Syracuse University

SURFACE

School of Architecture Dissertations and

Architecture Senior Theses Theses

Spring 2019

Vimana: A Crisis of Translation

Apoorva Rao
Syracuse University

Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/architecture_theses

Part of the Architecture Commons

Recommended Citation
Rao, Apoorva, "Vimana: A Crisis of Translation" (2019). Architecture Senior Theses. 436.
https://surface.syr.edu/architecture_theses/436

This Thesis, Senior is brought to you for free and open access by the School of Architecture Dissertations and
Theses at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Architecture Senior Theses by an authorized
administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected].
 1

01

A Crisis of Translation

VIMANA
 3

Apoorva Rao
Advisor: Richard Rosa

Syracuse University School of Architecture

Advisory Group: Richard Rosa, Elizabeth Kamell, Timothy Stenson

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 00

A Sincere thanks to

Eli Warshauer C. Ravindran from Vastulab Syracuse University

Ellie Derwenskus Dr. Choodamani Nandagopal, School of Architecture
Amreeta Verma and
Neha Tummalapalli Rajendra Uncle and Family for the Ralph T. Walker
Sukhmann Aneja Travel Prize which
Fatima Mohammad for the references regarding allowed me to travel
Ramya Swaminathan hindu temple architecture, to India to do extended
Karisma Dev answering questions, research on South
Ife(Debbie) and taking me to sites in Indian temples.
Arezo Hakemy Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Prof. Romita Ray Kapoor,

for model and drawing Prof. Lawrence Chua,
help, taking photos of Prof. Richard Rosa
models and help with
verbal presentation for reading references,
refinement. continued support, and design
help.
additional SuperJury
pinup ,

Dora Lo
Ethan Benoit
Christopher Autera
 7

CONTENTS

01 MANIFESTO 02 PROLOGUE 03 HINDU TEMPLES 04 DESIGN 05 APPENDIX

A. CRITIQUE A. HISTORY A. SITE/PROFANE A. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

B. 3 TEMPLE CASE STUDY B. PURPOSE B. COMPLEX B. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. TYPOLOGY C. VIMANA C. TEMPLE/SACRED C. TEMPLE

D. PROFANE AND SACRED D. SPACE

01 MANIFESTO
 A MANIFESTO 01

The architecture of the Hindu temple, as we know it today, has become a caricature of
applied style and a theater for rituals rather than the symbolic representation of the core
concepts of Hinduism. There is a disconnection between the beliefs and their translation into
architecture, which has resulted in a dissolution and erosion of the temple as a vehicle for
the ritual spiritual journey1. The temple is built on a literal and conceptual framework of core
essential elements such as the sanctum sanctorum, the roof, the plinth, its orientation on
earth, and its function to, metaphorically, transport people from earth to the sky. Lost in this
apparent evocation is the ability for the architecture to transmit and provide a permanent built
monument to the universe and a conduit for the individual’s soul to realize moksha (ultimate
enlightenment). This thesis proposes to design a possible new evolution of the Hindu temple
through the identification, extraction, and redefinition of Hindu mythology, cosmology, ritual,
architectural tectonics of the temple, and the vimana as a machine. The word vimana first
refers to an ancient aircraft extensively documented in ancient Indian scriptures that pre-
date Hindu temples2, translated through history to mean mythological flying palace/chariot,
and then phased into temple architectural vocabulary to mean the monumental roof structure
over the sanctum. The injection of the vimana’s mechanistic origins back into the temple
typology will result in what can be interpreted as a pre-historic future architecture.

The ambition for the architecture is to create a meaningful translation of the core essential
elements of the Hindu temple and the prehistory of the vimana that will set the groundwork
for the temporal continuity of its typology. This thesis may or may not operate as a prototypical
framework of the Hindu temple where the essential elements are often combined to
communicate its place on earth regardless of context or site.

Fig. 1: Two Vimanas, One Metaphor

-----------------------------------
1
This image is of the ancient rukma vimana, as documented in the Rg Veda, rising to the sky Prof. S.K. Ramachandra Rao, The Indian Temple: Its Meaning, (Bangalore: 1979), 25.
2
as the temple vimana fades into a silhouette lodged in the ground. David Hatcher Childress, Vimana: Aircraft of Ancient India and Atlantis, (Kempton: 2004), 35.
FRAMEWORK 01

Vimana: A Crisis of Translation, is an examination of transformation, translation and relative extensively documented in ancient Indian scriptures, these machines were then translated
meaning in architecture. This exploration operates as a critique of the architecture of the through history to mean mythological flying palace/chariot, and then phased into architectural
contemporary Hindu temple as it regards material, programmatic, linguistic and symbolic vocabulary to mean the monumental roof structure over the sanctum. Each definition is a
expression and performance. Unlike it’s typological counter parts such as the church or the strategic mistranslation of a mode of transportation that has continued the existence of the
mosque, the temple has not been translated into contemporary western culture with the same word and therefore the typology, the rocket can be the next logical step as a recognizable icon
rigor and care as maybe in countries such as Cambodia and Thailand. I contend that most that has the ability to continue the linear mistranslation in the Hindu time cycle.
examples of Hindu temple architecture in western culture exist as a caricature of applied/
inauthentic style and a theater for staged-ritual rather than as the manifestation of the A point this thesis is also arguing for is the translation of mythology into the formal
symbolic core concepts of Hinduism3. This project serves to highlight the dissolution and architecture, and not only in its ornamentation and sculpture. The form of the temple is that
mistranslation of the core elements of the pure typological model and its cultural intent. of a vimana or an ode to our visual familiarity with the rocket, as Brahma is the architect of
The thesis aims to define the design terms and tactics to construct a framework for an the ancient vimanic machines which were built for other gods as methods of transportation
architectural prototype for the Hindu Temple in the 3rd millennium. The question of how to around the world and out of the world. Brahma is shunned in most parts of India and not
meaningfully translate a typological ideal by constructing rules of engagement based on worshiped often so this temple is a symbolic representation of this work in relation to his role
the issues endemic to the origin, lies at the center of this inquiry. The relationships between as the creator of the world. The temple of his wife goddess Saraswati is then situated inside
formal structure, context, ritual and ornament gain increased relevance in the transformation the vimana as a protected and sacred space. The narrative sequence proposed is designed
from historical origin to contemporary abstraction. such that one spirals down into the temple constantly about the axis of highest energy and
then ascending back through the chakric points vertically, as per the prescribed sequence.
It is important to note that the only purpose of the temple is to provide a ritual journey This is a significant departure from the historical horizontal axis through which the person
to spiritually cleanse one’s negative energies and feel a spiritual presence, and therefore enters the temple as passes through the phenomenal thresholds.
does not need additional program to support its existence4. The Hindu temple is defined by a
framework of its 2 core elements: the garbha grha( sanctum sanctorum), and the vimana (roof As an abstract framework which defines the terms through which to construct a prototype,
structure), through which flows the highest concentration of spiritual energy, metaphorically this thesis seeks to continue the conversation of reviving stagnant typologies and their
transporting people into a non-physical existence at the end of the journey. It is also defined meaningful translation.
by the relationship between the human, the temple, and the earth as exponential scales of
one another. These sacred scales are surrounded by the profane whether it be physical land,
air, or historical context. This thesis proposes to design a prototypical temple that may set the
groundwork for the temporal continuity of this typology through the identification, extraction,
and redefinition of Hindu mythology, Vaastu (or philosophy of space), ritual, tectonics, and
the history of the vimana as a machine. The word vimana first refers to an ancient aircraft,
-----------------------------------
3
Prof. S.K. Ramachandra Rao and D. Vikhanasacharyulu. Indian Temple Traditions. (Bangalore: 1997),
130.
4 Ibid, 129.
 15

01

02 PROLOGUE
 A. CRITIQUE 02

The BAPS Akshardam Mandir in Robinsville, New Jersey, in particular is a disturbing example
of this claim that the temple has become a caricature of style and theatre for ritual. The built
environment of the temple defies the internal logic set fourth by the essence of the temple
and its meaning. This temple is set up like a theater in which rituals are performed for the
public in flashy displays of wealth. The outer envelope is reminiscent of a bad translation of
a new jersey warehouse merged with north Indian architectural detailing. The actual temple
is located inside this structure as a jewel inside a plain jewelry box. It is made of imported
white marble with intricately carved statues that populate the entirety of the temple, inside
and out. The ushers quietly remind people to not take pictures past the designated photo
line and guide stray people to the sanctum. The traditional east/west axis entry is obscured
by the designated photo area, disrupting the view of the sanctum which should be the start
of the meditative journey of the mind. When one reaches the sanctum they will realize the
doors to the sanctum are closed. What is the purpose of the temple if not to have a vision
of the sanctum and the alter? Temples are laid out as a ritual journey from profane to the
ultimate sacred space which contains the cosmic pillar, a conduit to space/ether/moksha/
enlightenment. It signifies the devotees’ ascension into a higher understanding or deeper
meditation where one casts away all material desires. In this respect, only the outside of the
temple should be ornate while the inside slowly becomes more austere, but in this temple,
there is no such gradual change. Over the loud speaker it is announced that the ritual with
commence at 11:30 am. The men are seated in front, separated from the women who are
forced to sit towards the back. Women who stray into the front lines are quietly escorted back
to their places. The doors swing open and the speakers play the ritual chant while the LED
lights inside the temple turn the room into a light show of rainbow colors. The priests waved
large candelabra contraptions at the deities as the ushers offer the ritual fire to the seated
devotees. The ritual promptly stops, the doors are closed and everyone files out of the temple.
This performance inside a cage of marble is enough to make one wonder how the architecture
is an accomplice of these theatrical rituals. Is this what the West has chosen to represent
authentic Indian temple architecture and the Hindu principles of life?
Fig. 2: Interior temple of BAPS Akshardam Mandir in Robinsville, New Jersey.

Vision of the garba grha surrounded by exquisite pillars of imported white marble lit by
strategically placed LED lights. The walls are lined with examples of Indian craft art, much
like a museum display.
______________________________________________________________________
Photo Credit : Copyright held by BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, Unknown photographer
 B. 3 TEMPLE CASE STUDY 02

The Hindu temple can be seen as a metaphor or the physical narrative for the temple’s
presiding deity. Although many temples convey these narrative elements in varying capacities,
there are 3 temples in particular that translate metaphors and narrative into both an intrinsic
and extrinsic architecture. Koranganatha Temple (Srinivasanallur), Airavateeshvara Temple
(Darasuram), and Konark Sun Temple (Konark) are temples which exhibit an incredible
scale of meticulous narrative thought which starts at the formal design stage and makes
its way into the way staircase railings and pedestals are designed. Although this is not a
comprehensive list of temples which exhibit these qualities, they powerful examples.

Fig. 4: Diagram of cosmic pillar myth

In this myth Shiva asks Vishnu and

Bramha to find the ends of the universe
essentially. Vishnu becomes as boar and
digs into the earth and Brahma becomes
a swan and flies into the sky. When they
both report back to Shiva, Vishnu obliges
to not finding a definite end or beginning
whereas Brahma lies and says he has. Shiva
knowing the quest is unanswerable curses
Brahma so that he may not be worshipped
because of his misplaced arrogance. This
story is one of many stories that depicts
Bramha’s fall from grace and justifies his
lack of temples and following in India.

Fig. 3: Iconic Aniconic Shivalinga on the west exterior face of Airavateeshvara temple

This marble Shivalinga niche insert corresponds directly to the placement and figure of the
actual linga in the temple’s garba grha (sanctum). It depicts the story of Vishnu as the boar
and Brahma as the swan trying to find where the start and end of the cosmic pillar only to
realize that they cannot know.
 02

Fig. 5: Koranganatha temple reconstruction Fig. 6-7: (above) the stairs down into
the moat and up into the temple,
The proportion of the garba grha plan to the height of the vimana is 1:2. (below) monster sculptures on the
middle tier.

When the moat floods with water a

KORANGANATHA TEMPLE wooden bridge is placed across to allow
access to the temple. The miniature Fig. 8: Section and Plan of Koranganatha Fig 9. Koranganatha Temple Myth to Building Diagram
851-899 CE, Srinivasanallur, Tamil Nadu, India. sculptures are of monsters devouring
asuras(demon gods). Each monster The proportion of the garba grha plan to the height of the vimana is 1:2. Series of architecture to narrative drawings.
This temple is approximately an mid-9th century Chola temple built around the temple holds a different
in what is now the small town of Srinivasanallur. The Koranganatha asura. Mythology: Ranganatha is the god Vishnu in the resting position on
temple is based on the description of the deity, Ranganatha, who vasuki, his multi-headed snake vehicle.
sits on a cobra on the ocean of life. The temple sits in a moat and Translation: Ranganatha sits on a plinth which is supposed to represent
its vimana is proportioned like the head and body of the king cobra, a lotus on top of which sits the vimana (roof) which is proportioned like
under which ranganatha sleeps. This temple was said to have never the head of the king cobra, Vasuki, surrounded by a moat of water which
been in use due to a monkey that damaged the idol in the graba simulates the cosmic waters
grha (sanctum), hence the name Koranga(monkey in Tamil)- Natha Temple: The temple is a house for Ranganatha which operates as a
(Rangnatha-Vishnu)5. metaphoric space for the deity’s existence

-----------------------------------
5
Saurabh Saxena. “Srinivasanallur – Koranganatha Temple.” Indian History and
Architecture.
 02

Fig. 10: Elephant details Fig. 11: Entry Gopura (Gate) and Exterior Moat

The staircases and corners are subtly detailed like elephant The depressed ground makes what can be interpreted as a watering hole of
trunks alluding to Airavata, the white elephant, king elephants that extends around the temple walls creating a moat.
of elephants. There are also more explicit sculptures of
elephants around the temple.

AIRAVATEESHVARA TEMPLE
1100-1200 CE, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, India.

Fig. 12: Large Tank Fig. 13: Moat Pool Fig. 14: Corner Drain

Indra’s white elephant is called airavata, airavat-eeshvara means Details of ritual water drains and mythological symbolism. The Shiva The shallow moats and circular A corner drain that siphons ritual
the white elephant who guards the Shiva temple. The myth is that linga inside of the garba grha (sanctum) drains the sacred ritual indents that line the temple were filled water from a side shrine, constructed
liquid mixture (milk/ghee/banana/water) into the niche on the south with water and lit with little lamps on like a beautiful machine.
Airavata was cursed to worship the Shiva linga inside this temple by side of the temple. It flows down open pipes held up by stone dwarves religious occasions.
sage Durvasa for disrespecting him. The white elephant would suffer into a tank, a crevice drain, and finally a gutter outside of the temple.
from skin discoloration which was only curable after bathing in the
holy water from the Airavateeshvara temple, hence how the linga
got its name. An image of Airavta and Indra can be found in an inner
shrine of the temple as commemoration of the event. The temple
subsequently sports afterimages and reminders of the elephant,
present in stair details and water based detail construction6.
-----------------------------------
6
“Airavata: The King of Elephants – Sanskriti - Hinduism and Indian Culture
Website.” Sanskriti.
 02

Fig. 15: Mythical Chariot Wheels

The Konark sun temple has a collection of 24 wheels, each 10 feet high with 8 spokes 7, which are decorated with mythical ornaments, some resembling various
calenders and reminders of the sun, the moon, and the Indian cosmology.

Fig. 16: Temple Axon Fig. 17: Konark Sun Temple Mythology Diagram.
KONARK SUN TEMPLE
1250 CE, Konark, Orissa, India. Konark Sun Temple’s layout and collection of parts. The Konark sun temple is laid out and detailed like the sun deity, Surya’s,
mythological chariot guided by 7 horses.

Mariners relied on this temple as a landmark from sea. The architect Mythology : Surya, Sun God, his chariot, charioteer, and 7 horses
“visualized the abode of the sun god in the form of the deity’s
Translation: The Chariot becoming enclosed compartments of the temple
vehicle”8, Surya’s chariot. The front of the chariot Surya’s 7 horses and the symbols becoming sculptures on the wall
are carved in stone pulling the stone chariot forward. The temple is
built and ornamented such that one must see it morning, noon, and Temple: Shows the hybrid form of a chariot and a temple with sculptures
evening in order to understand its beauty. of Surya

-----------------------------------
7
Kaumundi Marathe. Temples of India: Circles of Stone. (Mumbai: 1998), 62.
8
Ibid.
 C. TYPOLOGY 02

The Hindu temple typology was developed thousands of years ago and perfected as both art
and science. Because of this notion that it is the most perfect representation of the universe,
the model of the temple was not questioned very much or for that matter reconsidered. The
transplantation of the Hindu temple through the Indian diaspora to the west in the late 1970s
started to expose this question of what defines a temple and what defines a copy of a temple.
Temples in the United States are an incredibly diverse collection of mistranslated temples
which function as community spaces meant to preserve Indian culture. Temples in the West
require a complete reconstruction of the principles that govern Hindu temple architecture
starting with the redefinition of parts of the Vaastu shastra (architectural treatise on
philosophy of space) and architectural construction. Many Indian architectural principles
and practices do not translate well into western culture because many practices are defined
by the regional history and reliance on the community for an understanding of Indian cultural
practices.

The translation of types such as churches, mosques, and synagogues into western culture
has allowed their religious cultural practices to evolve and adapt to the current millennium,
ensuring the typology’s temporal continuity. In each typology the essential elements and
program are transferred, and the materiality, symbolism, and construction methods are
evolved.

Fig. 18: TEMPLE AS A BODY

The chakras of the body line up with the horizontal thresholds of the temple parts.
_______________________________________________________________________
Photo Credit: https://www.kannadigaworld.com/news/culture/161163.html
 02

Buddhist Stupa
Sanchi Stupa

Church
Ronchamp, LeCorbusier

Greek Temple
Parthenon

Religious Typology Plans Religious Typology Sections

Fig. 19: TYPOLOGIES AS OBJECTS IN LANDSCAPES

In different religious or spiritual typologies the buildings are generally object buildings conceived from a set of core architectural elements that can fit
anywhere regardless of context. Hindu temples experience a similar treatment to Greek temples as being stand-alone structures on mountains, hills,
water, in forests, and towns. Ancient temples were in a place of peace and tranquility to escape the pressures of daily life. The journey to the temple was
as important to the location of the temple itself.
 31

02

W W

Virupaksha Temple Virupaksha Temple Shore Temple Shore Temple Koranganatha Temple Koranganatha Temple
First Temples Upper Sivalaya First Temples Banatigudi
Upper Sivalaya Banatigudi Kailasa Temple Kailasa Temple
Pattadakal, Karnataka Pattadakal, Karnataka Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu
Srinivasanallur, Tamil Nadu, India Srinivasanallur, Tamil Nadu, India
are Discovered Mahakut, Karnataka are Discovered Mahakut,
Mahakut, Karnataka
Karnataka Mahakut, Karnataka Ellora, Mahahrashtra Ellora, Mahahrashtra
c. 600 CE c. 600 CE 700–728 CE 700–728 CE c. 850-950 CE c. 850-950 CE
125 CE c. 500 CE 125 CE c. 500c. CE
500 CE c. 500 CE c. 600-1000 CE c. 600-1000 CE

Temple Timeline Temple Timeline

Fig. 20: TEMPLE TIME-LINE

Temples in chronological order and their locations/proximity to water.

 33

02

E E

Brihadisvara Temple Modhera Sun Temple Chennakesvara Temple Chandramouleswara (Isvara) Temple Konark Sun Temple Draupadi Ratha The Stone Chariot
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu BrihadisvaraModhera,
Temple Gujarat Belur, Karnataka
Modhera Sun Temple Arasikere, Karnataka
Chennakesvara Temple Konark, Odissa
Chandramouleswara (Isvara) Temple Mahakut, Karnataka
Konark Sun Temple Hampi, Karnataka
Draupadi Ratha The Stone Chariot
c.1010 CE Thanjavur, Tamilc.Nadu
1026 CE Modhera, Gujarat c. 1100 CE Belur, Karnataka c. 1220 CE c. 1250
Arasikere, CE
Karnataka 1300 CE Odissa
Konark, 1500 CE
Mahakut, Karnataka Hampi, Karnataka
c.1010 CE c. 1026 CE c. 1100 CE c. 1220 CE c. 1250 CE 1300 CE 1500 CE

Temple Timeline
Temple Timeline

Fig. 21: TEMPLE TIME-LINE (CONT.)

Temples in chronological order and their locations/proximity to water.

 35

02

Temple
Matrix

Plan
Ritual

The Stone Chariot Draupadi Ratha Banatigudi Koranganatha Temple Upper Sivalaya Modhera Sun Temple Ishvara Temple Shore Temple Virupaksha Temple Brihadisvara Temple Konark Sun Temple Chennakesvara Temple Kailasa Temple
Hampi, Karnataka Mahakut, Karnataka Mahakut, Karnataka Srinivasanallur, Tamil Nadu, India Mahakut, Karnataka Modhera, Gujarat Arsikere, Karnataka Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu Pattadakal, Karnataka Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu Konark, Odissa Belur, Karnataka Ellora, Mahahrashtra
1500 CE 1300 CE c. 500 CE c. 850-950 CE c. 500 CE c. 1026 CE c. 1220 CE 700–728 CE c. 600 CE c.1010 CE c. 1250 CE c. 1100 CE c. 600-1000 CE
Garuda Mahadevi/Parvati NA/ Shiva Linga Resting form of Lord Vishnu Shiva Surya Shiva Shiva Linga Virupaksha/Shiva Shiva Nataraja NA/Surya Shiva Shiva

Section
Threshold

Common

Simple Compression Carved Simple Compression Simple Compression Compression Compression Compression Compression Compression Compression Compression Disassembly Carved-Subtractive
Slabs of Granite Red Sandstone Red Sandstone Granite Stones Red Sandstone Sandstone Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock) Granite Stones Red Sandstone Granite Khandolite and Black granite Soapstone Granite

Fig. 22: TEMPLE MATRIX

Plan, section, catalogue of garba grha and vimana.

 37

02

Sacred Sacred 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 Profane Profane

Wind, Wind,
Wealth Wealth
Destroyer Destroyer
Messenger of gods Messenger of gods
Kubera Ishana
Kubera Ishana Zenith Zenith
N NE
N NE Bramha Bramha
Vayu Vayu

NW NW
Weather- Weather-
W W
AIR WATER AIR WATER
Storms, Storms,
God of Gods God of Gods

Water
ETHER
Water
E
ETHER E
Indra Indra

W EARTH W FIRE EARTH FIRE

Varuna Varuna

E E

S
Yama
S
SE
Yama
Agni
SE
Agni
Nadir
Vishnu
Nadir
Vishnu
Feminine Energy Feminine
Death Energy Death
Death Death
SW
Nriti/Parvati
SW
Nriti/Parvati

Vastu Mandala Vastu Mandala 3 Dimensional 3 Dimensional Site Ritual/ Site Ritual/ Garbha Grha Garbha Grha 3 Walls and a Roof
3 Walls and a Roof Vimana Vimana Marking N/S AxisMarking
with Stamba
N/S Axis with Stamba Sculptures and Nature
Sculptures and Nature
(Cosmic Building Plan Diagram)
(Cosmic Building Plan Diagram) Building DiagramBuilding Diagram Axis Establishment
Axis Establishment (Womb House) (Womb House) Installed Installed (Conduit to Ether)(Conduit to Ether)(Pole) and Dispensation
(Pole) and
Seat
Dispensation Seat Mask the SacredMask the Sacred
Marks E/W Axis Marks E/W Axis
Garbhanyasa, the ritual Garbhanyasa, the ritual Sanctum Sanctorum
Sanctum Sanctorum Roof Structure Roof Structure
Mandala: Mandala: impregnation of the embryo
impregnation
into of the embryo into
Cosmic diagram “classically
Cosmicemplyed
diagramto denote
“classically
the airemplyed to denote the air the womb chamber the womb chamber
that encompasses the lightthatofencompasses
the sun and teh themoon:
light ofthe
the sun and teh moon: the (garbhagrha), the Kalasha(garbhagrha),
is the the Kalasha is the
orb that spins around theorb
entire
thatcosmos
spins around
luminously.”
the entire
It cosmos luminously.” It copper pot placed into ground.
copperItpot placed into ground. It
symbolizes the totality ofsymbolizes
existance. Itthe
is atotality
circleofbecause
existance. It is a circle because is symbolic of a seed ready
is symbolic
to of a seed ready to
circle’s are perfect and comprehensive
circle’s are perfect
without
andacomprehensive
begin- without a begin- grow. grow.
ning or and end. ning or and end.

Temple Ritual
TempleConstruction
Ritual Construction
(Commonality)
(Commonality)

Fig. 23: TEMPLE RITUAL CONSTRUCTION

The major commonality in the temple components are a result of the ritual construction process of the hindu temple which starts with the sacred cosmic diagram and
ends with the temple being contained in the profane.
 39

02

Plith Porch Halls Plith Porch Hall + Porch Halls Corridor + Hall Hall + Porch Gates
Corridor + Hall TankGates

Temple Differences Temple Differences

Fig. 24: TEMPLE RITUAL CONSTRUCTION

The major commonality in the temple components are a result of the ritual construction process of the Hindu temple which starts with the sacred cosmic diagram and
ends with the temple being contained in the profane.
03 HINDU TEMPLES
 A. HISTORY 03

In vedic history, the Indian perception of time represented as infinite cycles where each
cycle is divided into 4 periods or Yugas: Krta Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga
(Fig. 25). In Krta Yuga god was said to have walked amongst humans, in Treta yuga, the
Krta Yuga Krta Yuga
presence of god became scarce and desended to earth only when invoked by sacrifices and
ritual, and in Dvapara, humans only had images of gods to worship and gods would come
down in disguised forms7.

Kali Yuga, the era in which we live, is considered the dark age because it is devoid of
Treta Yuga Treta Yuga
the presence of god. Public temples only appeared in this era because it is said that one
can feel the presence of god in a correctly built temple with properly installed icons8. The
HINDU TIME CYCLE symbolism of the Vastu mandala (cosmic diagram) and other icons became increasingly
YUGAS (ERAS) more important and as a result, fused into the architectural and sculptural elements.

Dwapara Yuga Dwapara Yuga Vimanas as ancient aircrafts were documented in the Rg veda and the Vimanika Shastra to
have existed in the yugas preceding Kali yuga (during and before the Ramayana, Chronicles
of a reincarnation of Vishnu as Rama)9. The vimana as the roof structure of a temple, was
said to be modeled after these ancient aircrafts.

Kali Yuga

-----------------------------------
7
Prof. S.K. Ramachandra Rao and D. Vikhanasacharyulu. Indian Temple Traditions. (Bangalore:
1997), 133-134.
8
Rao, The Indian Temple: Its Meaning, 67.
9
Childress, Vimana: Aircraft of Ancient India and Atlantis, 35.
Fig. 25: TYPOLOGY IN THE TIME CYCLE
 B. PURPOSE AND PARTS 03

VIMANA A temple’s purpose is “not so much to pray” as it is to feel a spiritual presence. It has been
(ROOF STRUCTURE)
imbued with various programs over the millennia: shrine, community gathering place, “art
gallery, economic institution, political power, social organization, crafts- guild, fortress, and
refectory10. S.K. Rao states that the decay of the temple as a spiritual institution is a result
of the disillusionment of the temple’s purpose and of its association with political and so-
cial power. He argues that the temple has become an office building filled with god fearing
people who go out of obligation rather than spiritual fulfillment.

The Hindu temple’s only purpose is to provide a ritual journey to spiritually cleanse one’s
negative energies and feel a spiritual presence, and therefore does not need additional
program to support its existence. It is common for religious and spiritual typologies to be
defined by their programmatic parts, form and desired location (Fig. 19). The Buddhist stu-
pa has the outer gate with 4 toranas, an ambulatory around the anda (mound), a harmika,
and a chatri. The standard components of a mosque are the mihrab pointed towards mecca,
the minbar, ablution fountains, a sahn, the portal, and the minaret. The church is defined
by its Latin cross or square plan, the alter and sanctuary, ambulatory space, sacristy, and a
symbol of Christ. The Greek temple is iconic for its clearly defined set of parts. The cella sits
on a plinth surrounded by massive columns with a roof structure that defines each layer of
the roof.

The temple is defined by its set of essential parts outlined sequentially through the ritual
construction of the temple (Fig. 23). First, there is a determination of the vertical axis and
GARBHA GRHA the horizontal East/West Axis so that the cosmic diagram of the universe (Vastu Mandala)
(SANCTUM)
can be placed. Then markers are placed on the vertical axis to signify the journey from the
ground to the sky. At the bottom a kalasha (copper pot) is placed containing precious met-
als, then the sanctum sanctorum or womb-chamber, followed by the roof structure (vimana)
and finally the upper kalasha on the filial (Fig. 27). The whole structure sits on a plinth and
is inscribed with a dedicated clockwise ambulatory pathway around the sanctum sancto-
rum, either outside and/or inside the temple itself. The two main and required elements are
the vimana and garba grha, the roof and sanctum sanctorum respectively (Fig 26).
Fig. 26: TWO ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS, ROOF AND SANCTUM
-----------------------------------
10
The axial energy of the temple is ancored by the earth kalasha (copper pot with jewels), flows Rao, Indian Temple Traditions, 130.
through the mandala (cosmic diagram) which sits on the plinth, and then up through the
garba grha (sanctum), vimana (roof) and finally through the air kalasha releasing the energy
into the ether.
 47

Kalasha
Kalasha x2: The kalasha is a copper pot that, for the purposes of the temple, contains the
precious metals of earth. One is placed below the earth during the consecration of the
03
temple and another is placed above the vimana when the temple is finished. They both mark
Vimana the vertical z-axis, cosmic pillar.

Vimana: a hollow monumental pyramidal roof structure that sits right above the garbha
grha.

Garbha Grha Grabha Grha: Literally meaning “womb chamber”, the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is

PARTS OF THE HINDU TEMPLE

Cosmic Pillar
where the seed of god is placed (the idol’s manifest or un-manifest form). This part of the
temple is always square in plan.

Ambulatory Space Ambulatory Space The process of circumnambulation is very important in the hindu temple
and as a result, there are generally spaces to circumnambulate around the temple, on the
plinth around the temple, and around the sanctum or shrines.

Mandapa: a hall and/or porch that precedes the garbha grha (sanctum) or other mandapas
that connect it to the garbha grha(sanctum).

Dispensing Seat: a pre-alter that is situated before the garbha grha (sanctum) on its
Mandapa(hall)
E/W axis. It is usually circled in an ambulatory way and is used to perform rituals. The
dispensing seat is usually shaped in the image of the vimana.

Dwaja-stamba: The flag pole and phenomenal threshold for one of the body’s chakras

Dispensing Seat Garden/Water Source: Temple rituals require for fresh flowers to be picked everyday as well
Skambha as an adequate water source (well, tank, river, lake, ocean)
Kalasha(Ground)

Total
Program Parts
Fig. 27: INVENTORY OF PARTS
The Stone Chariot Draupadi Ratha Banatigudi Koranganatha Temple Upper Sivalaya Modhera Sun Temple Ishvara Temple
Hampi, Karnataka Mahakut, Karnataka Mahakut, Karnataka Srinivasanallur, Tamil Nadu, India Mahakut, Karnataka Modhera, Gujarat Arsikere, Karnataka
1500 CE 1300 CE c. 500 CE c. 850-950 CE c. 500 CE c. 1026 CE c. 1220 CE
Garuda Mahadevi/Parvati NA/ Shiva Linga Resting form of Lord Vishnu Shiva Surya Shiva

03

mple Compression Carved Simple Compression Simple Compression Compression Compression Compression
Slabs of Granite Red Sandstone Red Sandstone Granite Stones Red Sandstone Sandstone Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock)

Fig. 28: SANCTUMS AND ROOFS Fig. 29: PARTS AND HORIZONTAL THRESHOLDS

Collection of temples and the orientation of the garba grha (sanctum) and vimana (roof). This sketch of the Virupaksha temple in Hampi illustrates the sequential parts in the horizontal
physical thresholds as one reaches the garba grha (sanctum) in the end.
 C. VIMANA 03

This word, vimana, is a loaded term. It represents millennia of evolution and subsequently
Vimana (n.) is the object of strategic mistranslation. The word vimana was first referred to an ancient
mechanical aircraft, translated through ancient history to mean mythological flying palace/
Sanskrit Origin chariot, and then phased into temple architectural vocabulary to mean the monumental roof
structure over the garba grha (sanctum sanctorum)11.

01 Aircraft, Ancient flying machine My interest lies primarily in the meaning defined in the Rg veda (a chronicle of the origins of
Hinduism) and the Vimanika shastra (a disputed ancient text/manual for flying vehicles) as
02 A mythological chariot or flying palace of the ancient Hindu gods a machine and its visual similarity to the vimana, roof structure of the temple (Fig. 30,32).
as described in the sanskrit epics In both meanings, the vimana serves as a transportation device between earth and the sky.
The aircraft vimana physically transports a being from earth to space while the roof vimana
is a spiritual conduit connecting the human from earth to the sky (Fig. 33A). The temple
03 The monumental pyramidal roof over the sanctum sanctorum of vimana can then be understood as the translation of an ancient machine that has a lost its
the Hindu temple or a gopura (entry gate) mechanical ability and quality overtime. This transference of meaning begs the continued
mistranslation to continue the temporal continuity of the Hindu temple typology.
04 Traversing, measuring out
The temple in the current century acts as a bridge between the human and tradition. It
remembers the past but has no connection to the future. I am proposing that because of the
present-day relationship between technology and space travel, a conduit is created where
the temple can bridge the gap between theology and science as it once did eons ago. The
rocket-ship in the silo provides the recognizable symbolism that conveys transportation from
the inside the ground into space, continuing and providing the mistranslation that will lead
the evolution of the typology into the next yuga, dwapara (Fig. 33B). The reincorporation of
mechanical elements of the vimana back into the temple will allow for western construction
to adapt prescribed ritual Indian construction practices for the temple.

-----------------------------------
11
Dr. Enrico Baccarin and Dr. Kavya Vaddadi, Reverse Engineering Vedic Vimanas: New light on
ancient Indian heritage, (Florence: 2018), Chapter 5 Vimana Literature.
 53

03

MONUMENTAL ROOF
MACHINE

MYTH
Fig. 30: Rukma Vimana, 2018 Fig. 31: Rama’s Journey , 17 1/8 in. x Fig. 32: Brihadeeshwara Vimana
13 7/32 in.
TIME: Krta Yuga, Treta Yuga Media: Opaque watercolor and gold on TIME: Kali Yuga
paper
The gold celestial chariot able to move Himachal Pradesh Court: Mandi Brihadeeshwara temple is a classic
with the speed of mind, was summoned (possibly), ca. 1650, unknown artist example of a monumental vimana roof.
to Rama’s presence, and the reunited royal It can be seen over a great distance
couple sits in the highest chamber. TIME: Dwapara Yuga and is a signifier of the Tanjore art
and architecture tradition. It’s roof is
The gold celestial chariot able to move inhabitable and has dance poses carved
with the speed of mind, was summoned into its walls.
to Rama’s presence, and the reunited royal
couple sits in the highest chamber.
--------------------
Photo Credit: Edwin Binney 3rd
Collection, The San Diego Museum
of Art
 55

03

Monumental Roof
Machine

Myth
Transportation

Ground to Space Earth to Heaven Temple to Sky

Fig. 33A: Vimana as Transportation

The one prevailing definition of the vimana is that of transportation or the act of transversing from one place to
another, physically or non-physically.
 57

03

Kreta Yuga Treta/Dwapara Yuga Kali Yuga Dwapara Yuga

Temple Rocketship
Monumental Roof
Machine

Myth

Ground to Space Earth to Heaven Temple to Sky Temple to Universe

Fig. 33B: Vimana as Transportation (Part 2)

The temple as a rocket-ship is the strategic mis-translation that will continue transport people of this age from in
the earth to the rest of the universe where gods may or may not exist.
 1. MACHINE: SPACE-SHIP
Axis Mundi Energy Column

Rotor Dynamo

Lifting Fan
03
Deity’s Star

Electrical Motor

Passenger Platform

The aircraft vimana is a mechanistic marvel of advanced technology which used different
forms of propulsion (antigravity, solar, wheels, aerodynamic wings etc…) and served a variety
Passenger Platform
of functions (exploration, transportation, enjoyment, war etc…). The mechanistic origins of
the vimana are essential to the history of the temple. This reclamation of mythological history
Garbha Grha (Sanctum)
will inject a new vitality and redefine the parts put forth by the new temple typology.
Precious Cargo Controlling Platform

Steering Floor

The architecture of the American Hindu temple, as we

know it today, has become a caricature of applied style and a
Pitha-Base
theater for rituals rather than the symbolic representation of the Jalayan
core concepts of Hinduism. This typology in the United States
Swinging Platform is slowly losing its ability to function as it was originally A vimana designed to operate in water and air
intended, a place for spiritual cleansing reflective in the
Propeller Fan
architecture’s ability to facilitate energy through its core (Rg Veda 6.58.3)
Propeller Motor
essential elements. In relation to the mosque and church
typologies which have evolved their architecture overtime to
reflect their culture, history in any region of the world, the Hindu
temple has not been translated with the same rigor into the
American landscape as it may have been in other countries
Kaara
such as Cambodia and Thailand. There is a disconnect between
the beliefs and their translation into architecture, resulting in a
A vimana that operate in ground and water
Air Pipes
dissolution and erosion of the temple as a representation of the
universe’s two core qualities: paravidhya and aparavidhya,
(Rg Veda 9.14.1)
tangible and intangible, space and contained space. The Hindu
temple is defined by its philosophy of space and, literal and
Electro Magnets
conceptual framework of the most core elements: the Garbha
Grha (sanctum sanctorum) and the vimana (roof structure), Tritala
Electric Wire Conduct through which flows the most spiritual energy and
metaphorically transports people into a non-physical existence. A vimana consisting of three floors Different Vimanas documented
This thesis proposes to design a prototype/evolution of the
Hindu temple through the identification, extraction, and
redefinition of Hindu mythology, Vaastu (philosophy of space) ,
(Rg Veda 3.14.1) in the Rg Veda 12
ritual, tectonics, and the history of the vimana as a machine.
The word vimana first refers to an ancient aircraft, extensively
documented in ancient Indian scriptures, that pre-dates Hindu
temples, translated through history to mean mythological flying Tri Chakra Ratha
palace/chariot, and then phased into architectural vocabulary to
mean the monumental roof structure over the sanctum: All are A three wheeled vimana designed to operate in air
modes of physical or metaphoric transportation. The injection
of the vimana’s mechanistic origins back into the temple (Rig Veda 4.36.1)
Rukma Vimana typology will result in what can be interpreted as a pre-historic
future architecture.

The ambition for the architecture is to create a meaningful

translation of the Hindu temple into the global landscape and Vayu Ratha
additionally to communicate its place on earth regardless of
context or site. This thesis will test this translation through the A vimana powered by wind or gas
narrative of Goddess Saraswati (Mahadevi) and Lord Bramha,
the story of the goddess of knowledge and her disgraced and (Rg Veda 5.41.6)
shunned consort, the creator of the world. The program
consists of two temples, an accessible temple and inaccessible
temple, a library and a long corridor. This exploration may or

MANIFESTO may not operate as a prototypical framework of the Hindu

temple that may set the groundwork for the temporal continuity
of this typology.
Vidyut Ratha
A vimana powered by solar energy
Fig. 34: Vimana as Machine (Rg Veda 3.14.1)

The mechanical parts of the Rukma vimana from the drawings done by T.K Ellapa,
Bangalore, 1932.7 -----------------------------------
12
Shivanandam M. ,“Mercury Propulsion System in Vedic Vimanas and Modern Spacecrafts”, International
Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews 2, no. 2 (2015):138.
 2. MYTH: CHARIOT 03

In the next yuga of Indian cyclical time when gods lived amongst humans, humans
perceived vimanas as flying chariots. The vimana in ancient Indian mythology refers to
a flying palace or chariot that took deities from the world of the humans to the world of
devas (demi-gods), from country to country, and from the sky to the ground. There are many
examples of vimanas, as chariots ot vehicles in the sanskrit epics which service different
royal families and deities to carry out their needs. The pushpaka vimana in the Ramayana
is used by the demon king Ravana to abduct Rama’s wife, Sita, from was is now India to Sri
Lanka. “Flying Vimanas were cited at 41 places in Mahabharata. The asura king Salva had
an aerial vehicle called Saubha Vimana with which he attacked Dwaraka capital of Lord
Krishna. He began to shower missiles and landed in the high seas13.”Krishna also has his
own vimana.

The mythological chariot vimana can be treated as an interpretation of the machine which
was then literally translated into the structure and iconic figure of the temple. Two examples
of translated metaphors can be seen in the Koranganatha temple in Tamil Nadu and Konark
Sun Temple in Orissa. The translation of their narratives into the physical form of the
building shows the complexity of the design that pervaded Indian architecture of that time
period.

Fig. 35: Koranganatha Temple, Tamil Nadu Fig. 36: Konark Sun Temple, Orissa,
-----------------------------------
13
The representational image for ranganatha sleeping on the Surya’s (Sun god) chariot is literally translated into a temple Shivanandam M. ,“Mercury Propulsion System in Vedic Vimanas and Modern Spacecrafts”, 139.
cosmic water is translated into a temple which represents the wheels and horses as stone vestiges.
Fig. 37: Small, Vimana

A small sculptural vimana above a smaller shrine attached

to the temple.
--------------------

3. MONUMENTAL ROOF: S M L XL
Photo Credit: Unknown

03

The architectural vimana is a monumental piece of compressive stones that sit on top of the
garbha grha (sanctum sanctorum). The vimana is made up of talas, or layers of stone. This
Fig. 38: Medium, Vimana
roof structure has been developed throughout history into different styles such as the Dravida
The miniature shrine outside the temple. (Southern), Vesara (Hybrid), and Nagara (Northern). Each of these styles were shaped as a
-------------------- result of the regional cultures to which they were exposed. Each vimana, however dissimilar
Photo Credit: Apoorva Rao in physical style, metaphorically represents cultural symbols such as sacrificial fire (yagna),
the divine tree growing into the sky and a cosmic pillar which acts as the conduit for souls
to realize moksha.

The complexity of the vimana can be seen in its unique ability to manifest itself in a range
of styles of and on the temple. The vimana becomes the “basic building block of full-scale
buildings in the Deccan and in other parts of South Asia. Small versions of the temple
appear on lintels, door jambs, basement moldings, on interior and exterior walls, on cornices,
clerestories, entablatures, on superstructures, on almost any and every sculpted surface of
Fig. 39: Large, Vimana the temple”14. The vimana is represented in the temple as the unit of form that manifests
itself in multiple variations and scales. It is extra-large at the roof scale, large at the aedicule
The dispensing seat which physically looks like a smaller
version of the roof vimana itself.
scale, medium at the scale of the dispensing seat, and small at the sculpture scale.
--------------------
Photo Credit: Apoorva Rao

Fig. 40: Xtra Large, Vimana

Brhiadeeshvara temple has one of the largest vimanas in

India.
-------------------- -----------------------------------
14
Photo Credit: Apoorva Rao Subhashini Kaligotla . “Shiva’s Waterfront Temples: Reimagining the Sacred Architecture of India’s
Deccan Region.”(Columbia University:2015), 63-64.
04 DESIGN PROTOTYPE
 A. 3 PROPORTIONS, 4 SCALES, 04
5 ELEMENTS
The hindu temple was perceived by ancient Indians as the confluence of 3 scales of the
universe: the human, the temple, and the earth. The essential commonality in all these
scales are the base, the core, and the axis, and the representation of all 5 natural elements:
earth, water, fire, air, ether in the form of human chakras, syntax of temple architecture, and
ETHER
physically present in the earth15.
ETHER

As mentioned previously, temples emerged in the Kali Yuga out of the need for physical
AIR
spirituality which supplemented the meditation over home shrines. The temple’s purpose
and identity has gradually corroded over time. Temples were at first communal home shrines
AIR

WATER

WATER

to individual village deities who, much like Greek mythology, were personified elements of
nature. As civilizations expanded and societal structure became more complex, it became
FIRE
FIRE

EARTH
EARTH CORE
CORE
apparent that more complex higher powers needed to be represented. It was then that Brah-
ma, Vishnu, and Shiva became popularly recognized as the forces that govern the cycles of
life and the universe: creation, maintenance, and destruction. Temples, as a result, became
H
RT
NO

more complex in their architectural syntax to accommodate larger crowds, community

H
RT

activities, performance art and music, and marriage16.

NO

EAST SUMMER SOLSTICE SUNSET

TEMPLE SANCTUM
WOMAN'S WOMB

GARBHA GRHA
WEST

WOMAN'S WOMB

Fig. 42: HUMAN, TEMPLE, EARTH

-----------------------------------
15
This depiction shows the confluence of the three divine scales of the universe and how they Rama P. Coomaraswamy, The Door in the Sky, (Princeton: 1997), 178.
16
interact. Kaligotla, “Shiva’s Waterfront Temples: Reimagining the Sacred Architecture of India’s Deccan Region”,
63-64.
 04
Atmosphere ETHER
Kalasha
AIR

Vimana
FIRE

Sanctum

Foundation WATER
Plith

EARTH
TEMPLE SECTIONS BODY CHAKRAS

SANCTUM
WOMB

CORE
Fig. 44: Scale 1, Human Scale, Womb Fig. 45: Scale 2, Temple Scale, Garba Fig. 46: Scale 3, Planet Scale, Core
Grha (Sanctum Sanctorum)
The word garba means womb refers to the The core of the earth is representative
ability for the woman to bear life. The temple’s sanctum is reflective of the of both the center of a woman and the
woman’s womb as a dark primal place center of the temple.
where nothing but life and energy exists.

EARTH LAYERS

Fig. 43: THREE DIVINE SCALES AND THE ELEMENTS

Each proportion: body, temple, and earth, have the same representational elemental
makeup of earth, water, fire, air, and ether defined by their respective parts.
 B. SCALE 1: SITE 04

Marin Headlands, CA, USA 37°49’27.6” N 122°29’57.7” W

A temple is a symbol of the universe which tracks a spiritual and physical journey from the
profane to the sacred. In this case the profane being the land in relation to the sacred temple.
It is a visual history of mythology and a reminder of identity and origin. An Individual goes
to a temple to feel a spiritual presence, to be surrounded by meditative images and calming
thoughts. It is a quiet journey into an induced sleep state where at the end, the body and soul
are cleansed on their way to achieve ultimate enlightenment. The missile base and silo on
site can also be considered the profane element in relation to the sacred temple Rocket-ship
which can be considered the positive counterpart to the negative history of the SF-87 Nike
missile base.

Hindu temples are generally stand-alone structures located in environments that facilitate
contemplation and peace. They are built away from urban society or as a sanctuary from the
pressure of daily life/ urban life. If they happen to be in urban spaces, they are surrounded
by trees as natural sound barriers. Location of site should not be near crematorium, near any
public place, and should be selected far from public centers to avoid hindrance in day-to-day
life. For the major part temple should be situated in places closest to the sky, in forests, on
hills, on water, and in caves. “It was customary in the olden days to select a site for building
a temple near a natural and perennial source of water. It is usual to find in old temples
a natural or artificial pond...”17. “The buildings’ scenic locations on riverbanks, alongside
artificial lakes and waterfalls, and atop sandstone bluffs offering panoramic vistas further
enhance their visual appeal”18. The temple’s proximity to a water source, be it ocean, sea,
lake, river, tank, or well, is very important because of the prevalence of water-based rituals
and access to basic hygiene. Daily rituals are performed by the priests in the temple to
prepare for the day’s activities like cleaning the enclosure, cleaning vessels used in rituals,
removing old flowers and putting new ones, preferably fresh garden grown flowers, and
collecting freshwater for the day.
-----------------------------------
17
Prof. S.K. Ramachandra Rao, Indian Temple Traditions, (Bangalore: 1997), 277.
18
Subhashini Kaligotla. “Shiva’s Waterfront Temples: Reimagining the Sacred Architecture of India’s
Fig. 47: MARIN HEADLANDS OVERLOOKING SAN FRANCISCO BAYve parts. Deccan Region.”, 1.
 History of Marin Headlands 04

2000 BCE Coast Miwok tribe artifacts are found to date back 4000 years in the Marin Headlands

0 CE

1579 CE Coast Miwok tribes by a priest on a ship under the command of Sir Francis Drake

1776 CE Spanish military, missionary, and civilian settlers began arriving in the San Francisco Bay Area

1780-1810 CE Coast Miwok tribes are introduced to disease, forced labor, and religious and societal indoctrination had
led to the demise of their way of life
Spanish and Mexican rancheros, later giving way to Portuguese dairy farmers
1890 CE Marin Headlands began to see U.S. Army settlements
1907 CE The army owned all of the Marin Headlands
Fig. 48: NIKE MISSILE BASE, SF-87 HAWK HILL 1940 CE WWII-era military fortifications are still intact today for guests to explore, including
Battery Townsley in Fort Cronkhite
Each proportion: body, temple, and earth, have the same representational elemental
makeup of earth, water, fire, air, and ether defined by their respective parts.
1947 – 1991 CE Marin Headlands became a top-secret location for Cold War initiatives, including two NIKE missile
sites and rumored CIA operatives

1960 CE The U.S. government sold more than 2,000 acres of land in the Marin Headlands to a private
developer who planned to build a city in these rolling hills just north of San Francisco. A small group
of local citizens, incensed by the prospect of development and the process the developers had
undertaken, pursued every vein they could to put a stop to Marincello -- and were ultimately
successful.

1972 CE Creation of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area, an effort supported by the Golden Gate Council of
American Youth Hostels (now the Golden Gate Council of Hostelling International USA)

1978 CE The National Park Service leased the old Fort Barry infirmary building to the fast-growing youth hostel organiza-
tion, making it the second of six Golden Gate Council hostels on National or State Park land.

Fig. 49: NIKE MISSILES

Each proportion: body, temple, and earth, have the same

 04

Fig. 50: PROJECT NIKE MISSILE BASE PROXIMITY TO SITE Fig. 51-53: PROJECT NIKE MISSILE BASE PROXIMITY TO SITE

The abandoned Nike Missile Control Site F-87 from the 1940s is right next to the Marin Headlands site. The abandoned Nike Missile Control Site F-87 from the 1940s is right next to the Marin
-------------------- Headlands site.
Photo Credit: Google Map Images --------------------
Photo Credit: Google Map Images
 04

Fig. 54: JEFFERSONIAN GRID Fig. 55: JEFFERSONIAN GRID

The abandoned Nike Missile Control Site F-87 from the 1940s is right next to the Marin Headlands site. The abandoned Nike Missile Control Site F-87 from the 1940s is right next to the Marin Headlands site.
-------------------- --------------------
Photo Credit: Google Map Images Photo Credit: Google Map Images
 79

04

Fig. 56: CAPE CANAVERAL AIR FORCE STATION LAUNCH COMPLEX 34 Fig. 57: COMPLEX 34, ROCKET LAUNCHER

Analysis of the now-abandoned complex 34 site in Cape Canaveral and its layout similarity to hindu temple complex Diagram of the rocket launcher and its parts. Like the vimana, the rocket has much the same anatomy: A foundation support(plinth),
A chamber holding an important item(sanctum), and a pyramidal upper structure(vimana) which functions to transport the rover to
space.
 04

Fig. 58: NORTH AXON VIEW Fig. 59: EAST VIEW

-------------------- --------------------
Photo Credit: Google Map Images Photo Credit: Google Map Images
 04

Fig. 60: WEST VIEW Fig. 61: NORTH VIEW

-------------------- --------------------
Photo Credit: Google Map Images Photo Credit: Google Map Images
 04

+10636'

+8270'

+7024'

+566'
+0'

1’-0”=1/2048’ 1’-0”=1/2048’
NORTH/SOUTH SECTION EAST/WEST SECTION

Fig. 62: NORTH SOUTH SITE SECTION Fig. 63: EAST WEST SITE SECTION
 04

Fig. 64: SITE ITERATION PERSPECTIVE 1 Fig. 65: SITE ITERATION AXON 1

Photo superimposed with trace paper and pen. Photo superimposed with trace paper and pen.
 04

Fig. 66: SITE ITERATION PERSPECTIVE 2 Fig. 67: SITE ITERATION AXON 2

Photo superimposed with trace paper and pen. Photo superimposed with trace paper and pen.
 04

Fig. 68: SITE ITERATION PERSPECTIVE 3 Fig. 69: SITE ITERATION AXON 3

Photo superimposed with trace paper and pen. Photo superimposed with trace paper and pen.
 04

Fig. 70: SITE PERSPECTIVE WITH PROPOSED DESIGN

Photo superimposed with trace paper and pen.

 04

Iteration 1 in the Site Iteration 2 in the Site

 Nike Missile Control Site SF-87

C. SCALE 2: COMPLEX 04

l
Hil
11

wk
05

Ha
10
00
The temple complex is laid out according to Vaastu shastra as a series of cartesian
grids in the profane land which mark the E/W and Zenith axes and the proposed
symmetrical alignment of the temple. The complex creates the tabula rasa on which

31.33°
the temple will sit. This thesis recognizes these cartesian marks in the land and
additionally seeks to recognize grid systems like the historical Jeffersonian grid and

80
0
Hartmann’s magnetic grid lines as important regional and global considerations
when designing temples. The Jeffersonian grid, developed in 1785, was meant to
37°49'33.1"N
mark properties of one square mile to be distributed among settlers in the west. This
site is in California, so the Jeffersonian grid system is a part of the site’s regional
history. Hartmann’s grid theory suggests that there are natural magnetic divisions
on the earth’s surface that intrinsically attract high amounts of energy. If this theory
is indeed true, placing a temple on a division line could benefit the atmosphere and

29.42°
energy output of the temple.
400
200
100

POINT DIABLO

Fig. #: TITLE

Description
122°29'58.7"W

MARIN HEADLANDS
 04

View of the model complex. Rough Sequence.

 04

Complex Iteration Model 1. Complex Iteration Model 2.

 04

Perspective of the complex iteration 3 and its parts. Plan, section, perspective of iteration 4.
 D. TEMPLE 04

As mentioned previously, temples emerged in the Kali Yuga out of the need for physical
spirituality which supplemented the meditation over home shrines. The temple’s purpose and
identity has gradually corroded over time. Temples were at first communal home shrines
to individual village deities who, much like Greek mythology, were personified elements of
nature. As civilizations expanded and societal structure became more complex, it became
apparent that more complex higher powers needed to be represented. It was then that Brahma,
Vishnu, and Shiva became popularly recognized as the forces that govern the cycles of life
and the universe: creation, maintenance, and destruction. Temples, as a result, became more
complex in their architectural syntax to accommodate larger crowds, community activities,
performance art and music, and marriage19.

The temple itself is the sacred object which sits in the profane land. There is a ritual
construction process and rituals which dictate the requirements and construction of parts.
The horizontal sequence in the temple curates the ritual spiritual journey where the human
is supposed to experience the journey from the profane temple to the sacred sanctum. I am
proposing that this sequence can develop into a 3-dimensional journey: vertically spiraling
down into the temple silo about the axis of highest energy (zenith).

Fig. 71: SECTIONAL MODEL AND TEMPLE PARTS -----------------------------------

19
Rao. The Indian Temple: Its Meaning. 1979: 67.
 04

Fig. 72: VERTICAL SEQUENCE

 DESIGN AND PROCESS 04

Fig. 73: Mechanical ground and a golden rocketship Fig. 74: PICTORIAL ORGANIZATION OF POSSIBLE TEMPLE RECONFIGURATIONS

The temple is a multi-layered configuration of the complex, the temple parts, symbolism and
iconography of the presiding deity, and their collective synthesis with the cosmology of the site.
 04

Axons and sections of iterative design. Iterative Design: Sketch of temple sections.
(Collaborative sketch with Prof. Richard Rosa)
 04

Iterative Design: Sketch of temple in ground looking up. Iterative Design: Axon, E/W Section, N/S Section
 04

(Sketch by Prof. Richard (Sketch by Prof. Richard Rosa) (Sketch by Prof. Richard Rosa)
Rosa)

Iterative design of temple as rocket in rocket silo.

 04

Sketch defining the gate, the temple, and the forbidden shrine. Sketch about the temple complex.
 04

Model about the ground and the temple as a gateway. Perspective and Rockets.
(Collaborative sketch with Prof. Richard Rosa)
 04

Iterative Design. Iterative Design.

(Sketch by Prof. Richard Rosa) (Sketch by Prof. Richard Rosa)
 04

Plan iteration sketch. Walls and Platforms.

(Collaborative sketch with Prof. Richard Rosa) (Collaborative sketch with Prof. Richard Rosa)
 04

Plan

Section

Oblique

Working through circulation of different iterations. Temple design: Iteration 1

 04

Temple design: Iteration 2 Temple design: Iteration 3

 04

Temple design: Iteration 4 Temple design: Iteration 5

 04

Temple design: Iteration 6 Temple design: Iteration 7

 04

Short Section Long Section

Temple design: Iteration 8 Temple design: Iteration 8
 04

Sectional Axon Axon, Plan

Temple design: Iteration 8 Temple design: Iteration 8
 04

Quick Perspective Sky, Space, Water. Plane, Rocket, Boat.

 04
Axis Mundi

Copper Patina Vimana

Star Gate

High Ground Terrace

Axis Mundi Energy Column

Temple Entry Platform

Rotor Dynamo
Nike Missile Control Site SF-87
Retaining Wall
Lifting Fan

Hawk Hill

Deity’s Star

Electrical Motor
Marin Headlands

Passenger Platform

200.00

NW N NE

Passenger Platform AIR WATER

200.00
W ETHER E
EARTH FIRE
Garbha Grha (Sanctum)
Precious Cargo
Field of Frames/Mandapa
Controlling Platform

Steering Floor Garba Grha

SW S SE

Pitha-Base
Brick Retaining Wall Ground
Condition
Swinging Platform
Propeller Fan

Extension of Garba Grha

Propeller Motor

100.00

R50.00
Air Pipes
Tirta (Ritual Water)
gathering platform
Electro Magnets

Electric Wire Conduct

Ritual Water Drainage

100.00

SARASWATI TEMPLE
RUKMA VIMANA

2 Vimanas, 1 Metaphor. The sacred and the profane: temples and missile silos.
 SITE

04

The translation of a mythological story into a formal archi- The vimana as an ancient Indian machine has been pushed
Historically, and as per the Vastu Shastra, the Temples like most religious typologies are situated tecture may allow for the temple typology to develop over- aside as myth for the longest time despite its documented
temple is a horizontal series of thresholds that in a place isolated from the activities of daily life. time without the style of the architecture being the driver. origins in the Vimanika Shastra. These machines were thought
leads to the garbha grha, womb chamber, where They are sanctuaries and escapes from the unnatu- Temples have always been defined by their regional styles to have been developed by brahma (by the gods for the gods)
the primary deity is located. This initial vision and ral. In this thesis the radical landscape allows for and core essential elements. While the style may change who would fashion these vehicles for transportation. The
sequence are very important to the act of cleansing the exploration of ground and excavation. In Vastu with the region and generation, the core elements stay the purpose, material, and the parts were detailed to each deity.
the soul of bad energies. The thresholds simulate Shastra, Indian philosophy of building space, the same. The vimana, garbha grha, and the elevated platform When seen by humans, the stories of ancient flying machines
the chakras on must pass through to achieve ritual construction of the temple requires the land to are the most essential elements which are shaped accord- were passed down as mythological flying chariots used by
moksha or pure enlightenment. It is a spiritual be consecrated and marked by the cosmos and a ing to the deity. In this case the chosen deity is Saraswati, demons, ruler, and gods to transport from one part of the world
journey which ends at the sacred axis denoted by cartesian grid (in an exponent of 4 divisions). This the goddess of knowledge, complemented by her shunned to the other. The most well-known mythological references to
the symmetrical placement of the garbha grha imposed cartesian grid sets up the formal strategy husband, Brahma, the creator of the world. The temple in vimanas are that of Ravana in the Ramayana who acquires a
(sanctum) and the vimana (roof). This is the axis for which the temple is built around. The land is also its formal sense is an ode to Brahma’s creation of the vimana and kidnaps Sita in the north of India and transports her
containing the highest amount of energy in the located near a body of water which provides the vimana/rocket and holds Saraswati as the primary deity to what is now Sri Lanka and that of the sun god, Surya, who
surrounding area which is physically and meta- temple with purified or purifiable water for use whose story starts as the river Saraswati and morphs into crosses the sky to welcome the sun. In this thesis I have taken
phorically funneled from the ground into the sanc- during rituals and bathing. The confluence of the the muse goddess of knowledge. the contemporary advancement in space technology, the rocket
tum, through the vimana and then released into the earth, water, and sky in the San Francisco Bay area
and historical cold war missile silos, and translated them to be
air and ether. The threshold sequence through the makes for a powerful vision of the profane space.
the formal deconstruction of the design. The idea being that the
chakras has historically always been horizontal. If rocket exterior/skin is the vimana which protects the precious
this sequence were to be vertical, one would
always be rotating about the axis of highest energy
MYTHOLOGY cargo, or in this case the deity in the sanctum.

while simultaneously walking through the

phenomenal chakric-thresholds. The constant PROFANE LAND METAPHOR:
vision of the sanctum and the vimana reinforce the
axis and the reason and nature of the spiritual
SACRED TEMPLE SARASWATI MACHINE
journey. Temples were not meant to have any other
purpose than this but over the year have added
program to benefit the community living of the
regional area. They exist only for the purpose of
spiritual cleansing and as a representation of the
universe.

16'-0"
VERTICAL SEQUENCE

16'-0"
Vayavya Kubera Eeshaan

NW N NE

AIR WATER

W ETHER E
Varuni Indra
EARTH FIRE

SW S SE
Parvati Yama Agneya

Vastu Mandala (Cosmic Building

Plan Diagram)

Mandala: cosmic diagram, classically

employed to denote the air that
encompasses the light of the sun and
the moon: the orb that spins around
the entire cosmos luminously. It
symbolizes the totality of existance. It
is a circle because circle’s are perfect
and comprehensive without a
beginning or and end.

1 COMPOSITE AXON
NOT TO SCALE

Title
 04

VIMANA

UPPER KALASHA

GATEWAY

ENTRY PLATFORM

LIGHT MARKER, LAMP

ARDHAMANDAPA

32'-0"

GOLD CLAD METAL WALLS

ENERGY AXIS

MAHA MANDAPA
PRADAKSHINA
ANTARALA
THICK WALLS
16'-0"
GARBA GRHA
WOMB CHAMBER

DEITY-SARASWATI

16'-0"
MESH FLOORING

CIRCULATION UP TO MAIN TEMPLE

RITUAL WATER DRAINAGE

RITUAL WATER TANK

MESH FLOORING

A SECTION DETAIL A GROUND PLAN

102 1/16”=1’-0” 103 1/32”=1’-0”

A SARASWATI TEMPLE PLAN

104 1/32”=1’-0”

A WATER TANK PLAN

A WORMS EYE AXON IN SITE 105 1/32”=1’-0”
101 NOT TO SCALE

Descending into the earth, visions of the temple. Section and plans.
 E. SPACES 04

The garba grha is the sacred room which sits in the profane temple. In temple architecture
the temple mimics nature through its iconic form and the content of the sculptures. It
should consider naturally reflective sound (reverberation throughout the mandapa from the
sanctum), dramatic natural lighting, smell of sandalwood and incense, feeling of entering
a cave or dream, on or near a body of water for rituals and simulating the cosmic waters,
sequence from profane to sacred. The local materials should be considered and thoughtfully
integrated into the design. The local materials should be considered and thoughtfully
integrated into the design. For example, in India the locally quarried red sandstone, from
which temples are built, come alive at sunrise and sunset, showing off the temples’ fine
figural sculpture and deeply faceted exteriors. Sometimes sculptures are of human erotica,
animals, miniature architecture, natural elements, and elements of daily life (the profane
in every sense). In stark contrast, the garba grha (sanctum sanctorum) is supposed to be
devoid of iconography and ornament because it allows one to focus on spirituality rather than
physical aesthetics. I propose that the western obsession with the machine and industry form
the basis for ornament and sculpture, a regional adaption. Machine parts and mechanical
design becomes the sublime which replaces the cultural sublime imbued in sculptures in
India, recognizable iconography. This also beings up an important discussion of iconography
and translation of sculpture. Can sculptures or their essence be truly be translated into
western temple design? Will it then hold the same meaning out of context? The potency
and spiritual effect of the temple relies on the devotee/viewer’s ability to comprehend and
understand the symbols and the architectural metaphors21.

Narrative of the deity for which the temple is built is also important when shaping spaces.
In this thesis, the narrative of the goddess Saraswati and her consort lord Brahma are
showcased. Saraswati’s journey started as a river goddess in north India, this mythical river
was said to have dried up and split into both the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers. The temple
in this thesis starts its sequence with a mapping of this mythical river. Lord Brahma is a
shunned god because of arrogance accounted in various myths and is the creator of the
vimana as vehicles of the gods. The temple is an ode to his work as the vimana creator: a
vimana that contains his wife, goddess Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and the arts.
Fig. 75: Light in the Silo
-----------------------------------
21
Sunlight and moonlight filters into the silo, illuminating the vimana and the sanctum on the Rao, Indian Temple Traditions, 131.
inside. The atmosphere is created by the material interacting with the elements.
 04

Fig. 77: Maison De Verre, Paris, Pierre Chareau +Bernard Bijvoet, 1932
Fig. 76: Maison De Verre, Paris, Pierre Chareau +Bernard Bijvoet, 1932
Diagrams indicating the location, form and structure of the Maison de Verre.
Diagrams of the individual mechanical innovations that added both function and character to the house. Maison De Verre was used
as a case study for machine parts in a building. Each furniture detail and opening carefully constructed by Paris, Pierre Chareau and
Bernard Bijvoe. The building is built like a machine inserted into the fabric of Haussman’s Paris and constructed like a machine for
living. The original owners used the house to live as well as to work.
 04

Early iteration of atmospheric space around the sanctum. Abstract line drawing of garba grha space.
 04

NW N NE

16'-0"

16'-0"
E

SW S SE

Goddess Saraswati of knowledge, consort of Lord Brahma, creator of the material world. Section of garba grha.
 04

NW N NE
NW N NE

16'-0"
16'-0"

16'-0"
E
W

16'-0"
E

SW SE
SW S SE S

Saraswati yantra mandala, cosmic diagram. Abstract cartesian cosmological axis.

 04

Vision inside the vimana to the sanctum. Abstract view of the garbha grha. Copper vimana, gold clad sanctum and stone/brick inner sanctum.
 04

Golded rocketship interspace between vimana and sanctum. Water sources: San Fransisco Bay and the constructed mythical Saraswati river.
05 APPENDIX
A. GLOSSARY OF TERMS 05

Garbha Griha(n.) (Sanskrit) 1.The sanctum sanctorum of the temple where the idol
deity is kept and venerated, 2.The ‘womb’ of the shrine

Kali Yuga(n.) The fourth period in the yuga cycle consisting of 432,000 Human
years. Temples were created because god’s presence disappeared
and had to be remembered in a physical capacity.

Mandala (n.) Cosmic diagram classically employed to denote the air that
encompasses the light of the sun and the moon: the orb that spins
around the entire cosmos luminously. It symbolizes the totality
of existence. It is a circle placed in a square because circles are
perfect and comprehensive without beginning and end.

Mechanism(n.) The dynamic parts of a machine

Profane(n.) The organic, worldly, ornate, desires, possessions, wealth, status

Rg Veda (n.) A sanskrit text written between 1200 and 900 BCE chronicling the
origins and theology of Hinduism.

Sacred(n.) The space created as an embodiment of ultimate enlightenment

and release of all worldly desires and possessions

Temple(n.) A place of meditation and serenity

Vimana (n.) (Sanskrit) 1. A mythological chariot or flying palace of the ancient

Hindu gods as described in the Sanskrit epics, 2. The monumental
pyramidal roof over the sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu temple
or a gopura(entry gate), 3. Aircraft or mythological rocket-ship,
4.“Apart” or “having measured”, 5. An area of land measured out
and set apart to be used for sacred purposes

Vimanika shastra a fourth century Sanskrit text written by Sage Bharadwaj about
(n.) ancient Indian flying machines found in a temple in 1875 and then
subsequently translated and re-translated into English
Annotated Bibliography.
05

“Airavata: The King of Elephants – Sanskriti - Hinduism and Indian Culture Website.” Sanskriti. March 27, Coomaraswamy, Rama P. 1997. The Door in the Sky. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
2015. Accessed May 14, 2019. https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian-religions/hinduism/airavata-
the-king-of-elephants/#comments. There is a chapter on the mythology of the hindu temple through the example of the Khajuraho temples and the
explanation of common hindu rituals and their origins. The temple is built like a house with a hearth
Gives a through description of the Airavateeshvara myth and its origins.
Dey, Anil. 2017. The Sun Temple of Konark. New Dehli: Niyogi Books.
Ananth, Sashikala. 2001. Vaastu: A path to harmonious living. New Delhi: Lustre Press Roli Books.
This book chronicles the history, construction, and architectural elements of the Konark Sun Temple in Orissa.
An extraction of the vaastu shastra, the verbal manifesto of space and harmony or one of the first treatises of
space and architecture in india, into its essence, grammar, aesthetics, harmony, history, and meaning. Garcia, Julian, and Joaquin Grau. “Building from myth: A look at shilpa shastras from anthropology and
architecture.” Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review 24, no. 1 (2012): 20-21. http://www.jstor.org/
Ananth, Sashikala. 1998. The Penguin Guide to Vaastu: The Classical Indian Science of Architecture and Design. stable/41945751.
New Delhi: Penguin Books.
Hardy, Adam. “Hindu Temples and the Emanating Cosmos.” Religion and the Arts 20, (2016): 112–134
Covers an overview of Vaastu, the experience of experience of Space and Form, design methodologies, and the
relevance and benefits of vaastu shastra. Hardy, Adam. 1995. Indian temple architecture: form and transformation: The Karnara Dravida tradition, 7th to 13th
centuries. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.
Balasubramanian, Shanmugapriya. “Myth, Religion and Ritual and their role in defining the existence of tanks
in Kumbakonam, A South Indian Temple Town.” Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review 28, no. 1 Huntington, Susan L. 1985. Art of ancient India : Buddhist, Hindu, Jain . New York: Weatherhill.
(2016): 21-22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44211361.
Kaligotla, Subhashini. “Shiva’s Waterfront Temples: Reimagining the Sacred Architecture of India’s Deccan Region.”
Branfoot, Crispin. Gods on the Move: Architecture and Ritual in the South Indian Temple. xvi, 272 pp. London: PhD diss., Columbia University, 2015. ProQuest (AAT 3732429).
The Society for South Asian Studies, The British Academy, 2007.
Marathe, Kaumundi. 1998. Temples of India: Circles of Stone. Mumbai: Business Publications Inc.
Childress, David Hatcher. 2004. Vimana: Aircraft of Ancient India and Atlantis. Kempton: Adventures Unlimited
Press. Nisar, Zeba. “Sun Temple at Modhera: An Ode in Stone.” Architecture Times Space & People 10, (2009): 34-39.

Chronicles the origin of the vimana as an ancient indian space craft of a much more advanced civilization.
 05

Rao, Prof. S.K. Ramachandra and D. Vikhanasacharyulu. 1997. Devalaya-Vastu Volume one. Bangalore: UBS Shukla, D.N. 1960. Vastu-Shastra Vol 1: Hindu Science of Architecture. Lucknow: Shukla Printing Press.
Publishers.
Part 5 Temple Architecture outlines the history of the hindu temple in all of its styles of canons and monuments of
Addresses the examination of site and the construction of the shrine. arts. It defines the term vimana and other relevant words.

Rao, Prof. S.K. Ramachandra. 1979. The Indian Temple: Its Meaning. Bangalore: IBH Prakashana. Sinha, Ajay J. “Architectural Invention in Sacred Structures: The Case of Vesara Temples of Southern India.” Journal of
the Society of Architectural Historians 55, no. 4 (1996): 382-99. doi:10.2307/991180
A small and incredible book of the history of the temple and its subsequent rituals and architecture that define .
the continuance of the typology.
Sinha, Ajay J. Artibus Asiae 58, no. 3/4 (1999): 358-62. doi:10.2307/3250027.
Rao, Prof. S.K. Ramachandra and D. Vikhanasacharyulu. 1997. Indian Temple Traditions. Bangalore: UBS
Publishers.

Addresses topics such as the human need for shines, its folk origins, the importance placed upon deities
and their evolution into the hindu way of life, the subsequent evolution of the temple, the temple as a structure and
enterprise, iconography, worship of icons, worship in temples, and symbolism.

Rayjada, Satwik & A Chauhan, K. “Application of Ancient Indian Principles of Architecture and Engineering in
Modern Practice”, (2016).

M., Shivanandam. “Mercury Propulsion System in Vedic Vimanas and Modern Spacecrafts”. International
Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews 2, no. 2 (2015):136-144.

Saxena, Saurabh. “Srinivasanallur – Koranganatha Temple.” Indian History and Architecture. Accessed May 14,
2019. http://puratattva.in/2011/04/16/srinivasanallur-koranganatha-temple-15.
 167

05

This thesis was awarded the Ralph T. Walker Travel Prize ($1,500) for international
travel which allowed travel to south India from December 2018 to January 2019 to
do extended research on south Indian temples. The extended research is included in
another publication which acts as a catalogue of sketches and photographs.

Vimana: A Crisis of Translation qualified for the Super Jury Prize 2019 and was able
to be presented to a panel of external jurors. This thesis was also awarded one of 5
Dean’s Citation for Excellence 2019.