REC-ERC-75-1

Bureau of Reclamation

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. AUTHORIS1 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
R E P O R T NO.
Reaeration Research Program Management Team REC-ERC-75-1 ,

. PERFORMING O R G A N I Z A T I O N NAME A N 0 ADDRESS 10. WORK U N I r NO.

Bureau ot6eclamation
:I. C O N T R A C T OH G R A N T NO.
Engineering and Research Center -
Denver, Colorado 80225 . ,
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13. TYPE O F REPORT A N 0 PERIOD
COVERED
!. SPONSORING A G E N C Y N A M E A N 0 A D D R E S S
Progress Report
Same
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14. SFON,SORLNG AGENCY CODE
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5. S U P P L E M E N T A R Y NOTES
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6. ABSTRACT
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The research program, Reaeration a Sontrol of r is solved ~ases,'has ,emphasized destratification of

reservoirs, biological effects o f reaeration and destratification, dissolved gas levels a t energy dissipator
structures, conception o f new met:lods and devices for reaeration, and corrosion by molecular oxygen.
Destratification testing has occurred at Flaming Gorge ReseiGoir and Lake of the Arbuckles and is being
planned for Lake Caj+s. Research o n biological effects at Lake of the Arbuckles is receiving support and a
comprehensive state-6Fth&it report has 9een issued. A dissolved gas level predicrion method has been
developed from data collected from a wide;$ariety of m e s o f energy dissipaters. Laboratory testing o n t l l e
corrosive effects o f the use o f molecular oxygen is underway. (28 ref)

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7 . K E Y WORDS A N D DOCUMENT A N A L Y S I S
1. DESCRIPTORS--/ aeration/ dissolved oxygen1 *reaeration/ 'dissolved gases/ energy dissipatorsl super
saturation/ corrosion tests1 reservoirs1 streams / *progress reports1 *applied research1 bibliographies

I. IDENTIFIERS--/ destratification (thermal)/ Flarnmg Gorge Reservoir, U T I Lake of the Arbuckles, OK/ Lak
Casitas. CR
: COSATI FieldlGrouP 8 H
18. OISTRIBU'I'ION S T A T E M E N T 19. S E C U R I T Y C L A S S 2 1 . NO. O F PAC
ITHIS REPORT1
4vailoble from the National Technical Infomotion Service. operations UNCLASSIFIED 22
>ivision. Springfield. Virgioio 22151. 20. S E C U R I T Y C L A S S 22. PRICE
ITHIS PAGE1
! UNCLASSIFIED
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GASES -
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A PROGRESS'REPORT ;i
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Reaeration Research Program Management Team

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March 1975 >b ;
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. , D i v i s i o n o r General Research
Engineering and llesearch Center ','..,\
Denver, Colorado 'A
...- ~~ 7 ~ - D ~ .
under the direction of the Reaeration Research Program Managyme-?Y
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Tram (PMT):

E. T. Scherich Division of Design

J. F. LaBounty Division of General Research
R. F. Wilson (past member) Division of Planning Cosrdination
D. A. Hoffman (past member) Division of General Research
D. L. King, Team Manager Division of Genera! Research

A subsidiary team, the Seaeration Methods and Devices Team (MAD).

or directed much of the techn~calwork. Persons who have
served on thls team are:

C. Van Hoek Division of General Research

H. A. Salmar, Division of General Research
F. C. Heller Division of General Research
P. L. Johnson Division of General Research
J. C. Wadge Division of Design ,,

G. H. Austin. Team Manager Division of Design

W. P. Gersch, Team Manager Division of Design \I

The informat~onin this report regarding commercial

products or firms may not be used for advertising or
promotimal purposes, and is not to be construed as
an endorsement of any product or firm by the Bureau
of Reclamation.
 Conclusions ................................... .... 1
Application ........................................ 1
Introduction ........................................ 1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:. . . . 1
:<. Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Research Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Environmental andEiological Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Nitrogen emboiism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .
Standard Method o f Economic Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standardization of reaeration efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Standard method for cost efficiency . . . . . . . . .z: . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods and Devices for Reaeration . . . . . . . . . : . :. . . . . . . . . . . .
Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........
!
Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : '1 . . . . . . . . . 4

Survey of Reaeration Needs . .

Destratification o f Reservoirs
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Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . 'i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................................
4

5
5
Background . . . . . . . . . ................................ 5
Flaming Gorge Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 6
Current Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . : .,. . . . . . . .
'
8
Lake o f the Arbuckles ................................ 8
Lake Casitas ...................................... 14
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biological Effects. 14
Research Needs ..:........ ........................ 14
...
Reaeration of Reservoir Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Introd-stion ...................................... 16
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Hydraulic Structures 16
Background .................................... 16
Reaeration Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Supersaturation ................................... 17
Predictwe Analysis................................. 17
Hydraulic Turbines ................................... 17
Background .................................... 17 .
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Reaerat~onCspabil~tyand Supersaturation 17
Other Methods ..................................... 19

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Hypol~rnnionReaeration 19
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lnstream Reaerat~on 20
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Corrosion b y Molecular Oxygen 20
References ......................................... 21
 2 .........
Typical summer temperature profi!e at,Flaming Gorge Dam I
3 .........
penstock and outlet works structures-Flaming Gorge Dam. 7
4 Hypothetical air-diffuser system for downstream basin-Flaming
Gorge Reservoir ............................... . 9
5 :. .
Map of Arbuckle Reservoir . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . .
....... 10 ::
6 Temperature and dissolved oxygen profiles for selected
dates at Lake of the Arbuckles in Oklahoma . . . . . . . . .
....... 12
7 Air-gun ievice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....... 13
8 Assembly of Garton pump .......................... 14
9 Lake Casitas in California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....... 15
10 Operating stilling basin with predicted (117 percent) and
observed (116 percent) levels of nitrogen supersaturation ......... 18

LIST OF TABLES

Table G

1 Example calculation of reservoir stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <- . .'?I. 5

2 Example destratification calculation : .................... 9 ;.
3 Example calculation for oxygen or a!r injection ................. 19
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The purpose o f this report is to review the program and molecular oxygen on construction materials, par-
d~scribeprogress made thus far on the research project, ticularly m e t a k T h e growing use of molecular oxygen
Reaeration and Control o f Dissolved Gases. for injection into reservoirs, streams, hydraulic
machinery, and conduits prompted this investigation.

CONCLUSIONS
APPLICATION
1. Aspects of the research program plan which have
been emphasized t o date are: destratification of reser- Thq results reported herein can be applied : i o the
voirs, biological effects of reaeration and destratifica- solution o f problems of dissolved oxygen deficiency
tion, dissolved gas levels at energy dissipator structures, and dissolved gas supersaturation i n streams, reservoirs.
and conception o f new .nethods and devices for and reservoir releases.
reaerotion. Research on corrosion b y molecular oxygen
has Leen added tb the originalplan.
INTRODUCTION
2. Dcstratificatjon testing was coriducted at Flaming
Gorge Reservoii using a diffused air system and at Lake Background
of :he Arbuckles using an "air gun." Although i n both

lneasurable changes, particularly i n the former case, subject of reaeration i n I 9 6 8 while considering' a
there 'was eviden6e that hoth methods yielded a
' proposed high dam on the Snake R i v e r . Low-level
destratificaTion efficiency of 1 percent or !ess, which is releases would be required from the dam t o maintain
simllar-to ezrlier experi.nce at very small reservoirs. I n cold temperatures for spawning salmon. However.
"
most cases, the energy requirement associated w i t h these releases would h e essentially devoid of dissolved
these low efficienc~eswould deter application o f these oxyrien (DO).TheijrobIem then became one of raising
nikthods to very large reservoirs. Data were not the-^^ level fr&n zero to saturation i n a flow of
adequate to allow calculation of the reoxygenation 16,000 ft31s (453.1 m9sP). The magnitude and diffi-
cfficiency, although historically these devices have culty o f this task clearly showed the need for improv-
yielded 1 to 2 pounds of oxygen per kilowatt-hcur of ing technical capabilities i n reaeration.
energy expended. Destratification studies are continu-
ing at Lake of the Arbuckles, using a propeller-pump One widely used technique for c o n t r o ~ l i ~
downstream
g
device, and are being planned for Lake Casitas. DO is selective withdrawal. This approach usually has.
minimal effect on reservoir DO levels unless a given
3. A comprehensive state-of-the-art review of the layer is greatly depleted or eliminated by selective
biological effects of artificial destratification and aera- discharge, which might be the case i n smaller reservoirs.
tion i n lakes and reservoirs has been prepared which Unfortunately, selective withdrawal or spillway opera.
outlines research nee,dsi A major study is underway t o tion t o enhance downstream DO conditions also
determine the biological effects of destratification involve; discharging warm water from upper levels of
operaiions at Lake of the Arbuckles. the reservoir, making the river downstream uninhabit-
able by cold water species of fish. Spillway operation
4. Data have been collected from a wide variety of at hydropower installations may also involve a loss i n
.?vpes of energy dissipators with the objective of power revenues. Therefore, artificial reaeration is some-
d e t e h i n i n g their ability t o reaerate and their tendency times the only acceptable alternative.
to supersaturate. General conclusions were drawn
concerning effects of pressure, turbulence, and amount Late i n 1969, an in-house state-of-the-art review of
of air entrained. A more detailed analysis has reaeration research needs was made, a report was
developed a predictive capability so that various issued [I41,* and in 1971 an interdisciplinary planning
char&teristics of the structure can be used t o pre- team was formed. .fluring the review, an in-house
determine the dissolved gas level. Principles of gas seminar was conducted t o familiarize staff members
transfer were used i n developing a reaeration coeffi- with the basic principles of reaeration. As a result of
cient, related t o bubble exposure time, for hydraulic the planning team's efforts, a program management
Structures. team was organized and is now managing and directing

"Numbirs i n brackets designate references l~stedat the end of this report.

 the research program. A l l the regional offices are Research Program
i n v ~ l v e dand are cooperatlng In the many team efforts.
Some of the objectives of the research program
To investigate reaeratlon and supersaturation problems mentioned are further as follows:
and to coordinate Federal activities i n this field, a
Federal Interagency Steering Committee on Reaeration
Environmental and Biological Effects
Research was formed i n November 1971. Msmbers are
the Bureau o f Reclamation. Tennessee Valley' Author-
ity, Corps o f Engineers, Geological Survey, and the ,.
The previousiy planned research program included an
Environmental Protection Agency. The Bonneville estimated funding requirement of nearly S500.000
Power Administration participates as an observer. over a 4-year period for investigation of environmental
, . and biological effects. This amount was approximately
;. As the research program developed, the need became half the requirement for the total prsgram. Funding. .
evident for a subsidiary technical team to study and has occurred at a rate of abouc $50.000 per year for
develop methcds and devices for reaeration. Such a the total program. As a result,.the program is being
tcam vas formed i n June 1972, following a survey of extended beyond the 4-year period and research on
reaeration needs i n the Bureau's seven regions, which environmental and biological effects has received mini-
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was conducted d,yring 1971. [lo]. ma1 support. :%me assistance has been provided t c ~
',', investigators w50 haveZtth$r, larger funding sources.
,,

Objectives
The effect of reaeration upon"the environment, and
The following specific objectives, considered t o be of synecological (studies of individual organisms or indi-
equal priority, were adopted by the Program Manage- vidual species) and au.&o!ogikal (studies of groups of
ment Team (PMTI:
, .
organisms associated as au r ~ i t )aspects of the aquatic
-system must be evaluated. This evaluation should be
1. Determine the reaeration capabilities cf con- made on all reaeration devices, structures, and related
ventional hydraulic works. features investigated during the research program t o
determin&.ihe effects on the reservoir, stream, or a
2. Develop new methods and devices t o achjeve reservoirstream~,system.The goal is to obtain generali-
reaeration o f reservoirs, reservoir releases, and zations which can be applied for prediction of effects.
streams; establish related design and operating 'Two important aspects of the e\!sluation that should be
characteristics. considered are: (1) the rate and magnitude of changes.
and (2) the relationship between physical, chemical,
3. Evaluate environmental and biolog~caleffects of and biological factors.
reaeratlon.
Since i t . i s vital to the evaluation t o have substantial
4. Determme the re!ative performance o f different
background data, the collection of data should begin 1
methods and devices at various locations i n a river-
or more years prior t o the actual test. The test period
reservoir system. -
alone should be at least 2 years. It is assumed that the
data will be collected during actual reaeration tests.
5. Establish standard procedures for ratng the
The research team should determine the parameters
reaeratlon efficiency and cost effectiveness of
that should be measured. The following list of param-
methods and devices.
eters to be investigated should serve as a guide:
6. Develop basic informsiion and procedures, for
use i n planning and design for (a; determining needs. Physical
(b) selecting 'optimum methods and devices, (c)
estimating costs, and (d) predicting the effects of a. Temperature
reaeration. :

b. Transparency
Up to:the time of this progress report, emphasis has
been on reservoir destratification (including biological
effects) and measurement of dissolved gases at conven-
tional hydraulic works (particularly supersaturation).
A l l work i s aimed at satisfying Objective 6. 7 d. Turbidity
 a. Dissolved oxygen-field t e s t
Standard method for cost efficiency.-Objective:
b. Routine chemical analyses Develop standard procedures for estimating cost of
reaeration equipment installation, operation, and
c. Alkalinity-field test maintenance; allow comparison between alternative
methods or combinations of methods: and to become
d. pH. GO2-field t e s t aware of possible side benefits, such as the value of
byproducts, for example, hydrogen in oxygec
e, Biochemical oxygen demand (BOP! production.

f. Problem chemicals Methods and Devices for Reaeration

.i. ,,..,
.,.

g. Deposition and solution products Research and development.of methods and devices fq:'
reaeration should be concerned.n,ith the applicatio.~of.
h. Other gases of interest existing techhques to large volumes and fljiws:'
. . ,.,.
, .. development of new methods and devices;, evaluaiioii
s i ~ / ~ g i ~ a'' i : ! , of the reaeration capabilityof spillwayi and outlet
works; identification of secondary effects (beneficial or
Fish, zooplankton, algae, bottom fauna: adverse): and determination of relative efficiencies.
optimum use, and limitations for various reaeration
a. Life history methods and devices. The problem may M'divided into
three pans: (1) reservoir reaerati~n,(2) release reaera-
b. Growth rates tion, and (3) instream reaeration. To maintain knowl-
edge of the state of the art, the review of current
c. Change in composition and numbers. literature and research reports should continue..,

Nitrogen embo1isni.-Problem areas or potential Reservoirs.-Three assumptions are suggested for use in
problem areas should be identified. Contact should be approaching the problem of reservoir reaera:ion,
maintained with the Columbia River smdies. namely:

Standard Method of Economic Comparison 1. Stratification considered to be desirable.

Standardization of reaeration efficiency.-Objective: 2. Destratification or homogenization considered to

Formulate an empirical relationship to include all be desirable.
parameters which influence the reaeration efficiency of
a method or device (such as- OX.^::.? deficit below 3. Either stratification or homogenization is
saturation, oxygen deficiZLGiow desired level. initial satisfactory.
DO level, temperature, pressure, concentration of
contaminants, stream velocin/, etc.) Reservoir stratification may be highly desirable when
certain requcrements are imposed. When a cola, high
For example: DO release '.is required, the reaeration of only the
hypolimnion may be indicated. Mixing may be indi-
Efficiency (pounds of oxygen per kilowatt-hour! = cated under other conditions because of secondary
K T ~ etc. ~ ~ D ~ beneficial effects. Requirements for temperature con-
trol may be so rigid that a combination ofhypolimnion
Where: a, b, c. K = constants reaeration and selective withdrawal may be indicated.
T =temperature
p =total pressure at the point of Certain general studies may be needed to provide an
measurement, and adequate understanding of the hydrodynamics of
D = oxygen deficit reservoirs SO that a rational selection of the method
andlor device can be made, location of devices can be
From field measurements, a value for K could be optimized, and operating criteria can be established.
determined empirically for determined standard condi-
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include: serve as reaerators without an external energy sowce.

1. Eva!uation of effi.5encies of devices within Research i n reaeration of releases should be centered

ranges of oxygen requirement deficit and driving around the p r o b l e Z associated with large flows:
force. comparisons of:devices and methods with respect t o
effectiveness within certain desired ranges o f percent
2. Evaluation of iniensive (short-term, large input) satuiation, including supersaturation; effectiveness
use versus extensive (long-term, smaller input) use when releases are high i n BOD; and limitations o f
i!
for various devlces. various devices because of nitrogen supersaturation.
;.> . . ~ ~ Specific research areas should include the following:
'' 3. Evaluation -6i. continuous versus intermittent
operation. 1. Prototype evaluatio" o f reaeration characteristics
of, and possible modifications to, existing works
4. Identification (not t o include evaluation) of including:
secondary effects (biological, chemical.::physical)
associateti with certain methods and devices. (a1 Gates and valves,

The types of devlces that should be included i n the (bf Energy dissipators,
research stud~esare:
(cl Chute? and other conveyance structures, and
1. Devices Tor hypolimnion reaeration:
(d) Turbines.
A.
(a) Diffusers (air, molecular oxygen)
2. Laboratory development of jet aspirators t o
(bl Pumps and pumps combined with other determine applicability t o closed flow conditions.
devices
3. Prototype evaluation o f devices with respect to
(cl Other devices which may be developed nitrogen supersaturation. Establishing limitations
and development of modifications t o reduce
2. Devices for full reservoir reaeration: nitrogen saturation.
',:

(a) Bubblers, hydraulic guns, helixors, etc. 4. Large scale. perhaps prototype, modeling and
evaluation of the U-tube aerator.
(b) Pumps
5. Evaluation o f molecular oxygen injection at an
(c) Other devices which may be developed. existing turbine.

Evaluation of reaeration methods an&,devices should; -;'y.Streams.-Reaeration of natural streams has been the
include laboratory testing and protot~p?,~est~zS-$s object of considerable research, but additional studies
appropriate. may be warranted especially with regard t o those
streams which flow into reservoirs and those which
Releases.-Reaeration of releases from reservoirs carry reservoir releases. Reaeration of 'inflows t o
involves high and low energy flows. The problems reservoirs i n some c a m may be more desirable, and
associated with these two flow conditions are distinctly perhaps less expensive, than reaeration of the water
dissimilar. The high energy flow condition may be that is impounded. It is also possible that a combina-
utilized t o draw air into the flow without an external tion of inflow reaeration and reservoir reaeration may
source of energy. This may be done by gates and produce optimum results. Likewise, reaerarion of water
valves, jet diffusers, energy dissipators, flip buckets, or in the natural stream below a dam may be a desirable
spillway chutes. There is an opportunity to evaluate and efficient alternative or adjunct t o reservoir reaera-
most of these devices using existing structures. Low tion. Objectives should include:
energy flow situations involve, t o some extent, the
exuenditure of enera" from an external
d.
source. i-he I . Development of criteria fbr evaluating reaeration
u.tube aerator, oxygen injection at o f reservoir inflow and outflow streams as a
hydraulic turbines, and afterbay reaeratlon are
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substitute or an adjunct t o reservoir and reservoir 1. Develop methods and procedures for improving
release reaeration. the quality of hypolimnion waters and, accordingly.
low-level releases into streams and canals.
2. Evaluation of inst<-.am reaeration devices; taking
into account stream geometry, discharge, and BOD; 2. Evaluate the application of destratification in
for the purpose of de:ermining m.i,?imum reach t o comparison with other reservoir water quality con-
achieve desired DO levels and relative efficiencies of trol measures.

3. Develop and evaluate more efficient methods for

-- preventing winterkill in small reservoirs.
SURVEY OF REAERATION NEEDS
4. Develop high-efficiency devices for in-stream
During 1871, a questionnaire suivey was made of ,: reaerztion. l .
Bureau of Reclamation regians and the Engineering :-.
and Research LE&R) Center offices t o determine the More than 27 reservoirs and 8 streams were listed
extent of problems in Bureau and other reservoirs, where problems existed because of low 90. Thus, each
streams, canals, and aquifers resulting from the lack of of these sites presented an opportunity for reaeration
dissolved oxygen. The prewiously described research research.
plan war based on the needs so identified. The results
were described in a summary report [I01 t o the PMT. The problem of supe;saturation of dissolved gases was
not Identifled as be;ng a major coilcern a t the time the
The following major problems were identified: survey was made. However, this concern developed
later and became a major part of the research program.
1. Low DO levels in reservoirs due t o local areas of
bottom deposits with high BOD; eutrophication, ice
cover, and stratification inhibiting atmospheric DESTRATIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS
reaeration; dissolved iron and manganese; and high
concentrations of nutrients and warm temperatures Background
with associated algae blooms.
Work in this subject was pioneered by Symons and his
2. Low DO levels in streams resulting from heavy associates in the US. Public Health Service. Although
BOD loading, inadequate waste treatment, high their work was limited t o very small impoundments.
nutrient levels, and low DO releases from reservoirs. they developed a method for calculating destrati-
fication efficiency which has universal application
Research needs were determined in order of priorlty as [231.An example calculation i s given in table 1. Also,
follows: under Symons' leadership, a survey was conducted

TABLE 1.-Example calculation o f reservotr stabiliw

From reference [231

Moments ~ i r t a n c e ' p o m gained or ,.

about center of layer lort.by moving Mult. Temp. Specific Stability,
Layer, Volume. Weight. surface. to i~othermal . layer t o C. G.. factor, profile, gravit" 10'~
ft acre-feet lo6 lbs 101° ft4bs C.G..f t 10" tf-lbs 10" ft-lbs "C factor ft-lk

Isothermal center of gravity (C.G.1: P.E. = Potentla1 Energy

7.747 l o L 3
= 16.8 f t . from surface Max.stabil8ty =2.8 x 101° ft-lbs
4.621 x l o L 2
which provided general and approximate informatien
on desrratification efficiency and costs for reservi..~:
up t o nearly 500,000 acre-feet (617 x lohm') in
volvme L241.

I n 1962. Koberg and Ford (151 of the Geological

Survey also pirformed some basic work with an
airhubbling system at Lake Wohlford i n California.
2.500 acre-feet (3.08 x 10%~).

:'jne Geological Survey at Lake Cachuma i n California,

205.000 acre-feet (253 x 10hmm'). met with little
success &cause of inadequate sizing of the diffusedlair
system 191.
.,<& ->.,:.
Since 1968, a successful diffused-ai;7d~stratification.:
system has operated at Lake Casitas i n California.
254.000 acre-feet (313 x 106m"). underthe direction
of the Casiws Metropolitan Water District L 6 1 The
system was intended t o maintain a minimum DO level
of 1 mgll near the municipal intake, maintain a DO
level of greater than 5 mgll in the upper zone of the
reservoir t o support existing aquatic !fe, establish 2
maximum allowable temperature of 64 F i n the lower
zone of the reservoir, and enhance the reservoir fishery
by increasing the habitable reservoir volume.

I n recent years there has been interest i n applying the

concept of destratification t o increasingly larger reser-
voiis. I n 1968, the Corps o f Engineers installed a
300-horsepower diffused-air system at Lake Allatoons
in Georgia. 367,500 acre-feet (453 x 106m'). I n 1971,
the Corps also installed a diffused-air system at Table
Rock Reservoir i n Missouri, 2.7 million acre-feet
(3.330 x 10' m3 1.

Flaming Gorge Reservoir

I n 1972, small-scale pilot tests were conducted at

Flaming Gorge Dam i n Utah (fig. 1) t o determine the
feasibility of using destratification as a method of
controlling the temperature of releases through the
~ o w e r ~ l a 151.
nt
, .,
. .,.
. .,
During the- years -+ired t o fill Flaming Gorge
Reservoir t o near-maximum operating levels, the tail-
water fishery has followed a pattern of development
previously noted o n other large reservoirs with single-
level release facilities. With low-level diversions in
operation during filling o f the dead storage pool, little
change occurred i n the q u a l r ~ y of releases. As the
reservoir reached intermediate levels, silt was retained
in the reservoir, summer release temperatures were
controlled t o a 50' t o 55O F.range, and an ideal trout
habitat was created downstream. As the reservoi:
continued t o rise toward upper operational levels with
 data which mighz be used in designing a subsequent
system was discussed. Following the meeting, the
Denver Engineering and Research Center was requested
to study the problem at Flaming Gorge, and to initiate
preliminary destratification testing and data collection
during the summer of 1972.

Use of the trashrack ice-prevention system for test

operations appeared t o be the most feasible approach
for the following reasons:

1. The system could be placed in operation with a

minimum of modification and cost, soon enough to
aware valuable data acquisition in 1972 as
requested.

2. The existing system was extensive and ideally

segmented which would allow a range of experi-
mentation horizontally and vertically.

3. I t appeared desirable to ,fully investigate the

Figure 2. Typical m m m e i temperature profileat Flaming capabilities of the existing system before proceeding
Gorge Dam. ,~. to design a completely new installation.
:,::

--Filling line qoller; ~ .

:Toke-off bracket

Vdie

' axis of dam

SECTION THRU POWER PLANT SECTION THRU OUTLET WORKS
:AT PLANE 9 F C E N T E R S )

Figure 3. Penstock and outlut workr structures-Flaming Gorge Dam

 4. Although it was anticipated that use of the under midsummer conditions. Efficiency of this system
existing systems would. not greatly affect release varied from 0.3 to 0.7 percent.
temperatures because mixing would be restricted to
elevations above the penstock entrances, it was Using the reasonable assumption that a diffuser system
believed that sufficient change in the temperature with an efficiency of 0.5 percent could be designed,
profile near the dam would be noted, which would power requirements for destratifying the downstream
be an aid in future design. basin at Flaming Gorge (fig. 4) to a depth of 200 feet
(61 rnl would be 320 horsepower. The power require-
The 1972 pilot testing, as expected, produced no ment for the entire reservoir using 0.5-percent
measurable effect on powerplant release temperatures. efficiency and under similar condirions would be 6.120
However, a limited volume of water near the dam horsepower, which is obviously impracticable. It was
above the level of the intzkes appeared to be affected. estimated that the capital cost of an air-diffuser
Monitoring data ob?ained were valuable in designing installation adequate for control of the downstream
and estimating a conceptual prototype destratification basin would be approximately $200,000. In addition,
system, and will also aid in the design of alternative the annual operating costs for this installation,
temperature control systems.

"
diffuser pilot testing operation difficult were: estimated at $283.000. which includes full capital cost
plus 1 year's operation. Anything less than prototype
a. Lack of adequate, background data prior to the scale testing would probably be inconclusive.
start of the operation:
Previous experience with the use of diffused.air sys-
b. Natural, long-period perturbations in the temper- tems suggests rather conclusively that the destratifica-
ature profile caused by variations in release, wind, tion efficiency i s on the order of 1 percent or less.
and changes in storage. Therefore, this technique wouldseem to be limited, for
reasons of economics, to relatively small irnpound-
c. An inadequate number of stations for measure- ments. However, an alternative approach would be to
ment of tempereture profiles in the immediate zone destratify only a portion of a reservoir, near the intake
of testing because of limited manpower. for example, or to partially destratify only to the
degree necessary to control a specific water quality
d. The very small energy input and low destratifica- problem. Example calculations are shown in table 2.
tion efficiency of the air diffusers. The success of these latter two approaches depends
greatly on the resulting reservoir hydrodynamics,
e. The proximity of the diffusers to the dam and which require further study.
thr! zone of influence of the penstock infake flow
n&. Because of the uncertainties and high costs of destrati-
fication at Flaming Gorge Reservoir, selective with.
f. Poor timing of the tests; the pilot operation was drawal was chosen as the most economical and reliable
not started until the reservoir had reached peak method for controlling temperatures below Flaming
stratification. Gorge Dam.

I t is believed that the efficiency of the 1972 pilot Current Studies

system, estimated at 0.02 percent, was severely limited
by size and location. Results of a previous laboratory Lake of the Arbuckles
study suggested that below a certain critical limit of
energy input, the destratification effect would be The major thiust by the Bureau in destratification
essentially negligible. research i s at Lake of the Arbuckles in Oklahoma,
figure 5. Arbuckle Dam and Reservoir were con-
Prototype testing by the Corps of Engineers at Lake structed on Rock Creek in south.central Oklahoma in
. Allatoona in Georgia (a reservoir comparable in size to 1966 by the Bureau to provide municipal and indus-
- the downstream basin a t Flaming Gorge and with trial (M&ll water supplies to the towns of Ardmore,
similar power generation releasasl increased water Davis, Sulfur, and Wynnewood, and a major oil
temperatures at a depth of 140 feet (42.7 m) by 10' F refinery near Wynnewood. The project was transferred
 TABLE 2.-Example destrarification calcularion

Total max. stability = 2.8 x 10" ft4b Assuming an efficiency of 0.5 percent for a diffused-
air system:
Assume that the stability increases linearly from zero
on April 1 to 2.8 x 10" ft-lb on July 1. then decreases Compressor size = -
6.5 hp
0.005
= 1,300 hp
linearly thereafter to zero on November 1.

By startingdestratification on April I.continuous mix. Assuming that destratification of only one-fourth of

ing could be maintained with a power input of: the reservoir is necessary:

2'8 10'0 ft-lb

(91 days) (24 hourlday)
= 1.282 x lo7 ft-lblhour, -
Compressor size = 1.300 hp = 325 hp
4

then:
 2

Ftgure 5 . Map of- Arbuckle Resewolr. (Courtesy of Southwest Regon, USER)

to the Arbuckle Mdster Conservancy Dtstrict for
operation and rnalntenance beginning on January 1,
1968. major effect i s circulation and reaeration from the
atmosphere. The device, tested at Lake of the
Stream water quality d a d from the 1926-1961 period Arbuckles during the summer of 1973, showed an
indicated that the reservoir would yield high quality estimated pumping capacity of 30 ft3/s or 60 acre-feet
water for M&l use. This has been borne out by per day (74 x 10' m3/day), withdrawing water from a
operating experience since 1968. However, some form depth of about 57 feet (17.4 m). which was about 10
of chemical. algae. or micro.organism in the reservoir feet (3 m) from the bottom of the lake. Temperature,
water causes a rapid depletion of chlorine when dissolved oxygen, conductivity, iron, phosphorus,
introduced at the pumping plant and the-point of ammonia nitrogen, phytoplankton, zooplankton. and
release from the pipeline at the regulating reservoir. the effects on fish growzh are being studied by the
Chlorination is thercfure required at the points of Oklahoma Coopergtive Fishery Unit at Oklahoma State
water treatment. Also, copper sulfate has been used in University.
the regulating reservoir to control aquatic weed
growth. The results of testing during 1973 indicated an overall
d9stratification efficiency of 0.3 percent, using a
The annual development of thermal stratlflcatton giisoline engine-driven compressor part of the time and
during the warm part of he season, with accompany- an electric motordriven compressor part of the time.
ing depletion of DO tn the hypolimr~ion (fig. 6) The, electric compressor was considerably more
suggested that steps should be tpken to prevent any efficient than thk gasoline compressor, and calculations
future serious deteriorat~onof water quality in the suggeste? that an overall destratification efficiency of
M&l deliveries. about :l.1 percent could have been obtained i f the
electric compressor had been used exclusively. This
I t was decided that destratification should be applied latter value compares closely with efficiencies obtained
to eliminate the DO uepletion in the hypolimnion, with this type of device at other locations, including
provide cooler waters at and :near the surface to many very small impoundments.
reduce evaporation losses and control algae growth,
reduce the organic content of the water, reduce Data were not available for computation of the
objectionable tastes and odors, reduce the chlorine reoxygenating efficiency of the air gun, primarily
requirement, and reduce the costs of water treatment. because the amount of oxygen utilized during the t e s t
An improved lake fishery would also be expected, as period was unknown. Other air-gun devices have given
well as improvement in the quality of downstream an efficiency of about 1 to 2 pounds of oxygen per
releases. kilowatt-hour, and there is no reason to believe that
the Arbuckle device would not perform similarly.
To accomplish the destratification, the Bureau's South- There was a very apparent effect in the immediate
west Region designed and constructed a type of "air vicinity of the device, as evidenced by increased
gun" for testing. The more usual diffused-air system oxygen concentrations at all depths above the device.
also was to be tested during a later season for There was also some indication of a very slight (less
comparison purposes. The air gun consists of a verticel than 0.1 m g l l ) increase in DO within the hypolimnion
tube with a chamber at the bottom which inter- throushout the areal extent of the reservoir.
mittently releases large air bubbles. The rising bubbles
f i t snugly in the tube and act as a piston which forces G a r y [191, Oklahoma Stare University, has
water out above the bubble and draws water from the deveioped 2-iow-energy destratification device (fig. 81.
lower part of the reservoir into the tube. Thus, the which is being tested at Lake of the Arbuckles. A
reservoir water is continuously circulated and the 112-horsepower device has been applied successfully at
oxygen-depleted bottom waters are brought to the two small impoundments in Oklahoma. A maximum
surface for reaeration from the atmosphere. flow of 10,703 gal/min (23.8 ft3/s) 10.67 m3is) has
been obtained with the device while using 0.498
The air gun (fig. 7) i s constructed of a 2-foot diameter, horsepower. The device is an axial flow pump with a
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe and i s supported from a propeller (7-blade cast aluminum. 41-314 inch (106.0
floating, anchored barge. Air i s supplied from a com- cm) outside diameter, 40 to 80 rlmin), a bellmauth
pressor on shore to the diffuser which produces small entrance, a pump body consisting of a 29-inch4ong
bubbles that rise 4 to 5 feet into a bubble trap. The (73.7 crn) cylinder with a 42-inch (106.7 cm) inside
small bubbles accumulate in the bubble trap which diameter, straightening vanes to suppress vortices at the
periodically dumps a single large bubble into the
-
entrance, and a 24-foot-long (7.3 ml plastic diffuser
, ,
..,
 Winter

50
60
70
80
IJ
I I I I
5 I0 15 20 25 30
TEMPERATURE, OC

Winter
1-7-70
I
I

I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12
DISSOLVED OXYGEN, m g / l
Figure 6. Temperature and dlrsolved oxygen prof~lerfor selected dates at Lake of the Arbuckles an Oklahoma.
 Suspension cables.

24" dio P V C column

in 10'long sections
TO wove oct ion
As a i r bubble rises, water in coizinn
is pushed toward surface.

o t e r inlet, column r e f i l l s behind bubble.

Bubble trop.outomaticolly emits a i r when full,

frequency regulated by a i r supply from surface.

A i r i n j e c t o r (Pipe W/smoll perforations,

porous ceramic o r o t h e r )

Figure 7. Alr-gun dewce.

under the pump varying from 3.5 feet (1.1 m) t o 8.0 If the Garton pump shows a marked increase i n
feet (2.4 m l i n diarneter. Water is pumped downward destratification efficiency over other devices, it prob-
from the reservoir surface. ably would not be fruitful t o test a diffused air
system, since this method has historically shown a
A 10-horsepower destratifier with a 16-foot (4.9-ml destratification efficiency of only about 1 percent.
diameter propeller was constructed for the 1974 and
1975 tests at Lake of the Arbuckles. Operation was
intended t o begin a t the onset of stratification with the The Garton Pump operated only a short: time during
of preventing stratification and maintaining the the 1974 season because of mechanical difficulties.
reservoirin a condition of constant circulation, The Pitot tube measurements below the propeller showed a
Same are being monitored as those during calculated pump flow of about 350.000 gallmin (22.1
1973 testing of the airgun. The device isbeing m31s) at the design propeller speed of 12 rlmin.
tested without the diffuser. which will resuire more Testing wil'continuein
power input, but will greatly reduce construction and
installation costs.
 foregoing report [251 in i t s entirety, as follows:

Greater emphasis must be placed on design and

experimentation in studies involving artificial
destratification. A team approach i s necessary in
assessing the effects of artificial destratification
on lake ecology. Studies should include rigorous
controls so that specific questions can be
answered at least for small lakes. It i s also useful
to develop models to predict and quantitate the
perturbatiqn on the system in order to optimize
engineering efforts. Long-term changes on a
reservoir ecosystem ensuing from annual artificial
destratification as compared M h antecedent
conditions should be analyzed and compared
with previous findings derived from observations ?.
made in a single summer. A need exists for
comparative analysis of the impact of artificial
desrratification on reservoir ecosystems in differ-
ent geographical regions in North America.
Figure% Assembly ofGarton pump. [From reference [I91 1
Efforts should involve a decade of sustained
effort on one ecosystem. Artificial destratifica-
tion or hypolimnetic aeration should be con-
Lake Casitas sidered to be a scientific research project with
data carefully recorded and deposited regularly
As mentioned previously, a successful diffused-air in a central data bank to be available to all
destratification system has been operating at Lake researchers. Greater effort must be made to
Casitas in California (fig. 91 since 1968. Since Lake develop aeration tactics in rivers which take
Casitas presents an opportunity for reaeration research. advantage of the natural fall of water. These
the Mid.Pacific Region of the Burzau of Reclamation devices ought to require no input of fossil fuel or
has initiated discussions with the Casitas Metropolitan nuclear energy. There i s a need to combine
Water District (formerly the Ventura River Municipal aeration with other engineering alternatives to
Water District) which may lead to a cooperative optimize water quality within and downstream
program. A tentative plan i s to: (1) analyze existing from reservoirs.
data from past operations at Lake Casitas; (2)review
alternative methods for reaeration testing; (3) design Additional effort is needed to study effects of
and construct the most appropriate reaeration or artificial destratification on rates of mineral
destratification device: and (4) test the device, with cycling. Nitrogen stripping using a downflow
appropriate monitoring of physical, chemical, and bubble contact system as described by Speece
biological parameters. (1969) should be given immediate review as a
possible means for stripping nitrogen from water
Biological Effects to alleviate nitrogen supersaturation which causes
salmonid mortality. Information on the impact
In 1972, under contract with the Bureau of Reclama- of artificial destratification on cycling of heavy
tion, Oklahoma State University and the Oklahoma metals, pesticides, and other pollutants i s limited.
Cooperative Fishery Unit issued a comprehensive state- Some hold that since many pollutants 1e.g.
of-the-art review of the biological effects of artificial copper) are lost to the sediments in alkaline and
destratification and aeration in lakes and reservoirs oxygenated waters, artificial desrratification and
[251. The report includes a summary of available aeration may be a satisfactory means of improv-
devices for reaeration and destratification of lakes and ing water quality. However, sediment water
reservoirs, a review of past investigations concerning exchanges cannot be predicted for many ele-
biological effects, a statement of research needs, and an ments and compounds at this time (Lee, 1970).
annotated bibliography. Thus, potential pollutants must be monitored in
 Figure 9. Lake Caritas in California (From Casita Metropolitan Water District information brochurel.

:.I

.-5-
~.
 the sediments before an artificial destratification
attempt i s made, especially if it i s not known
whether mixing will result in suspension of some
sediment.
:Application of reaeration or destratification techniques
More research i s needed on tke effect of artificial to reservoirs, with the object of improving reservoir
destratification on structure and function of the water quality, would be expected also to improve the
biotic community. Information is needed on quality of waters released from the reservoir. When
species diversity of the various groups, popu- operations within the reservoir are infeasible or other-
lation dynamics, microbial ecology, especially wise undesirable, application of reaeration techniques
human pathogens, and secondary productivity. after the water leaves the reservoir may be appropriate.
Further testing of the hypothesis that continuous Reaeration methods can be applied within conduits,
aeration will retard the process of eutrophication hydraulic equipment, hydraulic structures, and the
and da\~elopmentof b l u e p e n algal blooms is downstream channel. In some cases, air entrainment.
needed. A need exists to test promising which occurs through operation of gates, valves,
hypotheses of the impact of annual cycles of conveyance structures, and energy dissipators. growides
destratification on dynamics of reservoir fish adequate reaeration or even supersaturation. However,
populations, especially impcrtant vital statistics the latter condition sometimes results in gas embolism
on density, growth, mortality, and recruitment. in fish.
Careful evaiuation of the impact of aeration
using U-tubes on fish and other aquatic life needs Hydraulic Structures
to be accomplished. Continuous destratification
of northern winterkill and southern eutrophic Background
lakes with histories of winterkill should be
achieved to evaluate the hypothesis that effective In 1969. Elder and Wunderlich [ I 1 1 of the Tennessee
oxidation will reduce detrimental effects on Valley Authority ITVA) reported on the use of the
distribution, density, and productivity of aquatic Howell-Bunger valve as a reaeration device. A special
fauna. Downstream effects on aquatic life containment structure wds developed. Results showed
associated with reservoir aeration needs study. that this techn~que provided a high reaeration effi-
aency, which increased as the discharge veloclty
Additional symposia on reservoir ecosystems are ~ncreased.
desirable as they produce useful compendia of
data, highlight accomplishments, and research In 1970, Holler [I31 described work by the Corps of
needs. A special symposium on aeration of Engineers in modifying the operation of dams on the
natural and man-made lakes would be desirable. Ohio River to increase the capabilities for reaeration.
The authors enco!:rage a greatly expanded pro- Both of the above techniques provide essentially
gram of funding of research by Federal agencies cost-free oxygenation, since the reaeration devices are
charged with responsibility for hydroelectric, intended primarily for other purposes, such as energy
water supply, flood control, and irrigation dissipation.
developments.
The problem of gas embolism in fish emerged prom-
Extensive monitoring would be required as part of this inently in 1970 when large numbers of salmon and
suaested research. Such monitoring will require a steelhead were killed on the Columbia River, appar-
substantial number of people both for recording and ently as a result of gas supersaturation caused by
analyzing the data. Therefore, monitoring would be spillway flows.
expected to consume a large portion of the budget for
any reservoir reaeration research activity. Reaeration Capability

A monitoring program is underway at Lake of the Since May 1972, the Bureau of Reclamation has been
Arbuckles to determine the physical, chemical, and engaged in a program to measure the effects of typical
biological effects of artificial mixing at that location. hydraulic structures on the uptake of dissolved gases
because of their comparatively infrequent use.
Measurements were made for 28 structures at separate Predictive Analysis
locations. In 11 cases, reservoir dissolved gas levels near
the intakes were below saturation. ranging from nearly A predictive capability has recently been developed.
zero t o 97 percent. Releases passed through various The analysis yields the dissolved gas levels that would
types of energy dissipators and, in two cases, through result from the operation of a wide variety of spillway
vented hydraulic turbines. With the exception of one or outlet works structures. Both the reaeration capa-
turbine, which had negligible oxygen uptake, all other bility and the supersaturation potential of these struc-
structures and facilities caused increases in DO t o levels tures may be evaluated. Factors considered include
ranging from 90 percent of saturation t o varying water temperature, barometric pressure, reservoir dis-
degrees of supersaturation. A basic conclusion i s that in solved gas level, release structure size and shape, release
nearly all cases, the combined effects of control flow velocity, discharge, and stilling basin depth and
devices, conveyance structures, and energy dissipators shape. Comparison of the results from this analysis
will eliminate DO deficiencies. An analysis is being with measured prototype data has shown excellent
made of the data to correlate DO uptake with physical agreement. A detailed report on this analysis, which
characteristics of the structures. includes several example applications, is being pre-
pared. Figure 10 shows an operating stilling basin with
predicted and observed levels of nitrogen super-
saturation noted.
Grand Coulee 3am is an apparent contributor t o the
problem of dissolved gas supersaturation and 55s Hydraulic Turbines
embolism on the Columbia River. Extensive data have
been gathered at that location under the direcrion of Background
the Bureau's Pacific-Northwest (PN) Region 121. The ':
correlation between supersaturation level and spillway ;The earliest significant experience i n reaeration by the
discharge is direct. These data, plus other data venting of hydraulic turbines was i n Wisconsin for
collected at various types of structures a t other low-head units [281. Raney and Arnold reported on
locations in the PN Region (31, are included in an the aspiration of air into the draft tube of an Alabama
aralysis to correlate levels of supersaturation with Power Company unit. with a power head of about 65
physical characteristics of the structures. Tentative feet (19.8 m) for the propeller turbine 1201. I n this
conclusions are extracted from the 1973 report 141 on case, deflecting plates were installed i n the draft tubes
measurements made by the E&R Center as follows: t o produce regions of negative pressure for aspiration
of the air. The Corps of Engineers is conducting tests a t
l.,The dominant factor influencing the level of Lake Table Rock i n Missouri which Include investiga-
supersaturation is the pressure t o which the tion of injecting compressed air or molecular oxygen or
entrained air is exposed. Pressure i s directly related a combination of the two into the turbine or penstock.
t o the depth of penetration which is determined by This is a high-head installation of about 200 feet (61
the jet's momentum, organization (degree of com- m). A cost analysis resulted in the choice of molecular
pactness), and orientation, along with the physical oxygen injection through the Gibson piezometer taps
character~stics of the stilling basin, particularly in the penstock. Approximately 20 tons of oxygen per
depth. day will be required t o maintain a downstream DO
level of 6 mg/l.
2. The degree of turbulence i n the energy dissipator
is a significant factor. Highly turbulent flows Reaeration Capabi!ity and Supersaturation
(described as frothy, choppy, etc.) tend t o show
lower supersaturation levels than less turbulenr The monitoring program conducted by the E&R
flows (described as rolling, etc.) for similar depths Center has included hydraulic turbines. One vented
of penetration. hydraulic turbine installation caused very high super-
saturationlevels while others did not. One reason for
3. The amount of air entrained in the flow appears this difference may be the quantity of air entering the
t o be of only secondary importance. Apparently, i n turbine. The depth of the draft tube, and thus t h e
essentially a l l cases, an adequate supply of air is pressure t o whicn the entrained air i s exposed, is
available. The highest supersaturation levels certainly a major factor, although this alone did not
explain the differences observed. Thecomplex swirling I n any event, the tonnage requirement for oxygen Or
flow condirions and boundary geometries of a draft air will be determined by the deficiency, regardless of

possibly the pressure.

~ b ~ ~ re:earch
imore ~ ~ l is~needed
, on this aspect of Miscellaneous devices which show promise for reaerat-
phenomenon. The quantity of air
supersaturation in9 reservoir releases include the U-tube and the
shou!d be monitored at prototype installations. Tests downflow-bubblecontact aerator, both developed
on hydraulic models of turbines might aljo provide SCeeceLZ1* 221.

Other Methods
HYPOLIMNION REAERATION

Situatior~soccur i n which it is desirable to reaerate the

T V A i s conducting full-scale operational tesfs on a reservoir destroying the stratification. For
system for diffusion of mokcular oxygen in the example. cold bottom waters may be desirable for a
reservoir i,mediataly upstream from the penstock downstreamfishery or municipal water supply. If the
intakes. Theoxygenated water is thus Swept directly hypolimnion isdeficient i n DO, methods available
into the intakes and only the downstream release is for injection of molecuiar oxygen intothis layer. The
affected. The diffusers for the system were chosen on basis of this concept isthat oxygen will dissolve
the basis of laboratory and field tests. completely within the hypolimnion and bubbles will
n m be available to rise through the higher layers and
T V A has also investigated the technique of super- cause destratification. This assumption is n o t entirely
sarurating a bypassed flow with oxygen, then releasing ,correct, since bubbles of pure oxygen will strip
the supersaturated flaw into the main stream for nitrogen and other available gases from the watel.
mixing. Thus, only reiatively small flows need t o be Therefore, a reconstructed bubble m&'continue to rise
through the higher layers.

TABLE 3.--Example calculation for oxygen o r air injection

Equivalent terms for 0, concenlration: Assuming maximum discharge of 13,000 fr3!s

1 mg/l = 28.317 mg/ft3 max. rate of 0, injection

= 6.243 x 10'' lb/it3 = (6.243 x (1.3 x 1041 (21
= 3.12q x 10" ton/it3
= 1.360 x 10" tonlacre.feet
= 1,360 ton';/million acre-feet Assuming injection of bubbles under a pressure o i 2
atmospheres (1 f t 3 0, = 0.18 Ib):
Oxygen requirements i n releases:

Avg. O2 deficiency. Release. 0 2 required. I f atmospheric air (21 percent O2 by volume) is used
instead of pure oxygen, ths corresponding required
maximum volume rate is:
800.000 1,088
700,000 1.428
500,000 1,360 540
0.21
= 2,570ft31min air
400,000
-
1.088
However, this assumes 100.percent transfer efficiency
4.964tons:otal of the oxygen in the air. Assuming an actual transfer
efficiency o f 1 0 percent (which is probably somewhat
Assuming a cost for molecular oxygen of $ 5 0 ton:
~ ~ too high. based on experience). the required rate would
be 25,700 ft3/min or 428 ft3/s of air. This would
Oxygen cost = 50 (4,9641 = $248.200 occupy about 3 percent o f the total flow area.
Speece's downflow-bubble-contact aerator can be used
for the method mentioned above. Fast 1121 and
Bernhardt I71 have developed hypolimnion reaeration investigation began in 1973 with a literature survey to
devices which use compressed air. A bypass technique, determine the state of the art, and a test facility is
in which the water is pumped from the hypolimnion t o under construction. Early indications from this investi-
the shore, aerated, and then returned to the gation show that little or no work has been done i n this
hypolimnion, has also been u e d [181. field and that little i s apparently known about the
potential magnitude of the problem. Laboratory
Hypolimniv, reaeration has a potential for application research will be supplemented by examination of
at Flaming Gorge Reservoir, where a portion sf the turbine components following operation of the TVA
hypolimnion never mixes y i t h the remainder of the and Corps of Engineers projects which involve injection
reservoir and remains at 39 F and zero DO the year of molecular oxygen. The following i s an excerpt from
around. T h i s layer, technicaliy called the the results of a literature search on materials corrosion
monimoliminion, i s about 200 feet (61 m) thick at the associated with reaeration using molecular oxygen:*
dam and tapers to zero approximately 12 miles (19.3
km) upstream. The top of the monimoliminion, the Corrosion in aqueous environments is basically
chemocline, i s immediately below the penstock an electrochemical reaction wherein electrons are
intakes. Therefore, mixing with higher levels might released a t the anode with metallic ions formed
allow passage of toxic waters through the pnstock, by oxidation going into solution. A t the cathode,
though the monimolimi~~jon has remained stable for electrons are accepted and negative. ions are
several years. The possibihty of applying hypolirniniop formed. Action at the anode and cathode are
reaeration is being investigated.
-~ interdependent, i.e.. neither can proceed without
the other.

I n the case c!!ror~ (stee!t i n water, iron goes into

solution as ions and,electrons are left behind in
Instream reaeration is defined for purposes of this the metal a t anodic areas. These electrons travel
report as a problem separate from that of reaeration of through the steel t o the cathode, where they
reservoir releases. An example would be a stream which combine with hydrogen ions t o form hydrogen
is unaffected by or distant from a storage impound- gas.
merit, or a stream entering a storage impoundment.
Many devices are available for instream reaeration In neutral, slow-moving, deaerated waters, the
including diffusers, mechanical aerators, cascades, and evolution of hydrogen gas at the cathode pro-
U-tubes, and are more completely discussed in 1141,' ceeds slowly and accumulates as a layer of
and [251. No serious problems have been identified on hydrogen on the metal. This layei decreases the
Bureau of Reclamation projects which could not be cathodic reaction and thus the reaction i s
corrected by reservoir reaeration or reaeration of referred t o as cathodic polarization. Therefore
reservoir releases; therefore, little attention has been iron corrodes very slowly in quiescent, deaerated
directed t o this aspect of reaeration research. However, waters.
reaeration o f r e s e ~ o i rinflows in some cases may,be
the most economical alternative. Dissolved oxygen in the water upsets the equilib.
rium condition established by cathodic polariza-
tion. The oxygen reacts w ~ t hthe,accumulated
CORROSION BY MOLECULAR OXYGEN hydrogen t o form water. As the hydrogen is
removed i n this manner, corrosion 1s allowed t o
Injection of oxygen bubbles immediately upstream proceed. Oxygen i s therefore often referred t o as
from the dam or directly into the penstock or turbine a cathodic depolarizer.
will cause structural components to be exposed to free
bubbles of pure oxygen or water supersaturated with From the above discussion, one can see that
DO. Through the Federal Interagency Steering Com- addition of oxygen can accelerate the corrosion
mittee on Reaeration Research, the Bureau was rate of steel in water. Conversely the corrosion
encouraged t o investigate potential corrosion of mate- rate of some metals and alloys can be reduced by

'Memorandum from Chief, Applied Science Branch, t o Manager, Reaeration Research Program Management Team,
through Chief, Division ot General Research. Denver. Colorado. March 8 , 1974.
addition of oxygen. Examples of such alloys are 25" C i n which the corrosion rate o f mild steel
the stainless steels and aluminum. These mate- varied linearly from nearly 0 at O-ppm 0, to
rials develop stable protective suriace films i n the 18 mils per year (mpy) at 8-1Wppm Oz.
presence of oxygen and are thus rendered
jjassive. These phenomena would hold true i n 3. Uhlig also reports that although increases
practice were i t not for dissolved oxygen concen- i n O2 initially accelerate corrosion of iron, the
tration gradients which develop within the water. rate decreases to a low value at O2 contents
Local differences i n oxygen content can result in beyond a critical concentration due t o passiva-
concentration cells whereby cathodes develop at tion o f the iron by O2. The critical concentra-
areas o f high 0, concentration and anodes occur tion would vary with: pressure, temperature.
in areas of lower O2 content. such as at crevices and TDS of the wser, b u t for distilled water
and under surface films or encrustations. A prime was found t o be 18 ppm as opposed t o 9 ppm
example i s the susceptibility t o crevice corrosion for waters at pH of 10. However. due to its
of the stainless steels. unreliability. Uhlig discourages the use of
oxygen additions beyond the critical concen-
In addition t o its deleterious effect on metals and tration for controlling corrosion.
alloys, oxygen is also regarded as one of the most
damaging influences on organic and synthetic 4. Aluminum-base alloys are relatively
coatings. Oxidation of complex organic coatings insensitive to oxygen content (171.
may result i n simpler. more soluble products
which are readily washed away so that the 5. Corrosion rate of copper increases with
process can continue. Oxidation of natural and increases i n DO concentration I271.
synthetic rubber materials can result i n cracking,
particularly when stress is introduced. [S] ome 6. The corrosion rate of steel i n solutions
evidence of deterioration of coal-tar'enamel i n between pH 4 and 20 i s largely independent
the form of cracking [has also been observed] at of pH and is controlled by the diffusion of
two test sites i n [a1 test in oxygen.enriched oxygen at the cathodes Ill.Most fresh waters
wastewaters. This is highly..cignificant, as coal-tar fall within this p H range.
enamel is currently the standard Bureau penstock
lining material. Coal-tar enamel together with 7. Very little oxygen is utilized in corroding
cement mortar are also the standard lining metal. A t 5 ips (1.5 mlsl water velocity in a
materials for ferrous pipelines. 24-inch main. Larson [ I 6 1 doubts that more
than 0.l.ppm change i n DO occurs.
With this abbreviated background of the cor-
rosion theory as well as experiences in mind, a 8. A e r a t i o n
e f f e c t s are often ,.most
literature search was condircted t o determine the pronounced at the water-air interface i n a
effect ofilpure oxygen additions t o fresh waters vessel [81.
on the corrosion rate o f traditional materials o f
construction. Much information, as indicated by the sampling
above, regarding general behavior of metals and
Although inquiries were sent t o both the alloys i n the presence of oxygen i s available.
Smithsonian Science Information Exchange and However, it was found that due to lack of
the U S . Department o f Commerce, National specificity, little o f the information would be
Technical Information Service, no information useful i n desig"iing to cope with highly oxygen-
was retrieved on this subject. ated fresh waters. Rather, the information would
be useful i n designing tests to obtain the desired
However, a search of the local libraries revealed information.
substantial information which is summarized as
follows:
REFERENCES
1. All,sources agreed that dissolved oxygen is
the n+r corrosive component in waters. [ 11 "A Background t o ?he Corrosion of See1 and Its
Prevention," Corrosion Advice Bureau Booklet
2. iJhlig 1261 reports results of tests i n slowly No. 3. British Iron and Steel Research Associ.
moving water containing 165-ppm CaCI, at ation,.London. Great Britain. 1966
i-i
b, /
 tories. 1972 Uhl~g,New York. Wrley. 1948. p. 39.55

[31 "Dissolved Gas Survey, Pacific Northwest [I81 Merc~er,P. and J. Perret, "Aeration Station of
Region," U S . Bureau of Reclamation, Boise, Lake Bret," Monatsbull Schrveiz Ver Gas - u
Idaho, December 1973 Wasserfachm. 29:25, 1949
(41 ''Dissolved Gas Monitoring Report - F Y 7973,"
U S . Bureau of Reclamation December 1973 [I91 Quintero, J. E. and J. E. Garton, "A Low Energy
Lake Destratifier," Paper No. 72-599, presented
151 "Flaming Gorge Dam Destratification Testing - a t the 1972 Winter Meeting of the American
7972," US. Bureau of Reclamation April 1973 Society of Agricultural Engineers, Chicago.
Illinois. December 1972
I 6 1 Barnert, R. H., "Reservoir Destratification
Improves Water Quality," Public Works, Vol. [201 Raney, H. C. and T. G. Arnold. "Dissolved
102. June 197 1 Oxygen Improvement b y Hydroelectric Turbine
Aspiration," Journai of the Power Division,
I71 Bernhardt. H.. "Aeration of Wahnback Reservoir
Proceedings, Vol. 99, No. P1 ASCE, May 1973
Witl~out Changing the Temperature Profile,"
Journal of the American Water Works Associa-
tion. Vol. No. 59 8, 1967 (21I Speece. R. E., "The Use o f Pure Oxygen in River
and Impoundment Aeration," 24th Purdue
(81 Bosich, J. F., Corrosion Prevention for Practicing Industrial Waste Conference, May 1969
Engineers, New York. Barnes and Noble. 1970,
p. 144 1221 Speece. R. E. and R. Orosco, "Design o f ~ - t u L )
Aeration Systems," Journal of the Sanitarvi
191 Busby. M. W.. "Elimination o f Stratification o f Engineering Division, Proceedings Vol. 96, ~ d '
Lake Cachuma," US. Geological Survey, 1370 SA 3 ASCE, June 1970

(101 Carlson, E. J., "Survey o f Reaeration Needs in 1231 Symons, J. M. and G. G. Robeck, "Calculation
Bureau o f Reclamation Projects," U.S. Bureau of Technique for Destratification Efficiency,"
Reclamation, February 1972 unpublished report. November 1966

1111 Elder, R. A.. M. N. Smith, and W. 0. LVunderlich, 1241 Symons, J. M., "Quality Control i n Reservoirs
"Aeration Efficiency o f Howell-Bunger Valves," for Municipal Water Supplies," a report of the
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federa- Quality Control in Reservoirs Committee. Water
tion, Vol. 41, No. 4, April 1969 Quality Division, American Water Works Associa-
tion, May 1971
[I21 Fast. A. W., "The Effects o f Artificial Aerarion
on Lake Ecology,"Ph.D. Thesis, Mlchigan Stare (251 Toetz. H., J. Wilhm, and R. Summerfelt, "Bio-
University, 1971 logical Effects o f Artificial Desrratificarion and
Aeration in Lakes and Reservoirs - Analysis and
lJ31 Holler, A. G.. Jr.. "Reaerat~on of Discharge Bibliography," US. Bureau of Reclamation
Through Hydraulic Structures," Ph.D. Thesis, Report REC-ERC-72-33,October 1972
University of Cincinnati. 1970
[26] Uhlig. H. H. Corrosion and Corrosion Control,
I141 King. D. L., "Reaeration of Streams and Reser-
New York, Wiley. 1963 p 81
voirs - Analysis and Bibliography," US. Bureau
o f Reciamation Report REC-OCE-70-55,
I271 Wilkins R. A. and R. H. Jenks, Chapter on
December 1970
Copper from Corrosion Handbook, compiled by
[I51 Koberg, G. E. and M. E. Ford, Jr., "Elimination H. H. Uhlig, New York, Wiley, p. 61-68.
o f Thermal Stratification i n Reservoirs and the
Resulting Benefits." U.S. Geological Survey 1281 Wisniewski, T. I;.,"lmprovement of the Quality
Water-Supply Paper 1809-M, 1965 o f Reservoir Discharges through Turbine or
Tailrace Aeration," US. Department of Health.
[I61 Larson, "Chemical Control o f Corrosion," Education, and Welfare Symposium on Stream-
Journal American Water Works Association. 'Jol. flow Regulation for Quality Control, Public
58. No. 3, March 1966 Health Service Publ. No. 999-WP-30, June 1965
7.1750 13.711
Bun-" .I so.,.rn.tia

CONVERSION FACTORS--BRITISH TO METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The following mnwrrion factors adopted by the Bureau of Reclamation are thore published by the American
Society for T e ~ i n gand Materials (ASTM Metric Practice Guide, E 380-681 except that additional faetors ('1
commonly used in m e Burear have been added. Further dircurrianaf definitions of quantities and units is given in
the ASTM Metric Practice Guide.

The mecic unitr and mnverrion factors adopted by the ASTM are bared on the "IntemationalSystem of Unie"
(designated SI for Systems International d'unirerl. fixed by the International Camminee for Weighs and
Measurer: thir ~ r t e mis also known as m e Giargi or MKSA [meter-kilogram (marrl-jemnd.amprel system. This
system has been adopted by Ihe International Or$anizslion for Standardization in IS0 Resommendation R.31.

The metric mhnical unit o f farce is ths kiio(jrarn.force; thir is the force which, when applied to a bcdy having a
mas of 1 kg, giver it an acctleration of 9.80665 m/rediec, the standard smlemtion of free fail toward the esnh'r
m n w for rer level at 45 deg latitude. The metric unit d force i n SI unitr is the newton IN), whish is defined sr
that force which, when applied to a M d y havinga m a r of 1 kg. giver i t an ascelersfion of 1 m/ree/sec.There unitr
m u x be dininguirhed from the [incon.tand local w i g h t of a body having a mas of 1 kg, that is, the weight d a
body is that form with which a body is amacted t o the earIh and is equal to The mars of a body multiplied by Ihe
acceleration due t o graviry. ow ever, becauoe i t is general prastice t o ure ''pound" rather than the tcchnicallv
correct t e n ..pund.far~," the term "kilogram" lor derived mars unit1 her been ured in this guide instead of
.'kilogr.m.forrc" in erpreving the sanvenim factors for forcer. The lwwton unit of force will find increasing ure.
and is essential in 51 units.

Where approximate or nominal Englih unitr are used to e x p w a value or range of valuer, the converted metric
unirr in parenthas are also or nominal. Where prtcire English units are used, me converted mesic
units are expiesred ar equally rignificant valuer.

OUANTITIES AND UNITS OF SPACE

LENGTH

Mil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 (exaetlyi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Micmn

Inches ............... 25.4 (exacdyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Millimeters
Incha ............... 2.54 1exactlyl' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centimeters
Feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.48 (exactly] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centimeters
Feet ................ 0.3048 (exactiyl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meters
Feer ................ 0.0003048 (exaetlyl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kilometers
'Yards ............... 0.9144 [e*actly] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meten
..........
Miles ( . t a u e l 1,609.344 (exactlyl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meters
Miier ................ 1.509344 (exanlyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kilometerr
AREA

Square inches........... 6.4516 lexaalyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square centimetetr

Square feet ............ '929.03 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Squsrerenrimeterr
Square feet ............ 0.092903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square meters
Square yards ........... 0.836127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square meterr
Acres ................ *0.40469 . . . . . . . . ,:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hectares
Acrcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '4.04i8.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square meters
Acres ................ '0.OWW69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square kilometers
Square miles ........... 2.58999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square kilometers
VOLUME

Cubic inches ........... 16.3871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cubiccentimeters

Cubic feet ............. 0.0283168 -1i .................. Cubic meters
Cubic yards ............ 0.734555 .................... Cubic meters

CAPACITY

Fluid ounoes !US.] ....... 29.5737.. ................. Cubiccentimeterr

Fluid ounces IU.S.1 ....... 29.5729.. ...................... Milliiiters
Liquid pine IU.S.1 ........ 0.473179 .................. Cvbicdmimeterr
Liquid pine IU.S.1 ........ 0.473156 ........................ Liters
Quarts IU.S.1 ........... -946,358 ................... Cubiccentimeterr
Ouartr U S . ) ........... .0.945331 ........................ Liters
Gdlonr lU.S.1 ........... '3.765.43 .................... Cubiccentimeters
Gaiionr (US.) ..........- 3.78543 ................... Cubic decimeters
Gallonr(US.1 ........... 3.78533 ......................... Liters
Galionr IU.S.1 ........... '0.00378643 ................... Cubic meterr ..
Gallons IU.K.I .......... 4.54609 ................... Cubic decimeters
Gailonr1U.K.I .......... 4.54596. ........................
Cubic feet ............. 28.3160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liters
Liters
Cubic yards ............ .764.55 ........................... Liters
Acwfeet ............- -1,233.5 ........................ Cubic meterr
Acrefeet ............. '1,253,500 ............................. Liten
 T a l e 11

-- -
MYIIIDI~
-- QUANTITIES AND UNITS OF MECHANICS

BY T o oblaln
hlull~ply BY

NORU AND ENERGY.

I
- - g w per pound ............ .......................
. . . 31.1035 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grams Footpounds . ............ ................................ JOY~S

I
i r o v ounces 1480g:ainii -1.35582
D;;lrcr lbvdpi . . . . . . . . . 2B.3495 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GmmS
P i i ~ n diaud(>l
i ........... 0.45359237 (~xacslyi ...................... Kilogramr WWER
Shon tuwl3.0W lbl . . . . . . . 907.185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Short 10,ll 17,OWlid . . . . .
Kilogram7
0907185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h',ctrislOn<
.....
Longion112.240ibi . . . . . . . . 1,01605 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kilograms

Ounrc. prr cubic inch . . . . . . . 1.72999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G m m r ~ r c u b i c m : i m P : n r

~ a u n d < p rubir
~ r foot . . . . 16.0185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kilogramr wr cubic mersr
Puund$per clhic loot . . . . . . . 0 0160iR5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gram5 pcr cublcsentimeler
1.37894 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gnmrpur cvhiccmlmeter
-- --. . .-
i o n s lbnol car r,,illc " a d
- . .... -. --

BENDING MOMENT OR TOROUE

ELE ERA TI ON'

FOP, por sccond2 ........... -0,3058 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metes
. wrrerond2

FLOW

cubis fcer per racand

lsmond-Icrll . . . . ........ .0.028317 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cubic mclerl pcr second
Cubic l m p r r minute ........ 0.4718 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Litemnet = r m d
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Livers per rerand
GdlonllU.5.i par
--. . . . . 0.06309

. . . . . . . . . . . c.: .
pounds '0.453592 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Kilwmms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .':$ ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nwlonr . .
. . : : : : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dyne5
pounds '4.4482 ..................... ...........
--. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,
pound, .4.4482 ic+ Pound%oerinch '0.17858
GPO 858-894