Chemistry, Raymond Chang

10th edition, 2010

McGraw-Hill

Chapter 3
Mass Relationships in Chemical
Reactions
Ahmad Aqel Ifseisi
Assistant Professor of Analytical Chemistry
College of Science, Department of Chemistry
King Saud University
P.O. Box 2455 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
Building: 05, Office: 2A/149 & AA/53
Tel. 014674198, Fax: 014675992
Web site: http://fac.ksu.edu.sa/aifseisi
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
 3.1
Atomic Mass
 Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom depends on the number of electrons, protons and
neutrons it contains.

Knowledge of an atom’s mass is important in laboratory work;

Micro World Macro World

(atoms & molecules) (grams)

We cannot weigh a single atom, but it is possible to determine the mass of one
atom relative to another experimentally. The first step is to assign a value to the
mass of one atom of a given element so that it can be used as a standard.

Atomic mass (sometimes called atomic weight): is the mass of the atom in
atomic mass units (amu).
By definition and international agreement: one atomic mass unit is defined as a
mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

Setting the atomic mass of carbon-12 at 12 amu

provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass
of the other elements.

6 p, 6 e, 6 n

e.g., experiments have shown that, on average, a hydrogen atom is only 8.400
percent as massive as the carbon-12 atom. Thus, if the mass of one carbon-12
atom is exactly 12 amu, the atomic mass of hydrogen must be
(0.084 x 12.00 amu = 1.008 amu)

Similar calculations show that the atomic mass of iron is 55.85 amu. Thus, although we
do not know just how much an average iron atom’s mass is, we know that it is
approximately 56 times as massive as a hydrogen atom.
 Average Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of carbon in a periodic table is not
12.00 amu but 12.01 amu. The reason for the
difference is that most naturally occurring elements
(including carbon) have more than one isotope.

This means that when we measure the atomic mass of an element, we must
generally settle for the average mass of the naturally occurring mixture of
isotopes.

Note: The atomic mass of an element is based on the average mass of the stable
(nonradioactive) isotopes of the element.
 ‫وفرة‬
e.g., the natural abundances of carbon-12 and carbon-13 are
98.90 percent and 1.10 percent, respectively. The atomic mass of
carbon-13 has been determined to be 13.00335 amu. Thus, the
average atomic mass of carbon can be calculated as follows:

average atomic mass of natural carbon Natural abundances

of C-12 & C-13
= (0.9890)(12.00000 amu) + (0.0110)(13.00335 amu) isotopes
= 12.01 amu

Naturally occurring lithium is:

7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu)
92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu)

Average atomic mass of lithium =

7.42 x 6.015 + 92.58 x 7.016

= 6.941 amu
100
EXAMPLE
Copper, a metal known since ancient times, is used in electrical cables and
pennies, among other things. The atomic masses of its two stable isotopes, 63
29𝐶𝑢
(69.09 percent) and 6529𝐶𝑢 (30.91 percent), are 62.93 amu and 64.9278 amu,
respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of copper. The relative
abundances are given in parentheses.

Solution
Each isotope contributes to the average atomic mass based on its relative
abundance.

(0.6909)(62.93 amu) + (0.3091)(64.9278 amu) = 63.55 amu

Practice Exercise

The atomic masses of the two stable isotopes of boron, 105𝐵 (19.78 percent) and
11
5𝐵 (80.22 percent), are 10.0129 amu and 11.0093 amu, respectively. Calculate
the average atomic mass of boron.
 3.2
Avogadro's Number and
Molar Mass of an Element
 Mole
Chemists measure atoms and molecules in moles.

In the SI system the mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as
many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) as there
are atoms in exactly 12 g (or 0.012 kg) of the carbon-12 isotope.

The actual number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12

is determined experimentally. This number is
called Avogadro’s number (NA), in honor of the
Amedeo Avogadro.

The currently accepted value is:

NA = 6.0221415 x 1023
~ 6.022 x 1023
Because atoms and molecules are so
tiny, we need a huge number to study
them in manageable quantities.

One mole each of several common elements. Carbon

(black charcoal powder), sulfur (yellow powder), iron (as
nails), copper wires, and mercury (shiny liquid metal).

1 mole of hydrogen atoms contains 6.022 x 1023 H atoms.

1 mole of water molecules contains 6.022 x 1023 H2O molecules.
1 mole of SO2− 2−
4 ions contains 6.022 x 10 𝑆𝑂4 ions.
23

1 mole of oranges contains 6.022 x 1023 oranges.

1 mole of C-12 atoms has a mass of exactly 12 g and contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms.
This mass of C-12 is its molar mass (𝓜), defined as the mass (in grams or
kilograms) of 1 mole of units (such as atoms or molecules) of a substance.

The molar mass of C-12 (in grams) is numerically equal to its atomic mass in amu.
Likewise,
-the atomic mass of sodium (Na) is 22.99 amu and its molar mass is 22.99 g;
-the atomic mass of phosphorus (P) is 30.97 amu and its molar mass is 30.97 g;
and so on.

In calculations, the units of molar mass are g/mol or kg/mol (SI unit).

Knowing the molar mass and Avogadro’s number, we can calculate the mass of a
single atom in grams.
e.g., we know the molar mass of carbon-12 is 12.00 g; therefore, the mass of one
carbon-12 atom is given by:
We can use the preceding result to determine the relationship between atomic
mass units and grams.
Because the mass of every carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 amu, the number of
atomic mass units equivalent to 1 gram is

Thus,

1 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu

and
1 amu = 1.661 x 10-24 g

This example shows that Avogadro’s number can be used to convert from the
atomic mass units to mass in grams and vice versa.
The notions of Avogadro’s number and molar mass enable us to carry out conversions
between mass and moles of atoms and between moles and number of atoms

m N
n = NA =
𝓜 n

NA : Avogadro’s no. = 6.022 x 1023

n : no. of moles
N : no. of atoms, molecules, ions or particles (unites)
𝓜 : molar mass (g/mol)
m : mass (g)
 EXAMPLE
Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry, low-temperature research, deep-
sea diving tanks and balloons. How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He?

1 mol He = 4.003 g He (from periodic table)

Thus, we can write two conversion factors:

The conversion factor on the left is the correct one. Grams will cancel, leaving the
unit mol for the answer, that is,

Practice Exercise

How many moles of magnesium (Mg) are there in 87.3 g of Mg?

 EXAMPLE
Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in making brass (with copper) and in plating
iron to prevent corrosion. How many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mole of Zn?

1 mol Zn = 65.39 g Zn (from periodic table)

Thus, we can write two conversion factors:

The conversion factor on the right is the correct one. Moles will cancel, leaving unit
of grams for the answer. The number of grams of Zn is

Practice Exercise

Calculate the number of grams of lead (Pb) in 12.4 moles of lead.

 EXAMPLE
Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned,
sulfur is converted to sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to
the acid rain phenomenon. How many atoms are in 16.3 g of S?

1 mol S = 32.07 g S
the conversion factor is

1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 particles (atoms)

the conversion factors are

Practice Exercise

Calculate the number of atoms in 0.551 g of potassium (K).

 3.3
Molecular Mass
If we know the atomic masses of the component atoms, we can calculate
the mass of a molecule.
The molecular mass (sometimes called molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in the molecule.

e.g., the molecular mass of H2O is

2 (atomic mass of H) + 1 (atomic mass of O)

or 2 (1.008) + (15.999) = 18.015 amu

 EXAMPLE

Calculate the molecular masses (in amu) of the following compounds:

(a) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
(b) Caffeine (C8H10N4O2).

(a) molecular mass of SO2 = 32.07 + 2(16.00)

= 64.07 amu

(b) molecular mass of C8H10N4O2 =

8(12.01) + 10(1.008) + 4(14.01) + 2(16.00) = 194.20 amu

Practice Exercise

What is the molecular mass of methanol (CH4O)?

 EXAMPLE

Methane (CH4) is the principal component of natural gas. How many moles of
CH4 are present in 6.07 g of CH4?

molar mass of CH4 = 12.01 + 4(1.008) = 16.04 g

1 mol CH4 = 16.04 g CH4

The conversion factor:

Practice Exercise

Calculate the number of moles of chloroform (CHCl3) in 198 g of chloroform.

 EXAMPLE

How many hydrogen atoms are present in 25.6 g of urea [(NH2)2CO], which is
used as a fertilizer, in animal feed, and in the manufacture of polymers? The
molar mass of urea is 60.06 g/mol.

= 1.03 x 1024 H atoms

Practice Exercise

How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of isopropanol (rubbing alcohol), C3H8O?

For ionic compounds like NaCl, MgO and CaCl2 that do not contain
discrete molecular units, we use the term formula mass instead.

e.g., the formula unit of NaCl consists of one Na+ ion and one Cl- ion.

Thus, the formula mass of NaCl is the mass of one formula unit:
formula mass of NaCl = 22.99 amu + 35.45 amu
= 58.44 amu

and its molar mass is 58.44 g.

e.g., the formula mass of CaCl2 = 40.08 + 2(35.45)

= 110.98 amu
 3.5
Percent Composition of
Compounds
The percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each
element in a compound.

Mathematically, the percent composition of an element in a compound is expressed

as:

where n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound.

e.g., in 1 mole of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) there are 2 moles of H atoms and 2
moles of O atoms. The molar masses of H2O2, H, and O are 34.02 g, 1.008 g, and
16.00 g, respectively.
the percent composition of H2O2 is calculated as follows:

H2O2

The sum of the percentages is 5.926% + 94.06% = 99.99%. The small discrepancy from 100
percent is due to the way we rounded off the molar masses of the elements.
 EXAMPLE
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless, syrupy liquid used in detergents, fertilizers,
toothpastes, and in carbonated beverages for a “tangy” flavor. Calculate the percent
composition by mass of H, P, and O in this compound.

H3PO4
The molar mass of H3PO4 = 97.99 g.

The sum of the percentages is 3.086 + 31.61 + 65.31 = 100.01%.

Practice Exercise

Calculate the percent composition by mass of each of the elements in sulfuric acid
(H2SO4).
 EXAMPLE
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy. It is composed of 40.92 percent carbon (C),
4.58 percent hydrogen (H), and 54.50 percent oxygen (O) by mass. Determine its
empirical formula.
If we have 100 g of ascorbic acid, then each We arrive at the formula C3.407H4.54O3.406, which
percentage can be converted directly to grams. In gives the identity and the mole ratios of atoms
this sample, there will be 40.92 g of C, 4.58 g of present. However, chemical formulas are
H, and 54.50 g of O. written with whole numbers.

This gives CH1.33O as the formula for ascorbic acid. Next, we

need to convert 1.33, the subscript for H, into an integer.

Because 1.33 x 3 gives us an integer 4, we multiply all the subscripts by 3 and obtain C3H4O3
as the empirical formula for ascorbic acid.

Practice Exercise
Determine the empirical formula of a compound having the following percent
composition by mass: K: 24.75 percent; Mn: 34.77 percent; O: 40.51 percent.
 EXAMPLE
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is a principal mineral of copper. Calculate the number of
kilograms of Cu in 3.71 x 103 kg of chalcopyrite.

The molar masses of Cu and CuFeS2 are 63.55 g and 183.5 g, respectively.
The mass percent of Cu is therefore

To calculate the mass of Cu in a 3.71 x 103 kg sample of CuFeS2, we need to

convert the percentage to a fraction (that is, convert 34.63 percent to 34.63/100, or
0.3463) and write
mass of Cu in CuFeS2 = 0.3463 x (3.71 x 103 kg) = 1.28 x 103 kg

Practice Exercise

Calculate the number of grams of Al in 371 g of Al2O3.

 3.6
Experimental Determination
of Empirical Formulas
Apparatus for determining the empirical formula of ethanol.
The absorbers are substances that can retain H2O and CO2.

When ethanol is burned in an apparatus, CO2 and H2O are given off. Because neither
carbon (C) nor hydrogen (H) was in the inlet gas, we can conclude that both C & H were
present in ethanol and that oxygen (O) may also be present. Molecular oxygen (O2) was
added in the combustion process, but some O may also have come from the original
ethanol sample.

The masses of CO2 and of H2O produced can be determined by measuring the increase
in mass of the CO2 and H2O absorbers, respectively.
Suppose that in one experiment the combustion of 11.5 g of ethanol produced 22.0 g of
CO2 and 13.5 g of H2O. We can calculate the mass of C & H in ethanol sample as follows:

Thus, 11.5 g of ethanol contains 6.00 g of carbon and 1.51 g of hydrogen. The remainder
must be oxygen, whose mass is

The number of moles of each element present in 11.5 g of ethanol is

The formula of ethanol is therefore C0.50H1.5O0.25. Because the number of atoms must be
an integer, we divide the subscripts by 0.25, the smallest subscript, and obtain for the
empirical formula C2H6O.
Molecular formula from empirical formula
From percentage compositions we can obtain the empirical formula. We
can obtain the molecular formula from the empirical formula if we are given
the molecular weight.

This whole number multiple is the ratio between the molecular and
empirical formulas weight.

e.g.,
𝓜 H2O2 𝓜 C6H12O6
=2 =6
𝓜 HO 𝓜 CH2O
 EXAMPLE
A sample of a compound contains 1.52 g of nitrogen (N) and 3.47 g of oxygen (O).
The molar mass of this compound is between 90 g and 95 g. Determine the
molecular formula and the accurate molar mass of the compound.

We arrive at the formula N0.108O0.217. By dividing the subscripts by the smaller subscript
(0.108), we obtain NO2 as the empirical formula.
Empirical molar mass = 14.01 g + 2(16.00 g) = 46.01 g
Next, we determine the ratio between the molar mass and the empirical molar mass

The molar mass is twice the empirical molar mass. This means that there are two NO2
units in each molecule, and the molecular formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4.

Practice Exercise
A sample of a compound containing boron (B) and hydrogen (H) contains 6.444 g of
B and 1.803 g of H. The molar mass of the compound is about 30 g. What is its
molecular formula?
 3.7
Chemical Reactions and
Chemical Equations
A chemical reaction: a process in which a substance (or substances) is
changed into one or more new substances.

A chemical equation: uses chemical symbols to show what happens

during a chemical reaction.
 Writing Chemical Equations
What happens when hydrogen gas (H2) burns in air (which contains oxygen, O2) to
form water (H2O). This reaction can be represented by the chemical equation
+ means “reacts with”
means “to yield”
This symbolic expression can be read: Molecular hydrogen reacts with molecular
oxygen to yield water. The reaction is assumed to proceed from left to right as the
arrow indicates.

To conform with the law of conservation of mass, there must be the same number
of each type of atom on both sides of the arrow (we should balance the equation).
(balanced equation)
In the equation:
- H2 and O2 are the reactants, which are the starting materials in a chemical reaction.
- Water is the product, which is the substance formed as a result of a chemical reaction.

The states of the reactants and products are written in parentheses to the right
of each compound; (g) gas, (l) liquid, (s) solid or (aq) aqueous solution.

Examples:
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Reactants appear on the left side of the equation.
Products appear on the right side of the equation.
The states of the reactants and products are written in parentheses
to the right of each compound; (g) gas, (l) liquid, (s) solid, (aq)
aqueous solution.
Subscripts present within a formula and tell the number of atoms of
each element in a molecule.
Coefficients are inserted in front of a formula to balance the
equation.
Sometimes the conditions (such as temperature or pressure) under
which the reaction proceeds appear above or below the reaction
arrow. ∆ refer to temperature.
Balancing Chemical Equations
In the laboratory, small amounts of oxygen gas can be prepared by heating
potassium chlorate (KClO3). The products are oxygen gas (O2) and potassium
chloride (KCl). From this information, we write

Check the number of each element

Heating potassium chlorate produces oxygen,
which supports the combustion of wood splint.
 EXAMPLE

The combustion (that is, burning) of the natural gas component ethane (C2H6) in
oxygen or air, which yields carbon dioxide (CO2) and water.

However, we normally prefer to express the coefficients as whole numbers rather

than as fractions.
EXAMPLE

When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a protective layer of aluminum oxide

(Al2O3) forms on its surface.

However, equations are normally balanced with the smallest set of whole number
coefficients.
 3.8
Amounts of Reactants and
Products
 Stoichiometry
How much product will be formed from specific amounts of starting materials
(reactants)?
How much starting material must be used to obtain a specific amount of
product?

Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of reactants and products in a

chemical reaction.

To interpret a reaction quantitatively, we need to apply our knowledge of molar

masses and the mole concept.

Mole method, which means that the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical

equation can be interpreted as the number of moles of each substance.
The stoichiometric coefficients show that one molecule of N2 reacts with three molecules
of H2 to form two molecules of NH3. It follows that the relative numbers of moles are the
same as the relative number of molecules:

This equation can also be read as “1 mole of N2 gas combines with 3 moles of H2
gas to form 2 moles of NH3 gas”.
In stoichiometric calculations,

the symbol means “stoichiometrically equivalent to”.

This relationship enables us to write the conversion factors

e.g., 6.0 moles of H2 react completely with N2 to form NH3. Calculate the amount of
NH3 produced in moles?

e.g., suppose 16.0 g of H2 react completely with N2 to form NH3. How many grams
of NH3 will be formed?
the link between H2 and NH3 is the mole ratio from the balanced equation. So we need to
first convert grams of H2 to moles of H2, then to moles of NH3, and finally to grams of NH3.

Similarly, we can calculate the mass in grams of N2 consumed in this reaction.

 EXAMPLE
The food we eat is degraded, or broken down, in our bodies to provide energy for growth
and function. A general overall equation for this very complex process represents the
degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):

If 856 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a person over a certain period, what is the mass of
CO2 produced?
EXAMPLE

All alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas and the
corresponding alkali metal hydroxide. A typical reaction is that between
lithium and water:

How many grams of Li are needed to produce 9.89 g of H2?

Practice Exercise
Methanol (CH3OH) burns in air according to the equation

If 209 g of methanol are used up in a combustion process, what is the mass of H2O
produced?

Practice Exercise
The reaction between nitric oxide (NO) and oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
is a key step in photochemical smog formation:

How many grams of O2 are needed to produce 2.21 g of NO2?

 3.9
Limiting Reagents
Limiting Reagents
How Many Cheese Sandwiches Can I Make?

The amount of available bread limits the number of sandwiches.

Limiting reagent (limiting reactant): the reactant used up first in a
reaction, because the maximum amount of product formed depends on
how much of this reactant was originally present. When this reactant is
used up, no more product can be formed.

Limiting reagent is completely consumed in a reaction (present in the

smallest stoichiometric amount). Its called limiting regent; because it
determines or limits the amount of product formed.

Excess reagents are the reactants present in quantities greater than

necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent.
 EXAMPLE

Suppose, mixture of 10 mole H2 and 7 mole O2 react to form water.

The number of O2 needed to react with all the H2 is:

In this example, H2 would be the limiting reactant, which means that once all the
H2 has been consumed the reaction stops. And O2 would be the excess reactant,
and some is left over when the reaction stops.
 EXAMPLE
Consider the industrial synthesis of methanol (CH3OH) from carbon monoxide and
hydrogen at high temperatures:

Suppose initially we have 4 moles of CO and 6 moles of H2.

In stoichiometric calculations involving limiting reagents, the first step is to decide
which reactant is the limiting reagent.

One way to determine the limiting reagent is to calculate the number of moles of
CH3OH obtained based on the initial quantities of CO and H2; the limiting reagent
will yield the smaller amount of the product.

Because H2 results in a smaller amount of CH3OH, it must be the limiting reagent.

Therefore, CO is the excess reagent.
 EXAMPLE
Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide:

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2.

(a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent?
(b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.
(c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?

(a)
from NH3

from CO2

NH3 is the limiting reagent because it produces a smaller amount of (NH2)2CO.

(b) We determined the moles of (NH2)2CO produced in part (a), using NH3 as the limiting
reagent. The molar mass of (NH2)2CO is 60.06 g.

(c) We can determine the amount of CO2 that reacted to produce 18.71 moles of
(NH2)2CO. The amount of CO2 left over is the difference between the initial amount and
the amount reacted.
Starting with 18.71 moles of (NH2)2CO, we can determine the mass of CO2 that reacted

The amount of CO2 remaining (in excess) is the difference between the initial amount and
the amount reacted:

Practice Exercise
The reaction between aluminum and iron(III) oxide can generate temperatures
approaching 3000oC and is used in welding metals:

In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3.

(a) Calculate the mass (in grams) of Al2O3 formed.
(b) How much of the excess reagent is left at the end of the reaction?
 3.10
Reaction Yield
Theoretical yield of the reaction, is the amount of product that would result if
all the limiting reagent reacted. The theoretical yield, then, is the maximum
obtainable yield, predicted by the balanced equation.

Actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained (in practice) from a
reaction, is almost always less than the theoretical yield.

To determine how efficient a given reaction is, chemists often figure the
percent yield, which describes the proportion of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield. It is calculated as follows:

Percent yields may range from a fraction of 1 percent to 100 percent.

- The theoretical yield is the yield that you calculate using the balanced equation.
- The actual yield is the yield obtained by carrying out the reaction.
 EXAMPLE
Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is used in rockets, aircraft,
jet engines, and bicycle frames. It is prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with
molten magnesium between 950oC and 1150oC:

In a certain industrial operation 3.54 x 107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13 x 107 g of Mg.
(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams.
(b) Calculate the percent yield if 7.91 x 106 g of Ti are actually obtained.

Because there are two reactants, this is likely to be a limiting reagent problem.
(a) from TiCl4

from Mg

Therefore, TiCl4 is the limiting reagent because it produces a smaller amount of Ti.
The mass of Ti formed is
(b) The mass of Ti determined in part (a) is the theoretical yield. The amount given
in part (b) is the actual yield of the reaction.

Practice Exercise
Industrially, vanadium metal, which is used in steel alloys, can be obtained by
reacting vanadium(V) oxide with calcium at high temperatures:

In one process, 1.54 x 103 g of V2O5 react with 1.96 x 103 g of Ca.
(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of V.
(b) Calculate the percent yield if 803 g of V are obtained.