and mental health.

In people with poor personal hygiene, the body provides an ideal environment for germs to grow,
leaving it vulnerable to infection.

On a social level, people may avoid a person with poor personal hygiene, which may result in
isolation and loneliness.

Types of personal hygiene

There are many types of personal hygiene.

The following list is a good starting point for someone looking to build a personal hygiene
routine:

Dental

Dental hygiene involves more than just having white teeth. A good dental hygiene routine can
help prevent issues such as gum disease and cavities. It can also prevent bad breath.

Body

Several million sweat glands cover the human body. When bacteria break down sweat, the
process creates a smell or body odor.

Washing the body will help prevent skin irritation, as well as removing the bacteria that
cause body odor. Washing the hair removes oil and keeps a person looking clean and fresh.
Hand washing

Regular hand washing is one of the best ways to avoid spreading communicable diseases.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend washing the hands at certain
times:

 before, during, and after preparing food

 before eating food

 before and after looking after anyone who is vomiting or has diarrhea

 before and after treating a cut or wound

 after going to the bathroom

 after changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used the toilet

 after blowing the nose, coughing, or sneezing

 after touching garbage or dirty surfaces or objects

 after handling pets or pet-related items, such as food

Nails

Fingernails may harbor dirt and germs, contributing to the spread of bacteria. It is easier for dirt
and germs to collect under longer nails, so keeping them short can help reduce the risk of
spreading infections.

How to maintain good personal hygiene

Knowing how to maintain good personal hygiene can make it easier to build a routine. A person
should have some basic knowledge of the following types of hygiene:

Dental hygiene

For a healthy mouth and smile, the American Dental Association (ADA) recommend brushing
the teeth for 2 minutes at least twice a day — once before breakfast and once before bed.

People should use ADA-accepted fluoride toothpaste and replace the toothbrush every 3–4
months. The ADA also advises people to floss daily.

Hand washing

The CDC outlines five simple steps for effective hand washing:

1. Wet the hands with clean, running water, then turn off the tap and apply soap.
 2. Lather the hands by rubbing them together with the soap, remembering to reach the backs
of the hands, between the fingers, and under the nails.

3. Scrub the hands for at least 20 seconds, which a person can time by humming the “Happy
Birthday” song twice.

4. Rinse the hands well under clean, running water.

5. Dry the hands using a clean towel or air dry them.

Body

It is advisable to shower or bathe daily, using soap and water to rinse away dead skin cells, oil,
and bacteria. People can pay special attention to areas that accumulate more sweat, such as the
armpits, in between the toes, and the groin area.

They should also wash their hair with shampoo at least once a week, or more if necessary.
Applying deodorant when fully dry can help prevent body odors.

Nails

Using sanitized tools to trim the nails and keep them short is one of the best ways to ensure that
no dirt can collect underneath them.

Scrubbing the underside of the nails with a nail brush can form part of a person’s hand washing
routine.

Menstrual and genital hygiene

It is important to change sanitary products regularly and to wash the hands before and after
changing tampons, pads, or any other sanitary products.

As vaginas are self-cleaning, using soap to clean the vagina can cause an imbalance of its natural
bacteria and lead to infections. The vulva (the external part of the vagina) should only need
cleaning once a day using a mild soap and water.

People with an uncircumcised penis can clean it by gently pulling back the foreskin and washing
underneath it with warm water or soap.

Factors that can negatively impact hygiene

Poverty and lack of access to clean water can both have a detrimental effect on a person’s
personal hygiene.

A person’s mental health can also affect how they take care of themselves. People who are living
with certain conditions, such as a psychotic disorder, severe depression, or drug or alcohol use
disorder, may find it very difficult to keep up a personal hygiene routine.
Conditions that poor personal hygiene can signal

While personal hygiene can cause certain health issues, it can also be a side effect of some of
them.

People living with Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia often have poor oral

hygiene.

In some cases, the inability to maintain a hygiene routine could result from depression.
Depressive symptoms, such as reduced energy levels and impaired cognitive function, can make
a self-care regimen more difficult to keep up.

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Negative effects of poor personal hygiene 

Poor hygiene is a sensitive topic, and talking to a person about it can be difficult. As a result, a
person with poor personal hygiene could become isolated from other people.

Poor personal hygiene may also have an effect on the workplace. Companies may be more likely
to offer jobs and promotions to individuals who appear to take care of their health and
presentation. Poor personal hygiene can be particularly problematic in the food industry.

There are also many health implications of having poor personal hygiene, with the CDC listing
the following as hygiene-related diseases:

 athlete’s foot

 body lice

 chronic diarrhea

 tooth decay

 head lice

 hot tub rash

 pinworms

 pubic lice

 scabies

 swimmer’s ear
  ringworm

Hygiene routine tips 

Helpful tips for creating a hygiene routine include the following:

 Make it a habit: With daily practice, a new habit can become a regular part of life.
Choose one area to focus on and practice until it becomes second nature.

 Set reminders: Using the notes app on a cell phone can be a great way to avoid
forgetting any tasks.

 Use rewards: A sticker chart can be a brilliant incentive for children to maintain their
personal hygiene.

 Invest in nice toiletries: Using products that smell good may encourage some people to
stick to their personal hygiene routine.

Keeping the body clean has positive effects on a person’s social life and their physical and
mental health.

Personal hygiene is simply looking after the body and keeping it clean and healthy.

Developing and maintaining a personal hygiene routine is key to having a healthy body and
mind.

Clothes hygiene

We usually have two layers of clothing. The internal layer is underwear (or underclothes) such as
pants, vest and T-shirt. These are right next to our skin and collect sweat and dead skin cells,
which can stain the cloth. Bacteria love to grow on this dirt and produce a bad smell in addition
to the specific odor of the sweat. Underwear must be washed more frequently than the outer
layer of clothing.

Clothes hygiene is an important aspect of one’s dignity. Changing used clothes for clean ones
every day is recommended. Washing dirty clothes requires adequate clean water, detergents
(solid or powdered soap) and washing facilities. If possible, the washed clothes should be ironed
to help the destruction of body lice and nits. Boiling water or insecticides can be used to destroy
clothes infestation.

Menstrual Hygiene
Menstrual Hygiene is vital to the empowerment and well-being of women and girls worldwide. It
is about more than just access to sanitary pads and appropriate toilets – though those are
important. It is also about ensuring women and girls live in an environment that values and
supports their ability to manage their menstruation with dignity.
What is Menstrual Hygiene? 

Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) is defined as:

“Women and adolescent girls are using clean menstrual management materials to absorb or
collect blood that can be changed in privacy as often as necessary for the duration of the
menstruation period, using soap and water for washing the body as required, and having access
to facilities to dispose of used menstrual management materials" (JMP 2012). 
Globally, at least 500 million women and girls lack proper access to menstrual hygiene
facilities. Several factors influence difficult experiences with menstruation, including inadequate
facilities and materials, menstrual pain, fear of disclosure, and inadequate knowledge about the
menstrual cycle (World Bank 2018).  
 In India, only 1 in every 2 girls has knowledge about menstruation before their first
period. In Tanzania and Ethiopia, only 1 in every 4 girls knows about it before their first
period. 
 In Uganda, 1 out of 2 girls report missing one to three days of school per month due to
menstruation.
 In India, for 1 out of 2 girls, mothers are the most important source of information about
menstruation, followed by friends.

Underarm Hygiene

1. Always Stay Dry

The armpit has a high concentration of hair follicles and sweat glands, thus causing increased
sweating in this area of the body. It is also packed with lymph nodes, an integral part of the
lymphatic system that aids your body in fighting infection. Regular care can leave you with silky
smooth skin and a body primed against everyday infections and bacteria. Keeping the area dry
plays a vital role here. Opt for a deo like the Dove Go Fresh Deo with Energizing Grapefruit and
Lemongrass that gives you protection from BO plus soothes skin with its Vitamin E content.
 
2. Lime n' Lemony
A favorite among grannies and home-remedy aficionados, fresh lemon or lime juice works
wonders for keeping your underarms smelling citrusy fresh. Odor from the underarms is caused
due to a mixture of sweat and body bacteria. Citric acid kills bacteria and limits their growth.
Rub some lemon juice or a lemon piece onto the underarms at night before sleeping. Shower the
next morning and observe positive results within a few days.
 

3. Hair-Free is Care-Free

Needless to say, hairy underarms not only look unappealing (on both men and women), but also
attract and collect loads of dirt. Hair follicles in your armpits make the skin prone to the build-up
of dead skin cells. Your skin needs to breathe. Explore the various hair removal options
available. Keep in mind, that waxing, shaving, epilators, depilatory creams and laser procedures,
all have their pros and cons, so choose one best suited to you.

4. Exfoliate

Like all other areas of the body, your underarms need a proper skincare regimen. Underarm
skin is said to be highly sensitive, more so than even your face. Exfoliating and cleansing go
hand in hand. Use a gentle exfoliator such as the m of St. Ives Fresh Skin Apricot Scrub can
remove dead skin and dirt from these areas. Alternately, you can also make an exfoliator at
home. You may choose a loofah or soft body brush to scrub gently during your bath.

5. Dress Appropriately

You'll be surprised, but the kind of clothing you wear also has an impact on your underarms.
Friction caused between skin and fabric adds to skin darkening and sweating. Loose,
comfortable, light clothing is less likely to stick to your body in the heat. Colors matter too;
wearing light colors and pastel shades will help reflect the heat rather than absorb it, keeping you
cool as a cucumber, even on the hottest days.

INTRODUCTION TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF FOOD

The Microorganisms

The tiniest life forms are bacteria, yeasts, molds, and viruses, termed “microorganisms” because
of their size (micro meaning small and organism meaning living being).

Bacteria

Bacteria are the most important microorganisms to the food processor. Most are harmless, many
are highly beneficial, some indicate the probable presence of filth, disease organisms, spoilage
and a few cause disease. There are thousands of species of bacteria, but all are single-celled and
fall into three basic shapes: spherical, straight rods, and spiral rods. To see them, you need a
microscope that magnifies about 1000-fold. All bacteria reproduce by dividing into two cells.
The two cells then divide to become 4, 4 become 8, and so forth. Under ideal conditions, this
doubling may occur as frequently as every 15 minutes, so that within 5 hours there will be more
than a million cells from the original single cell. If there are 1000 original cells instead of a
single one, there will be over 1 billion cells in 5 hours.

Some rod-shaped bacteria are capable of existing in two forms, dormant spores and active
vegetative cells. Vegetative cells form spores under adverse conditions as a means of survival.
Spore forms preserve the bacteria from starvation, drying, freezing, chemicals, and heat. When
conditions become favorable, the spores germinate, with each spore again becoming a vegetative
 cell with the ability to reproduce. Among the bacteria, sporulation is not a means of reproduction
since each cell forms a single spore which later germinates into a single cell again. Most
sporulating bacteria that grow in the presence of air belong to the Genus Bacillus, and most that
grow only in the absence of air belong to the Genus Clostridium.

Yeasts and Molds

Yeasts are oval-shaped and slightly larger than bacteria. They reproduce most often by budding.
In budding each cell can produce several buds, or swellings, which break away to form new,
fully formed daughter cells.

Molds as found on bread, fruit, damp paper, or other surfaces are actually composed of millions
of microscopic cells joined together to form chains. The chains usually have numerous branches,
called hyphae. Molds can thrive in conditions too adverse for bacteria or yeasts. They reproduce
by spores that are frequently present as green or black masses on the protruding hyphae.

Yeasts and molds grow on most foods, on equipment, and building surfaces where there are
small amounts of nutrient and moisture. Since bacteria grow faster, they greatly outnumber
yeasts and molds in most foods. However, bacteria find conditions of low pH, moisture, or
temperature and high salt or sugar unfavorable. In such environments, yeasts or molds
predominate. Thus, they can be a problem in dry foods, salted fish, bread, pickles, fruits, jams,
jellies, and similar commodities.

Viruses

Viruses are the smallest and simplest microorganisms. Unlike bacteria, yeasts, and molds,
viruses are incapable of reproducing independently. Instead, they must first invade the cells of
another living organism called the host, before they can multiply. Hence, they are parasitic.
Viruses are normally specific in their selection of host cells, some infecting but one species,
while others are capable of infecting closely related species. As a result, viruses which infect
bacteria, called bacteriophages, cannot infect human beings or other animals. On the other hand,
several animal viruses, known as zoonotis, can infect human beings.

The viruses are important to the food process in two respects:

1. As a bacteriophage of lactic or other fermentative bacteria. Bacteriophage infections of starter

cultures can interfere seriously with the manufacture of cheese, buttermilk, sauerkraut, pickles,
wine, beer, and other desirable fermentative products.
2. As disease transmitted by food to human beings. Although viruses require a live host cell and
cannot multiply in foods, they can remain viable and infectious for long periods of time, even
under highly adverse conditions, such as drying, freezing, and pasteurization.
 Factors Affecting Growth of Microorganisms

The food processor reduces potential problems from microorganisms in several ways:

 Removing or destroying them by trimming, washing, heating, pickling, by adding chemicals, or

by encouraging competition by acid- or alcohol-forming organisms.
 Minimizing contamination from equipment, people, the environment, and from unprocessed
food.
 Minimizing microbial growth on equipment, by cleaning and sanitizing, and in the product itself
by adjusting storage temperature, pH, and other environmental factors.

Although each factor affecting growth is considered separately in the following discussion, these
factors occur simultaneously in nature. When more than one condition is somewhat adverse to
microbial growth, their inhibitory effects are cumulative.

Temperature

Temperature is the most efficient means to control microbial growth. Based on their tolerance of
broad temperature ranges, microorganisms are roughly classified as follows:

1. Psychrophies grow only at refrigeration temperatures.

2. Psychrotrophs grow well at refrigeration temperatures, but better at room temperature.
3. Mesophiles grow best at or near human body temperature, but grow well at room temperature.
4. Thermophiles grow only at temperatures about as hot as the human hand can endure, and usually
not at all at or below body temperature.

To be more specific about these temperature limits of growth is to enter the controversy that has
continued since the infancy of microbiology, for there are many species that grow in temperature
ranges overlapping these. However, for food microbiology these conclusions are pertinent:
 Figure 1. Low temperature limits growth of food poisoning and food spoilage organisms. (Burr
and Elliot, 1960; Leistner et.al., 1975)

1. Some psychrotrophic microorganisms grow very slowly in foods below freezing, but usually not
below 19°F. There are a few reports of growth, usually of molds, at 14°F, but no reliable reports
of growth below that temperature. This means that the standard storage temperature for frozen
foods, O°F, does not permit microbial growth. However, many microorganisms survive freezing
(Michener and Elliott, 1964).
2. Most psychrotrophs have difficulty growing above 90°F.
3. Most foodborne disease organisms are mesophiles. The food processor can feel safe in the
knowledge that foods held above or below the limits in Figure 1 and rotated properly will remain
safe. A good rule of thumb is to store perishable foods below 40°F or above 140°F.
4. In the temperature range where both mesophilic and psychrotrophic organisms grow (about
41°F. to about 90°F), the psychrotrophs grow more rapidly, causing spoilage and at the same
time frequently interfering with the growth of foodborne disease organisms (Elliott and
Michener, 1965).
Figure 2. Growth of bacteria on chicken at three temperatures. (From data of Ayres et. al., 1950)

Figure 3. Effect of temperature on time for chicken meat to spoil.(From data of Lochhead and
Landerkin, 1935 and Barnes and Shrimpton, 1957)

 
Within the growth range, the rate of growth increases rapidly as the temperature is raised (Figure
2). Conversely, microbial growth rates decrease rapidly as the temperature is lowered and, hence,
food spoilage occurs much more slowly. This effect is especially marked near the freezing point.
Note in Figure 3 that a drop from about 41°F to about 32°F will more than double the shelf life
(time before spoilage).

Water Activity
Water activity (aw) is a term describing the availability of water to microorganisms. It is only
roughly related to percent moisture. Pure water has an aw of 1.00, and the atmosphere above the
water in a closed container will have an equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) of 100%. If we add
an ounce of rocks to a quart of water in such a container, the ERH and the aw will not change.
But if we add an ounce of salt, the ERH will fall to about 98 % and the aw to 0.98. Rocks do not
dissolve in water but salt does, thereby reducing the proportion of water that can enter the
atmosphere. Likewise, the amount of water available to microorganisms present in the solution is
reduced. Yet the percent moisture is the same in the container with rocks as it is in the container
with, salt, namely, 98%.

The GMP regulations for low-acid canned foods defined water activity as the vapor pressure of
the food product divided by the vapor pressure of pure water under identical conditions of
pressure and temperature. The regulations define low-acid foods as foods, other than beverages,
with a finished equilibrium pH value greater than 4.6 and a water activity greater than 0.85.

Table 1. The water activity (aw) limits for growth of principal foodborne disease organisms.*

Microorganism Minimal aw for growth Reference

Salmonella 0.945 Christian & Scott, 1953

Clostridium botulinum 0.95 Scott, 1957

Clostridium perfringens 0.93 Kang, et al., 1969

Staphylococcus aureus 0.86** Scott, 1962

Vibrio parahaemolyticus 0.94 Beuchat, 1974

*These limits are the lowest reported, with all other growth conditions optimal. If other
conditions are less than optimal, the minimal aw will be higher.
**Troller and Stinson (1975) have shown that minimal aw for toxin production is higher than that
for growth – 0.93 in their experiments.
Most bacteria fail to grow in a food or other medium where the aw is lower than 0.94. Bacteria
require a higher aw than yeasts, which in turn require a higher aw than molds. Thus, any condition
that lowers the aw first inhibits bacteria, then yeasts, and finally molds (Elliott and Michener,
1965). But each species has its limits which are interrelated with other growth factors. Table 2
gives the aw limits for growth of principal foodborne disease organisms held under otherwise
optimal conditions.
Certain molds and bacteria can grow on fish immersed in saturated salt solution where the aw is
about 0.75. Some molds can grow in foods with aw 0.62 – 0.65 (Elliott and Michener, 1965). At
these lower limits, growths are very slow. The aw of fully dried foods, such as crackers or sugar,
is about 0.10 and such products are microbiologically stable because of this factor alone. The
stability of intermediate moisture foods (aw 0.75 – 0.90), such as dried fruits, jams, and soft
moist pet foods, depends on combinations of factors, such as low aw, low pH, pasteurization,
chemical additives, and impervious packaging.

pH

pH is a term used to describe the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. At pH 7, there is an equal

amount of acid (hydrogen ion: H +) and alkali (hydroxyl ion: OH-), so the solution is “neutral”.
pH values below 7 are acidic, while those above 7 are alkaline. pH expresses the H +
concentration logarithmically, that is, in multiples of 10. For example, at pH 5 there are 10 times
as many H + as at pH 6; at pH 3 there are 100 times as many H + as at pH 5, and so on.

pH has a profound effect on the growth of microorganisms. Most bacteria grow best at about pH
7 and grow poorly or not at all below pH 4. Yeasts and molds, therefore, predominate in low pH
foods where bacteria cannot compete. The lactic acid bacteria are exceptions; they can grow in
high acid foods and actually produce acid to give us sour milk, pickles, fermented meats, and
similar products. Some strains, called Leuconostoc contribute off-flavors to orange juice. The pH
values of certain foods are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Mean pH Values of Selected Foods (Lopez, 1987)

pH Value Selected Foods

2.3 Lemon juice (2.3), Cranberry sauce (2.3)

Rhubarb (3.1)
Applesauce (3.4), Cherries, RSP (3.4)
3.0
Berries (3.0 – 3.9), Sauerkraut (3.5)Peaches (3.7), Orange juice (3.7)
Apricots (3.8)

Cabbage, red (4.2), Pears (4.2)

4.0
Tomatoes (4.3)

Ravioli (4.6)
4.6
Pimientos (4.7)
 Spaghetti in tomato sauce (4.9)
Figs (5.0)Onions (5.2)
5.0
Carroes (5.2)
Green Beans (5.3), Beans with pork (5.3)Asparagus (5.5), Potatoes (5.5)

Lima beans (5.9), Tuna (5.9), Tamales (5.9)

Codfish (6.0), Sardines (6.0), Beef (6.0)
Pork (6.1), Evaporated milk (6.1)
6.0
Frankfurters (6.2), Chicken (6.2)
Corn (6.3)
Salmon (6.4)

Crabmeat (6.8), Milk (6.8)

7.0 Ripe olives (6.9)
Hominy (7.0)

The lowest pH limits for growth of foodborne disease organisms are shown in Table 3. Many of
the investigators who reported these values also determined that adverse factors, such as low
temperature or low water activity, increased the minimal pH for growth. But the processor can be
sure that these minimal values will prevent growth of these pathogens under any and all
circumstances.

Table 3. The minimal pH minimal for growth of principal foodborne disease organisms*

Microorganism Growth reported at but not below Reference

Staphylococcus aureus pH 4.5

Salmonella 4.0 Chung and Goepfer, 1970

Clostridium botulinum

Types A and B 4.8 National Canners Assn., 1971a

Type E 5.0 National Canners Assn., 1971a

Clostridium perfringens 5.0

Vibrio parahaemolyticus 4.8 Beuchat, 1973

Bacillus cereus 4.9 Kim and Goepfer, 1971

*Note: These limits are the lowest recorded, with all other growth conditions optimal. If other
conditions are less than optimal, the pH limit will be higher.

Population

A high initial bacterial load increases the likelihood that spoilage will occur under marginal
circumstances (Chung and Goepfert, 1970) (see Figures 4 and 5). This fact is of major
importance to the processor of refrigerated foods, the shelf-life of which is enhanced by good
sanitation. A high level of spores also increases the possibility that a few will survive to spoil
heat processed products.

Oxygen

Oxygen is essential for growth of some microorganisms; these are called aerobes. Others cannot
grow in its presence and are called anaerobes. Still others can grow either with or without
oxygen and are called microaerophilic. Strict aerobes grow only on food surfaces and cannot
grow in foods stored in cans or in other evacuated, hermetically sealed containers. Anaerobes
grow only beneath the surface of foods or inside containers. Aerobic growth is faster than
anaerobic. Therefore, in products where both conditions exist, such as in fresh meat, the surface
growth is promptly evident, whereas subsurface growth is not.
Figure 4. Effect of number of contaminating bacteria on the spoilage of chicken meat. (Ayres et.
al., 1950)

Figure 5. Effect of numbers of contaminating bacteria on the spoilage time of chicken meat.
(Ayres et. al., 1950)

Lethal Effects of Temperature

Heat is the most practical and effective means to destroy microorganisms. Microbial cell
reduction occurs slowly just above maximal growth temperatures. However, the rate of death
increases markedly as the temperature is raised. Pasteurization, the destruction of vegetative cells
of disease-producing microorganisms, consists of a temperature of 140°F for 30 minutes, or
about 161°F for 16 seconds. Yeasts, molds, and the vegetative cells of spoilage bacteria also die
at pasteurization temperatures. To render log-acid foods commercially sterile requires a retort
capable of operating at temperatures above 212°F. Canners process certain canned foods at
240°F or 250°F for a considerable length of time, sometimes an hour or more depending upon
the product and can size. Commercial sterility is the destruction and/or inhibition of the
organisms of public health significance as well as organisms of non-health significance which
could spoil the product. Microbiologists sterilize media at 250°F (121C) for 15 or 20 minutes.
These examples illustrate the need for high temperatures and sufficient time to kill a population
of bacteria.
In thermal destruction studies, also called thermal death time studies, the logarithm of the
numbers of survivors is plotted against the length of time test cultures are subjected to a given
temperature. The result is usually a straight line (Figure 6), although there are many exceptions
(Humphrey and Nickerson, 1961). The slope of this line becomes steeper as the temperature is
increased; indicating that less time is required to kill a population at higher temperatures. It also
takes longer to kill a high population of organisms than it does to kill a low population (Table 4).

Figure 6. Reduction in numbers of bacterial spores during exposure to lethal temperatures.

(Williams et. al., 1937)

The rate of thermal destruction is greater in foods with high aw than in those with low
aw (Calhoun and Frazier, 1966). Microbial contaminants in dry foods, such as chocolate
(Goepfert and Biggie, 1968) or dried bone meal (Riemann, 1968), are hard to destroy with heat.
The recommended pasteurization process to destroy Salmonella in liquid egg albumen prior to
freezing is 140°F (60C) for 3.5 minutes (USDA, 1969), whereas that for dried egg albumen is
140 (60C) to 158°F (70C) for several days (Banwart and Ayres, 1956). Riemann (1968) was able
to kill Salmonella in meat and bone meal more readily at 194°F (90C) after water was added to
bring the aw to 0.90.
Table 4. The effect of the size of the initial spore population on destruction time. (From Reed and
Bohrer, 1961)

Destruction time
Microorganism Spores (number) Temperature °F (°C)
(minutes)

Flat sour #26 45,000 239 (115.9) 62 to 65

 400 239 (115.9) 25 to 28

90,000 221 (105.8) 18 to 20

Clostridium botulinum #90
900 221 (105.8) 12 to 14

Clostridium botulinum spores are highly resistant to thermal destruction at water activities
between 0.2 and 0.4 (dry heat) and are much less resistant to heat at water activities above this
range. This finding may be practical for high temperature-short time dry heat sterilization
(National Canners Association, 1976a).

Other factors that affect the thermal destruction rate of bacteria are the presence or absence of
organic matter, oil or fat, pH, strain of organisms, quality of available nutrients, and age of the
culture. In general, bacteria are killed more rapidly at lower and higher pH values than in more
neutral ranges. In the processing of many foods, careful control of pH is an important factor.

Chilling to temperatures below the growth range, but above freezing, stops reproduction but kills
few cells except for extremely sensitive organisms, such as vegetative cells of Clostridium
perfringens. Freeze kills part of a microbial population within a few hours and storage continues
to be lethal at a much slower rate. The rate of population reduction varies with the nature of the
food, as illustrated in Figure 7; the most rapid drop in aerobic plate count (“total count”)
occurred in orange juice, which is an acid product. Bacterial spores die very slowly, if at all,
during freezing and frozen storage. For example, the vegetative cells of Clostridium perfringens
generally all die, but the spores survive. Staphylococcus aureus and related organisms survive
well, but in most cases there is wide variation of susceptibility among microorganisms, even
among closely related species (Figure 8). In any case, freezing is not a dependable means to
destroy microorganisms since some cells of the original population almost always survive.
 Figure 7. Effect of frozen storage on bacterial level in various foods.

 
 Figure 8. Survival of Salmonella in frozen storage.

The “Indicator” Organisms

The “indicator” organisms are so called because their presence in large numbers in food signifies
one of three contamination possibilities: disease bacteria or filth; spoilage or low quality; or
preparation under insanitary conditions.

Aerobic Plate Count

The aerobic plate count (APC) measures only that fraction of the bacterial flora that is able to
grow to visible colonies under the arbitrary test conditions provided in the time period allowed. It
does not measure the total bacterial population in a food sample, but is the best estimate. Altering
conditions, such as composition of the agar medium or temperature of incubation, changes the
spectrum of organisms that will grow. It is necessary to adhere rigidly to the standardized test
conditions that have encouraged some to call the APC a “standard plate count.”
 Depending on the circumstances, a high APC may indicate that a food has been grossly
mishandled or that it contains a poor quality ingredient. Interpretation depends on knowing what
the normal APC is for this food. An abnormal APC indicates that something is out of control.
The microbiologist can frequently suggest that cause, thereby aiding the sanitarian. Some of the
problems that investigation of a high APC might reveal include:

 Failure of sorting, trimming, washing, and destroying operations to remove or destroy bacteria
from raw ingredients adequately.
 Inadequate heat processing.
 Insanitary equipment, particularly near the end of the process.
 The food has reached or is approaching the end of its refrigerated shelf-life.
 The food has been stored at or above room temperature for too long.
 The food is at least partly decomposed.

Coliform Bacteria

The coliform bacteria are non-spore forming rods that occur in large numbers in human and
animal feces. They are normally present on raw animal products, such as meats, milk, and eggs,
and also occur naturally in soil, water, and surfaces of plants. They are heat sensitive and die
rapidly during blanching or pasteurizing. Large numbers of coliforms after a heat process
indicate an unacceptable degree of post-heating contamination or indicate time-temperature
abuse of the food sufficient to permit growth. High coliform levels warrant investigations to
determine the source of contamination or temperature mishandling.

The presence of Escherichia colia, member of the coliform group, in food usually indicates direct
or indirect human or animal fecal contamination. Although this may be true in a broad sense, one
must not assume a quantitative relationship between the numbers of E. coli and the degree of
contamination with feces. E. coli grows well outside the animal body and thrives in unclean food
handling equipment.

Food Poisoning

Human illnesses caused by foodborne microorganisms are popularly referred to as food

poisoning. The common use of a single classification is due primarily to similarities of
symptoms of various food-related diseases (see Table 5). Apart from illness due to food allergy
or food sensitivity, foodborne illness may be divided into two major classes, food infection and
food intoxication. Food infection results when foods contaminated with pathogenic, invasive,
food poisoning bacteria are eaten. These bacteria then proliferate in the human body and
eventually cause illness. Food intoxication follows the ingestion of preformed toxic substances
which accumulate during the growth of certain bacterial types in foods.

The period of time between the consumption of contaminated foods and the appearance of illness
is called the incubation period. The incubation period can range anywhere from less than one
hour to more than three days, depending on the causative organisms or the toxic product.
Table 5. Characteristics of the important bacterial food intoxications and foodborne infections.
(NAS-NRC, 1975)*

Incubation
Disease Etiologic Agent Symptons
Period

Difficulty in swalling,
double vision, difficulty in
speech. Occasionally
Usually 1
nausea, vomiting, and
to 2 days;
Clostridium diarrhea in early stages.
range 12
Botulism botulinum A.B.E.F Constipation and subnormal
hours to
toxin temperature. Respiration
more than
becomes difficult, often
1 week
followed by death from
paralysis of muscles of
respiration.

Nausea, vomiting,
abdominal cramps, diarrhea,
1 to 6 and acute prostration.
Staphyloccal hours; Temperature subnormal
Staphylococcal food poisoning
enterotoxin average 3 during acute attack, may be
hours elevated later. Rapid
recovery-usually within 1
day.

Average Abdominal pains, diarrhea,

about 18 chills, fever, frequent
Specific infection
Salmonellosis hours; vomiting, prostration.
by Salmonella spp.
range 7 to Duration of illness: 1 day to
72 hours 1 week.

Abdominal cramps, fever,

Usually 24 chills, diarrhea, watery stool
Shigella sonnei, s.
to 48 (frequently containing
Shigellosis (bacillary flexneri, s.
hours; blood, mucus, or pus),
dysentery) dysenteriae, s.
range 7 to spasm, headache, nausea,
boydii
48 hours dehydration, prostration.
Duration: a few days.
 Escherichia Usually 10
Headache, malaise, fever,
coli serotypes to 12
Enteropathogenic Escherichia chills, diarrhea, vomiting,
associated with hours;
coli infection abdominal pain. Duration: a
infant and adult range 5 to
few days.
infections 48 hours

Abdominal cramps and

Usually 10
diarrhea, nausea, and
to 12
Clostridium perfringens food Clostridium malaise, vomiting very rare.
hours;
poisoning perfringens Meat and poultry products
range 8 to
usually involved. Rapid
22 hours
Recovery.

Usually
about 12
Bacillus cereus food hours; Similar to Clostridium
Bacillus cereus
poisoning range perfringens poisoning
about 8 to
16 hours

Usually 12 Abdominal pain, server

to 14 watery diarrhea, usually
Vibrio Parahaemolyticus food Vibrio
hours; nausea and vomiting, mild
poisoning Parahaemolyticus
range 2 to fever, chills and headache.
48 hours Duration: 2 to 5 days.

*Repeated from Prevention of Microbial and Parasitic Hazards Associated with Processed
Foods, pages 6-7, with the permission of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.

Foodborne Disease Organisms

Escherichia coli

A few of the E. Coli strains found in human feces are in themselves pathogenic, causing
infection and disease. These are called Enteropathogenic E. Coli or EEC. In one extensive study
of the feces of food handlers (Hal and Hause, 1966), 6.4% of the workers harbored the EEC
organisms as carriers.
 Staphylococcus aureus

S. aureus, commonly referred to as “staph,” is normally present on the skin, the mucous
membranes, and in pimples and boils of human beings and other animals. It is nearly always
present in small numbers in raw meats and in foods handled extensively by human hands. The
food poisoning strains generally come from human sources. Pasteurizing or cooking destroys the
organism, but not its toxin. Foods contaminated by staph organisms can cause food poisoning
after the organisms have been destroyed by heat.

The presence of staph in a cooked food has two levels of significance.

1. Low numbers (not over a few hundred per gram) indicate the degree of contact with human skin
or nasal mucous, cross-contamination from raw meat, or survivors of a larger population.
2. High numbers (100,000 or more per gram) indicate that the bacteria were allowed to grow in the
food, thereby creating the potential serious hazard of the presence of toxin.

Keeping foods completely free from staph contamination is often difficult or impossible.
Therefore, the processor should store the food at temperatures that preclude the growth of staph
(see Table 1). It is only during growth that staph forms the toxin. An epidemiological
investigation to determine the source of the organism is tedious, but visual inspection of
workers’ hands can be useful. The well-informed sanitarian will also seek time-temperature
abuses of foods contaminated with staph.

The National Academy of Science’s National Research Council has listed the following steps to
limit the incidence and level of staph in foods (NAS-NRC, 1975):

1. Reduce direct and indirect exposure of foods, particularly cooked foods, to human contact as
much as possible. If handling is necessary, use sanitary rubber or plastic gloves, or sanitize
hands. Persons with infected cuts, abrasions, boils, or pimples should never handle cooked foods.
2. Test raw materials and eliminate production lots that contain high levels of S. aureus.
3. Process to destroy the microorganisms.
4. Eliminate cross-contamination from raw to cooked food.
5. Keep cooked foods no longer than 2 to 3 hours between 40°F and 140°F.

Control of staph growth in fermented foods, such as cheese or sausages, requires controlling a
number of processing factors (see NAS-NRC, 1975). Low pH, relatively high levels of lactic
bacteria, salt, and nitrite help to inhibit toxin formation.

Salmonella

Salmonella infection, or salmonellosis, is almost always caused by eating contaminated food or

drink. Contamination originates from the intestinal tract of human beings or animals who harbor
Salmonella organisms. Most adults can resist infection from a few cells, but become ill when
ingesting millions. Infants, the aged, and the infirm are much more sensitive and can be affected
by a few Salmonella cells. After recovery, the victim may remain a carrier for a period varying
from a week to permanency.

Domestic animals, such as dogs, poultry, swine, horses, sheep, and cattle are carriers of these
pathogens. Carriers show no outward symptoms of the disease at the time of slaughter. As long
as abattoirs continue to receive Salmonella carriers for slaughter, Salmonella contamination of
the finished raw meat is inevitable. Even with apparently satisfactory sanitation, slaughtering and
dressing procedures may spread traces of feces from a carrier animal to subsequently slaughtered
animals by way of equipment, water, and hand contact (NAS-NRC, 1969).

Salmonella is often discussed as if it were a single organism. There are actually more than 1,300
serotypes identified within the genus Salmonella. All are quite sensitive to heat, so freshly
pasteurized or cooked foods are free of the organism (USDA, 1966). The principal routes of its
entry into cooked foods are cross-contamination from raw foods or animals (via hands,
equipment, air, water), recontamination from human carriers, or gross undercooking. Regulatory
agencies are quick to institute seizures, recalls, and other legal action against products and firms
shipping Salmonella-contaminated processed foods.

Dry and semi-dry fermented sausages rarely cause food borne diseases. However, recent
investigations by USDA have shown that Salmonella can survive the fermentation and drying
process (Smith et. al., 1975). Salmonella in natural animal casings likewise survives short
periods of salting, but dies more rapidly in acidified or alkalized casings (Gabis and Silliker,
1974).

Salmonella can also grow outside the animal body when conditions are favorable. For this
reason, it has appeared in a wide variety of foods and feeds, in addition to meat and poultry
products. Some of these are brewers yeast, coconut meat, cochineal dye, dried or frozen eggs,
noodles, custards, dried animal feeds, cottonseed flour, candy, chocolate, dried milk, fish and
shellfish, cream-filled pastries, sausage casings, and watermelon. The NAS-NRC (1969-1975)
has made extensive recommendations for evaluation, control, and eradication of the Salmonella
problem.

Costridium botulinum

C. botulinum produces a rare but often fatal disease called botulism. It is caused by a neurotoxin
produced during growth in the absence of air. Except in the case of infantile botulism the intact
spores are harmless. Infants ingesting spores, usually from honey, have developed symptoms of
botulism. Botulism usually occurs after a food containing the preformed toxin has been eaten,
but sometimes the organism infects wounds, forming the toxin in the muscle of the victim. There
are seven types of C. botulinum (A to G), of which four (A, and B associated with meats and
vegetables, E, marine environment and F) cause human disease. Only once has type C been
reported to cause human illness. Type G is a new incompletely studied discovery (Schmidt,
1964, USPHS, 1974).
Fortunately, the toxins, regardless of type, have very little resistance to heat and are inactivated
by boiling for 10 minutes. Thus, all freshly, but adequately, cooked foods are safe (Riemann,
1973). All C. botulinum strains can form spores which exhibit varying resistance to heat. The
spores of types A and B are highly resistant. Spores of type E die in a fraction of a minute at
212°F (Perkins, 1964). The canning industry, under the technical leadership of the National Food
Processors Association (formerly the National Canners Association), has established times and
temperatures of retorting necessary to insure the commercial sterility of low-acid canned foods
(NCA, 1968, 1971b, 1976b). The NFPA also submitted to the FDA the initial petition which
eventually developed in the GMP regulations for low-acid canned foods.

Botulinum spores are widely distributed in soils. Type A predominates in the western states and
in New England; type B, in the eastern and southern states. Type E is usually associated with
marine or fresh water environments throughout the world and is psychrotropic (Riemann, 1973).
Type F has been isolated too rarely to establish its distribution pattern (Eklund et.al., 1967).

C. botulinum will not grow below pH 4.8. Therefore, botulism is a concern only in low acid
foods, which are defined as foods with a finished equilibrium pH greater than 4.6. The majority
of outbreaks occur from home canned vegetables, meats, fish, and over-ripe fruits (USPHS,
1974).

Canned cured meats contain salt and nitrite. The preservatives protect against the outgrowth of
botulinum spores that may have survived the minimal processing, which is frequently at or
below boiling (Halvorson, 1955; Ingram and Hobbs, 1954; Pivnick et. al, 1969).

There have been 34 outbreaks of type E botulism among fish products prepared in the U.S. and
Canada (Lechowich, 1972). Most have been smoked or lightly salted products. The FDA isolated
botulinum types B, E, and F from pasteurized meat of the blue crab (Kautter et. al., 1974). The
NAS-NRC (1975) has reviewed steps to minimize the possibility of out-breaks from smoked fish
and FDA has published regulations designed to control the problem (FDA, 1970).

Clostridium perfringens

C. perfringens is a spore-forming organism which, like botulinum, grows only in the absence of
air. It grows best in meat or poultry dishes, stews, or gravies kept warm. Such foods meet its
exacting nutritional requirements and the warm holding temperature, up to 122°F, encourages its
growth. The spores themselves are harmless, but the vegetative cells, which can grow to
enormous numbers in these foods, form spores in the intestinal tract of the victim. During the
sporulation process, the remainder of the vegetative cell dissolves, releasing the poison that
causes illness.

The vegetative cells which cause the disease are very delicate. They can be destroyed or reduced
to low, safe levels by cooking or freezing. The spores are widely distributed in nature and are
present in small numbers in various foods (Hall and Angelotti, 1965; Strong et. al., 1963). They
occur in feces, soils, dust, water, marine sediments, raw foods, and even cooked foods.
C. perfringens poisoning is a problem specific to the food service industry. Only proper
temperature control prevents the problem. A good rule of thumb is to keep ready-to-eat moist
foods below 40°F or above 140°F. Time-temperature abuse is a severe health hazard. Since the
spores are everywhere, epidemiologic investigation of strains to determine the source of spores is
a relatively futile exercise. However, if serological tests show that the same types are present in
the victim’s food and feces, a particular dish can be incriminated. Unfortunately, the biological
materials (antisera) for this purpose are not yet commercially available. Therefore, the
determination that large numbers of C. perfringens cells are present remains the most suitable
investigative test.

Bacillus cereus

B. cereus is a spore-forming organism that grows in the presence of oxygen and is widely
distributed in most raw foods. Since the spores survive boiling for several minutes, they remain
viable in cooked foods in small numbers. The organism does not compete well with other
bacteria in raw foods, but in moist, cooked dishes held warm (up to 122°F), it grows to millions
per gram in a few hours. Under these conditions the food becomes poisonous. B. cereus grows
well in a wide variety of cooked foods, such as meats, poultry, sauces, puddings, soups, rice,
potatoes, and vegetables. The disease is similar to that of perfringens (see Table 5), although the
mechanism of the disease is unknown. Adults have rather mild symptoms, but small children
may become seriously ill. In most instances, the victims recover quickly and do not seek medical
attention. Therefore, only large outbreaks are reported and become part of the statistical record.

Similar to C. perfringens, B. cereus is primarily a concern of the food service industries. The
appropriate control is to keep hot foods hot (over 140°F) and cold foods cold (under 40°F).
Epidemiologic investigation of strains to determine the source of the spores proves equally futile.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus

V. parahaemolyticus is a non-spore forming, slightly curved rod, closely related to the organism
that causes cholera. It is widely distributed and grows in brackfish waters, estuarine sediments,
raw fish, and shellfish throughout the world. It competes well with spoilage organisms at
temperatures of 41°F or above. It occurs in greatest numbers in the summer when higher
temperatures engender rapid growth.

V. parahaemolyticus is the principal cause of food poisoning in Japan where raw fish is regularly
consumed. Elsewhere, the disease occurs less frequently because the organism dies readily
during pasteurization or cooking. Nevertheless, cooked seafoods can be recontaminated from
water or raw seafood. The first confirmed outbreaks in the United States occurred in 1971 and
1972 from crabmeat, shrimp, and lobster. In one Japanese outbreak, 22 people died and 250
others became ill.

The human pathogenicity of the organism is determined by culturing it on a special medium, a

salt agar containing human blood. If the organism can grow and destroy blood cells on this
 medium, the so-called Kanagawa test, it is labeled “Kanagawa positive” and assumed capable of
causing human disease. The Japanese have found that about 1% of the strains of V.
parahaemolyticus from waters near their shores are Kanagawa positive (Sakazaki et. al., 1968).
On the other hand, Twedt et. al. (1970) reported that up to 90% of the strains from U.S. estuarial
waters are Kanagawa positive. However, the significance of the Kanagawa test is not fully
understood.

To reduce the incidence of these outbreaks, the seafood industry should:

 Hold raw seafoods at or below 40°F;

 Keep cooked seafoods carefully apart from raw seafood, sea water, insanitary equipment, and
unclean containers; and
 Hold cooked seafood below 40°F or above 140°F

Listeria

Before the 1980’s most problems associated with diseases caused by Listeria were related to
cattle or sheep. This changed with food related outbreaks in Nova Scotia, Massachusetts,
California and Texas. As a result of its widespread distribution in the environment, its ability to
survive long periods of time under adverse conditions, and its ability to grow at refrigeration
temperatures, Listeria is now recognized as an important food borne pathogen.

Immunocompromised humans such as pregnant women or the elderly are highly susceptible to
virulent Listeria. Listeria monocytogenes is the most consistently pathogenic species causing
listeriosis. In humans, ingestion of the bacteria may be marked by a flu-like illness or symptoms
may be so mild that they go unnoticed. A carrier state can develop.

Following invasion of macrophages virulent strains of Listeria may then multiply, resulting in
disruption of these cells and septicimia. At this time the organism has access to all parts of the
body. Death is rare in healthy adults; however, the mortality rate may approximate 30% in the
immunocompromised, newborn or very young.

As mentioned earlier Listeria monocytogenes is a special problem since it can survive adverse
conditions. It can grow in a pH range of 5.0-9.5, in good growth medium. The organism has
survived the pH 5 environment of cottage cheese and ripening Cheddar. It is salt tolerant
surviving concentrations as high as 30.5% for 100 days at 39.2°F. But only 5 days if held at
98.6°F.

The key point is that refrigeration temperatures do not stop growth of Listeria. It is capable of
doubling in numbers every 1.5 days at 39.2°F. Since high heat, greater than 175°F, will
inactivate the Listeria organisms, post-process contamination from environmental sources then
becomes a critical control point for many foods.
Yersinia enterocolitica

Even though Yersinia enterocolitica is not a frequent cause of human infection in the U.S., it is
often involved in illness with very severe symptoms. Yersiniosis, infection caused by this
microorganism, occurs most commonly in the form of gastroenteritis. Children are most severely
affected. Symptoms of pseudo-appendicitis have resulted, in many unnecessary appendectomies.
Death is rare and recovery is generally complete in 1 – 2 days. Arthritis has been identified as an
infrequent but significant sequela of this infection.

Y. enterocolitica is commonly present in foods but with the exception of pork, most isolates do
not cause disease. Like Listeria this organism is also one that can grow at refrigeration
temperatures. It is sensitive to heat (122 F., sodium chloride (5%) and acidity (pH 4.6), and will
normally be inactivated by environmental conditions that will kill salmonellae.

Campylobacter jejuni

C. jejuni was first isolated from human diarrheal stools in 1971. Since, then it has continually
gained recognition as a disease causing organism in humans.

C. jejuni enteritis is primarily transferred from animal origin foods to humans in developed
countries. However, fecal contamination of food and water and contact with sick people or
animals predominates in developing countries.

Although milk has been most frequently identified throughout the world to be a vehicle for
Campylobacter, one anticipates that future investigations will identify poultry and its products
and meats (beef, pork and lamb) as major reservoirs and vehicles.

C. jejuni dies off rapidly at ambient temperature and atmosphere, and grows poorly in food.

The principles of animal science will play a significant role in the control of this ubiquitous
organism. Hygienic slaughter and processing procedures will preclude cross-contamination while
adequate cooling and aeration will cause a decrease in the microbial load. In addition, thorough
cooking of meat and poultry products followed by proper storage should assist in maintaining
food integrity and less contamination.

Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are harmful byproducts from molds that grow on foods and feeds. They have caused
severe illness and death in animals for centuries. They first came to the attention of modern
scientists in 1960 when 100,000 turkey poults died in England after eating moldy peanut meal
from Africa and South America. The mycotoxins involved were later shown to be aflatoxins, a
group of closely related organic compounds that can cause acute disease and death. Stimulated
by these first discoveries and by research in antibiotics, investigators have discovered dozens of
mold strains which produce a wide variety of mycotoxins that affect animals. There are now
about 60 identified toxins. Of these, only a few have been designated human food contaminants.
These numbers will likely increase as mycotoxin investigations continue and identification
methods are improved.

Historically, mycotoxins have been associated with human poisoning and even death. Ergot is
among the first mycotoxins recognized as affecting human beings. It is produced by a mold
growing on cereal grains. Ergot poisoning occurred in the Rhine Valley in the year 857 and has
been reported several times since. The most recent outbreak was in 1951 in southern France.
Many Russians died during World War II from eating moldy grains. The Japanese have reported
human toxicity from eating moldy rice; the disease caused severe liver damage, hemorrhaging,
and some fatalities (Mirocha, 1969).

Although such incidents are rare occurrences, there is evidence that low dietary levels of
aflatoxins contribute to cancer of the liver in human beings. Extensive laboratory studies have
also shown that even at very low dietary levels, aflatoxin can produce liver cancer in rats, mice,
monkey, ducks, ferrets, and rainbow trout. Epidemiological studies in Southeast Asia and Africa
have related a high incidence of human liver cancer to aflatoxin levels up to 300 parts per billion
(ppb) in 20% of the food staples, and 3 to 4 ppb in 7% of the foods as eaten. In one geographical
area, 95% of the corn and 80% of the peanuts contained aflatoxin at an average level of 100 ppb.

Although there is no direct evidence that aflatoxins cause human liver cancer in the United
States, FDA is concerned about the effect of long-term, low-level consumption of a known,
highly carcinogenic substance in our food supply. FDA established an informal defect action
level tolerance of 30 ppb on peanuts and peanut products in 1965. With improved harvesting,
storage, and sorting practices developed by USDA and industry, the level of aflatoxins
contamination gradually declined and FDA lowered the informal action level to 20 ppb in 1969.
FDA proposed in the Federal Register of December 6, 1974, a regulation establishing a tolerance
of 15 ppb for total aflatoxins in shelled peanuts and peanut products used as human food. Today
the limits are 0.5 ppb for milk, 20 ppb for food, and 100 ppb for feed.

Molds which form mycotoxins can be present on any food not heated in a closed container. One
must assume, therefore, that they are present and capable of producing, toxin if conditions
permit. But finding a toxigenic mold in a food does not imply that the food contains a
mycotoxin. Conversely, the absence of visible growth of an aflatoxin producing mold does not
mean toxin is absent since aflatoxins may be produced when there is little visible mold growth.

There are several ways to determine whether molds growing in an abused food will produce
mycotoxins. The food can be held with its naturally contaminating molds, or inoculated with a
toxigenic strain, and kept until the molds develop. The food can then be tested for the presence
or absence of toxin. Such experiments have demonstrated that molds produce mycotoxins on a
large variety of cereal grains and seeds, dry beans and fruits, spices, nuts, and cured meats. As do
bacteria, molds have moisture, temperature, and nutritional requirements for optimal growth and
toxin production. In most cases the initial mold invasion occurs in the fields before or during
harvest. Mold growth continues during storage if the moisture content and storage temperatures
remain high.

Aflatoxin has been found throughout the world on corn, barley, copra, cassava, spices, dry milk,
tree nuts, cottonseed, peanuts, rice, wheat, and grain sorghum. In the U.S. it has been found in
corn, figs, grain sorghum, cottonseed, peanuts, and certain tree nuts.

The industry has relied on electronic and visual sorting methods, as well as blowing and
vacuuming, to control aflatoxin levels in walnuts arid pecans. Corn mill operators use a high
intensity ultraviolet (“black”) light to detect possible aflatoxin contamination. Roasting reduces
the level of aflatoxin up to 50% in some cases (Escher et. al., 1973).

The universal solution to the problem is eliminating conditions that permit mold growth,
whenever it is feasible to do so, and thereby preventing the formation of mycotoxins. In some
cases (corn, peanuts) mold growth and toxin production occur before harvest. Insect and bird
damaged corn kernels are very susceptible; therefore, controlling these pests will help alleviate
mold problems. For most susceptible foods, the critical period is immediately following harvest,
during storage and initial drying when the moisture content is high enough to allow mold growth.

Spoilage

The most prevalent microbiological problem facing the food industry is simple spoilage by
bacteria, yeasts, or molds that are not hazardous to health. Chilling slows spoilage; proper
freezing, drying, canning, and pickling arrest it completely. Chilled foods must be transported to
the consumer before spoilage microorganisms make them unfit for consumption. The problems
of spoilage in the other processes arise only upon departure from established techniques. The
incidence of product spoilage can be greatly reduced and shelf-life extended by taking
appropriate precautions.

Refrigerated Foods

The popularity of refrigerated/chilled foods is increasing at a surprising rate. Most of these

products are convenient to use and have a “close to fresh” image. Some of these products are
partially cooked or processed prior to chilling. This heat reduces the microbial population but
does not render it “commercially sterile.” Because of this, refrigerated foods have a limited shelf-
life. That is affected by temperature and customer abuse.

Refrigerated foods have been in our stores for many years. Products such as milk, cheese, yogurt
and other dairy products, cookie and biscuit doughs, eggs, salads and processed meats are
commonly found in the refrigerated section or deli. The optimum storage temperature is 33°F. or
as close to freezing as possible. However, most refrigerated cases are holding near 45 or even
45°F. This temperature fluctuation reduces shelf-life of the products, and can lead to a problem
of public health significance.
 The Refrigerated Foods and Microbiological Criteria Committee of the National Food Processors
Association has published a paper on “Safety Considerations for New Generation Refrigerated
Foods” in the January, 1988 issue of Dairy and Food Sanitation. Many of the points considered
in this section were derived from that paper.

Several important points on preparation, handling and distribution need to be considered. First of
all, always assume pathogenic organisms are present in a food product. Secondly, refrigeration
temperatures may slow or prevent replication of most pathogenic microorganisms, but some will
continue to multiply (psychrotrophs). Psychrotropic pathogens include Yersinia enterocolitica,
Listeria monocytogenes, non-proteolytic strains of C. botulinum some strains of enterotoxigenic
E. coli and Aeromonas hydrophilia. Several other food borne disease organisms capable of
growth at slightly above 41°F include: Vibrio parahemolyticus; Bacillus cereus; Staphylococcus
aureus and certain strains of Salmonella. Thirdly, manufacturers should expect some temperature
abuse of the foods during storage and distribution; this includes handling at the consumer level.

The last two points for consideration deals with labeling. A “Keep Under Refrigeration”
statement must be prominent on the product label and outside carton. In addition, a “Sell By” or
“Use By” date needs to be used on these products. This will help processors control their
product, but it is not a guarantee against problems. If the stock is not rotated properly, the out of
date product will still get out.

A processor of refrigerated foods needs to incorporate as many treatments as possible that will
help reduce the microbial population and minimize reproduction. Some of these treatments
include: heat, acidification, preservatives, reduced water activity, and modified atmosphere
packaging. Even though modified atmosphere is included as a potential barrier, it must be noted
that reduced oxygen atmospheres may actually favor anaerobic pathogens. For many products
modified atmosphere is really an aid to enhance product quality rather than safety.

One example of a product which successfully employs the multiple barrier principle is
pasteurized cheese spread. The product uses a combination of reduced water activity (added salt
and phosphates) and mild heat treatment to eliminate non-spore forming pathogens and inhibit
growth of spore forming pathogenic microorganisms.

Any manufacturer who considers marketing a refrigerated food should have extensive shelf-life
studies done by persons knowledgeable in the area of food microbiology.

Canned Foods

The shelf-life of canned foods results from the destruction of microorganisms capable of growth
within the container during normal handling and storage. To attain this optimum situation,
canners should:

 Follow the GMP regulations for low-acid foods.

 Reduce the spore level in the food by maintaining a sanitation program, particularly for
blanchers and elsewhere where thermophilic spore formers thrive, and by monitoring ingredients
for spore forming bacteria. As a general rule, food with a high spore level requires more retort
time and/or temperature in the same or similar operations (Figure 6 and Table 4). A process
approved by a processing authority must be filed with FDA on each low-acid and acidified food
sold in the U.S. Assuming the same retort time and/or temperature, the incidence of spoilage will
be higher in the canned food with a high initial spore level when all other factors are the same
(Table 6).
 Follow good sanitation and good container handling techniques during the container cooling and
post-cooling period. It is also important to cool heat processed containers quickly to about l00°F
(38C) since thermophilic outgrowth may occur with low spore numbers if containers are stacked
or cased while hot.
 Maintain good seams on cans and tight lids on glass containers by regular control and testing.
Table 6. Effect of level of flat-sour spores on incidence of spoilage of canned vegetables. (Reed
and Bohrer, 1961).

Product Spores per can before processing (number) Incidence of spoilage (percent)*

2,160 0
Canned peas
13,000 66

900 16.7
Canned corn
38,000 100

*After incubation of processed cans at 130°F (54.4°C)

Dry Foods
Dry foods do not spoil from microbial activity once they are adequately dry. Most foods require
natural or artificial drying before they become stable. Adding sugar or salt, as in candied fruits or
salted fish, accomplishes the same purpose since moisture becomes unavailable for use by
microorganisms. The appropriate term to express the availability of water to microorganisms is
water activity (aw).
Although microorganisms cannot grow on dry foods, those that survive the drying process
remain alive for prolonged periods. They quickly resume their activity upon rehydration. Under
adverse conditions of storage that permit water to enter the product, molds are usually the first to
grow because of their wider range of tolerance to low aw (Watson and McFarlane, 1948) and they
also have less competition from other organisms.

Fermented and Pickled Foods

Fermented and pickled foods owe their stability to the microbial development of organic acids by
lactic bacteria or the addition of such acids to the foods, especially in the presence of a relatively
 high level of salt. Spoilage can occur either during the fermentation period or upon storage of the
final product. The fermentation can fail if bacteriophage attacks the starter culture, if the
temperature is unsuitable, or if the amount of fermentable carbohydrate is inadequate.

To prevent spoilage during the fermentation period:

1. Add lactic bacteria as a starter. Keep the starter in pure culture to help eliminate bacteriophage.
2. Add fermentable carbohydrate or organic acid.
3. Maintain the salt level high enough to inhibit spoilage bacteria and to permit the more salt-
tolerant lactics to grow.
4. Control the temperature to favor lactics.

To reduce or eliminate spoilage during storage of the pickled or fermented food:

1. Add chemical preservatives, such as benzoates, sorbates, or propionates suitable to the product
and acceptable to regulatory authorities.
2. Pasteurize the product, if practicable, to destroy or inhibit spoilage organisms.
3. Store pickles fully covered with brine to inhibit molds and impede yeast development.