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A Reservoir Evolution Model of Synrift Lacustrine Hyperpycnites, Barmer Basin


(Rajasthan, India)

Authors — Pinaki Majumdar1, Shubhodip Konar1* , John Dolson2, Archana


Dhanasetty3, Ajoy Krishna Bora1, Prem Kumar1

1
Cairn Oil & Gas, vertical of Vedanta Ltd., ASF Center, Jwala-Mill Road, Gurugram, Haryana-
122016, India

2
DSP Geosciences, 4205 Lennox Dr, Miami, Florida-33133, United States
3
ExxonMobil Services & Technology Private limited, 1st Main Road, Whitefield Main Road, 5th
Floor, Prestige Shantiniketan Complex Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka-560048, India

* Corresponding author, email: [email protected]

Authorship Statement
Pinaki Majumdar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation
John Dolson: Investigation

Shubhodip Konar: Writing- Original draft preparation, Visualization, Investigation.


Archana Dhanasetty: Data curation, Visualization, Investigation.
Ajoy Krishna Bora: Investigation
Prem Kumar: Investigation

Key Words:
Lacustrine hyperpycnites, rift basin, reservoir evolution model, reservoir characterization,
diagenesis

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Abstract

The Barmer Basin in northwest India, is one of the largest hydrocarbon provinces in
India with 38 discoveries declared by Cairn India & ONGC since the first discovery in 1999. The
basin is 8000 km2 in area and accounts for about 20% of India’s annual production of crude oil.
This Paleocene-Eocene lacustrine rift is the northern-most termination of the Cambay rift.
Basinal hyperpycnites comprise important, but complex reservoirs, largely confined to the basin
margins.
This study details the BHT10 interval of the Palaeocene-Eocene Barmer Hill Formation
in the Vijaya-Vandana Field, are large, complexly layered, low permeability submarine fan and
channel stratigraphic trap.
The field consists of two mounded channel and fan complexes. Four lithofacies
dominate: 1) reservoir quality sandstone in channel complexes 2) marginal quality
conglomeratic and chaotic heterolithic clastics 3) non reservoir porcellanites and diatomites and
4) mudstone. The best reservoir facies are confined channel-levee and fan deposits. Reservoir
architecture is controlled by basin floor topography and structure. Climate induced lake level
fluctuations also impact stratigraphic architecture and channel avulsion with time. Although the
primary trapping mechanism is an updip stratigraphic pinchout of the clastic fan facies, the
reservoirs are interbedded with source rock, and where thermally mature, very little water is
recovered, making the trap partly unconventional in nature.
Much of the sediment is texturally and mineralogically immature and has undergone
burial diagenesis involving authigenic kaolinite and illite cementation. Diagenetic effects are
more prominent closer to the basin bounding faults. Away from the faults, distal basin floor
production is further complicated by inter-bedded layers of non-reservoirs which impede vertical
connectivity.
Integrated analysis of both diagenetic, thermal maturation and 3D seismic and
geological facies analysis is essential chose favorable locations to develop this field.

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INTRODUCTION

Intracratonic lacustrine rift basins are rich in hydrocarbon source rocks, the presence
and quality of which depends on the organic productive level, preservation potential, and
sedimentation rate (Katz, 2001). However, exploration opportunities are often constrained by
complex reservoir geometries and poor reservoir quality. Sedimentary sequences in these
basins are controlled by interplay of accommodation space and sediment supply.
Accommodation space is driven by influenced by rapid and spatially variable extensional
tectonics (Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993; Ravnas and Steel,1998; Gupta et al., 1999; Contreras et
al., 2000; Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; Lezzar et al., 2002). Sediment supply, however, is
more a function of climate, uplift in the source areas, provenance rock type and differential relief
(Stoffers and Hecky, 1978; Johnson et al., 1987; Blair and Bilodeau, 1988; Scholz and
Rosendahl, 1988; Frostick and Reid, 1989).

This was elucidated in detail by studies on hydrocarbon bearing lacustrine turbidites in


West Africa (Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990), East Brazil (Bruhn et al, 1999; Carozzi and
Fonseca, 1989) and China (Wagner et al, 1988; Xi-Jiang, 1988). The effects of climate and
tectonics on the disposition of reservoirs are more important in the areas bordering lake basins,
where the associated gravity driven sedimentary deposits in the form of turbidites and mass
transfer complexes are induced by the steep basin ward slope gradient and high subsidence
rate of the hanging wall along basin margin faults (Cohen, 1990; da Silva, 1993; Magnativa et
al., 1995).

The Barmer Basin produces 159,000 barrels of oil per day. Exploration activity is
continuing, but a number of synrift stratigraphic traps in turbidites account for approximately 920
mmboe (million barrels of oil equivalent) of potentially recoverable hydrocarbons. Unlocking
efficient ways to develop these complex traps could be a ‘game-changer’ in production rates
and volumes. The Palaeocene Barmer Hill Formation in the Vijaya and Vandana (V&V) area has
the most extensive data coverage and production testing in the basin, providing an excellent
chance to learn how to develop basin-flank fan and channel traps.

GEOLOGY
The Barmer Basin is an intra-cratonic NNW-SSE oriented rift formed as a narrow
extension of the Cambay Basin (Figure 1A). More than 1028 wells have been drilled, primarily
by Cairn Oil and Gas, testing a wide variety of traps and facies. The basin sedimentary fill is up
to 6 km (20,000 ft) of predominantly Paleocene to Eocene age clastics. The present basin
morphology is a result of superposition of India-Madagascar rift and the East Africa-India-
Madagascar rifting (Mandal et al., 2017), followed by inversion, tilting and uplifting the northern
portion of the basin associated with the Himalayan orogeny (Mukherjee, 2013, 2015).

The most thorough treatments of the basin architecture, reservoirs, petroleum systems
and migration and charge history are in a series of three papers (Dolson et al., 2015, Farrimond
et al., 2015, Naidu et al., 2017). There are a wide variety of trapping styles, with the biggest
fields in tilted fault blocks. Production has been established from Lower Cretaceous, Paleocene
and Eocene strata. Source rocks, likewise, are interbedded throughout these reservoirs, but by
far the most important source rocks are the lacustrine shales of the Barmer Hill Formation

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(Figure 1B). The northern portion of the basin contains the most easily produced, high quality
reservoirs in the widespread, highly permeability braided channels of the Ghaggar-Hakra (Lower
Cretaceous) and Fatehgarh Formations (Paleocene), notably at the giant Mangala Field. These
pre-rift and early rift facies are overlain by the synrift shales, porcellanites and sandstones of the
Barmer Hill Formation.

BARMER HILL FORMATION


The Barmer Hill Formation (BHF) in the northern part of the Barmer Basin was deposited
within a lacustrine environment during a period of maximum extension (Dolson et al., 2015,
Kothari et al., 2016). As a result, the reservoirs have rapid facies variations the distribution of
which is primarily controlled by syn-rift structural movement (Figure 1B). The thick source rocks
of the more basinal lacustrine facies (which can exceed a kilometer in thickness) are
volumetrically the most significant for hydrocarbon generation. The Barmer Hill Formation can
broadly be classified as upper and lower facies, with the lower facies developed during a
period of maximum highstand obtaining a thickness of 400 meters of highly organic source rock
with total organic carbon frequently exceeding 10% total organic carbon (TOC), with initial
hydrogen index (HI) close to 1000. This lower interval is generally clastic-poor except for thin
turbidite beds. In contrast, the upper portion is dominated by thick syn-rift fans, clastics, and in
some areas, widespread porcellanites and diatomites (Figure 1B).

The northern part of the basin is dominated by basin margin deltas grading to axial
turbidite to diatomite deposits, diagentically changed to porcellanite (Figure 1B). In the more
central and southern parts of the basin clastic input from basin margin fan deltas resulted in
downdip deposition of turbidite fans, channels, debris flows and more layered hyperpycnites
(Figure 1B, D) (Dolson et al., 2015, Konar et al., 2018).

The porcellanites are micro-porous (Figure 1C), with porosities as high as 30% but
permeabilities generally less than 1 millidarcy. Their production and reservoir quality are similar
to that of the Monterrey Formation, with Elk Hills Field in California a reasonable analog (Reid
and McIntyre, 2001). In contrast, the clastic facies vary from micro to macro-porous, with the
highest permeabilities in the Shakti Delta in the northeast part of the basin. The hyperpycnites,
although lower porosity than the porcellanites, have better permeability, and are largely micro to
meso-porous, often requiring hydraulic fracturing to obtain high flow rates.

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Figure 1. A) The Barmer Basin with important hydrocarbon fields overlain on a regional depth to basement
map. The basin is extends further south as evidenced from gravity, magnetics and seismic data, linking it to the
Cambay rift system (not shown). B) The Barmer Hill (BH) Formation Gross Depositional Environment (GDE) map
showing the distribution of syn-rift Upper BH reservoirs facies. Diatomites/porcellanites produce in the Mangala,
Aishwariya and Bhagyam field areas. The Shakti Delta has some small, biodegraded heavy oil fields. Lacustrine
turbidites in in the Vandana and Vijaya complex are the subject of this paper. C) BH reservoir types in core and
corresponding porosity-permeability distribution. D) Representative core photos of the three most common reservoir
facies in the basin (after Konar et.al, 2018, Dasgupta and Mukherjee, 2017, 2019)

VIJAYA AND VANDANA FIELD (V&V)


Vijaya and Vandana (V&V) Field is located west and down structure from the eastern
basin bounding fault and 5km southeast of Aishwariya field (Figure 1B). V&V is a stratigraphic
trap formed by pore-throat seals and large-scale turbidite facies pinchouts down-dip of the
Aishwariya structure. Key reservoirs are lacustrine hyperpycnite sands deposited in channel-
lobe environments intercalated with thermally mature organic-rich source rocks. These source
facies are within a gross package of thermally mature shales exceeding 1 km thickness in
places. The interbedded clastics form are trapped within the mature source facies and there are
no clear oil-water contacts in any reservoirs.

As such, much of the trap resembles the unconventional Wolfbone play in the Permian
Basin (Fairhurst et al., 2012). The updip seal is provided by facies transition to sealing
lacustrine shales, which further transitions to producing diatomites at structurally higher
Mangala and Aishwariya fields (Chowdhury et al., 2011). Seals to the southwest are a major
fault with over 500 meters of throw. Twelve wells, both vertical and inclined, have been drilled
by Cairn, with measured depth varying from 2313m 3782m, to delineate the two mounded
features - Vijaya and Vandana, each having approximately 30 sq. kms of area. The reservoir
units encountered in Barmer Hill Formation interval are thin, oil-bearing turbidite sands of 5 to
8m thickness, disseminated over more than a 1 km plus the gross interval. Oil accumulations
have been identified in seven stratigraphic pools; Barmer Hill turbidites (BHT-1, BHT-2, BHT-
10,
BHT-20, BHT-30, BHT-40 and BHT-50 (Figure 2). Figure 2 shows the ubiquitous diatomite rich
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BH-6 shale interval, that can be laterally traced into the neighboring Aishwarya field, dividing the

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whole section into an upper package (BHT-1, BHT-2, BH-10) and lower package (BHT-30, BHT-
40 and BHT-50).

Figure 2. Seismic-geologic section from Aishwariya field to V&V field showing gradual lithology variation
from porcellanite to clastics. BH-6 shale and diatomite-rich layer separates the sequence into lower packages
entailing dominantly fan reservoirs, and upper packages dominated by thick turbidite channels and channelized fans.
The V&V stratigraphic trap is laterally sealed by updip facies change toward the Aishwariya paleo-high and to the
southwest by a major normal fault (figure modified from Majumdar et al., 2017)

DATA AND METHODS:

High-resolution, post stack time and depth migrated 3D seismic data acquired in 2005
(frequency range 10 - 90 Hz), including sparse layer inversion data (frequency range10 - 45 Hz)
covering approximately 50 km2 of the V/V area.
The facies are extensively cored, with 309.2 meters of conventional cores from 5 wells,
157 side wall core samples (both rotary and percussion) from 9 wells. Besides the basic
conventional logs (Gamma-Resistivity-Neutron-Density-Sonic) acquired in all the 12 wells,
nuclear magnetic resonance data were acquired for 9 wells, resistivity-based image logs in 8
wells, and wireline formation pressure and sample data from all the wells (Table 1). Standard
routine and special core analysis data are available in some of the acquired cores (Table 2).
These data, supplemented by sedimentological and petrographic analysis done on both
core data and drill cuttings, helped determine turbidite lithofacies and corresponding properties,
some of which have been covered in detail in Konar et al. (2018). Figure 3B summarizes rock
type classes and pore distribution.
The spatial distribution of all facies was determined by integration of seismic, core data
and petrophysical analysis. The age was determined from biostratigraphic studies undertaken in
both core and cuttings sample.

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Figure 3. A) Core photographs of major lithofacies in V&V. B) Total facies proportions in V&V sandstone
classifications according to Pettijohn et. al., (1972). Sandstone sub-classification is based on porosity-permeability
transformation and pore throat size distribution in mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) data. Textural
properties of three sub classifications C) are observable in photo micrographs (modified from Konar et al., 2018).

LITHOFACIES
Conventional cores show six key lithofacies: sandstones, conglomerate, finely laminated
sand-shale heterolithics, chaotic, distorted sand bodies incased in shale, diatomites or
porcellanites and mudstones (Figure 3A). The proportions of these lithofacies vary widely and
are particularly dependent on the position of the wells with respect to the basin margin faults
and provenance areas.

Sandstones: Sandstones generally constitute viable reserves and constitute 20% of the
total lithology. They are dominated by sand grains with a mean grain size varying from upper
very fine grain to lower very coarse-grain, with high silt content in places. The cores also
show an overall coarsening upwards signature. Sandstones are normally graded to
structureless with current bedding (Figure 4A, 4B), in places also showing upward
coarsening trends with rotated beds (Figure 4C).

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Figure 4. A) Stacked, clean, fine to medium sandstones with rare traces of very faint internal current
bedding. B) Series of fine to very fine sandstone beds with current ripple (CR) bedding alternating with injected and
disturbed mudstones. Locally one of these is cut across by a minor injection structure (IS). C) Basal part of a bed with
upwards thickening and coarsening trend. In this lower part, the sandstones are poorly sorted and strongly
argillaceous, with common evidence of injection, water escape and disturbed, rotated bedding (RB).

Commonly observed structures are dewatering structures e.g., flame structures,


convolute lamination, dish, pseudo-nodular sand clasts orientated vertically, horizontally and
randomly. (Figure 5)

Figure 5. A) Flame structure (FS) with traces of organic rich material in fine to medium grade grained
sandstone. B) Convolute bedding (CB) in medium to coarse grained sandstone with shale lamination. C) Dish
structure (DS) formed by water escape features within medium grade sandstone. D) Pseudo-nodular sand clasts

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(PSC) within fine to medium grained sandstone a various stage of development. F) Slump (Sl) within fine grained
sandstone.

The sandstones show gradual as well as recurring changes in grain-size and


sedimentary structures, with overall increase in thickness and periodicity of gravitational failure
(slump) towards the top. Individual reservoir sand has average thickness of 4-5m, in places
stacked up to 8-10m. Allochthonous Teredolites spp. is observed (Figure 6A), contained within
channelized sandstones, in Vandana-2Y well, located ~5km from the basin margin fault. Aligned
bitumen blobs can be seen in NR-4z core (Figure 6B), nine km from the basin margin fault.

Figure 6. A) Teredolites presence in Vandana-2Y well which is approximately 5km from the basin margin
fault. B) Presence of bitumen blobs (Bb) in NR-4z core located 9 km from the basin margin fault.

Mineralogically, the sandstones are composed of 71% quartz and minor plagioclase and
K-feldspar. They are clay rich clastics, which constitutes 18% by weight, with percentage of
kaolinite being maximum (~40%), followed by illite and smectite (Figure 7B). The sandstones
are highly cemented and can reach up to 17% in places. Quartz, siderite and dolomite are the
dominant cements (Figure 7A). Occasionally, the sandstones are found water bearing, though
occurrences of such beds are erratic (Figure 7C) and may be perched water in disconnected
reservoir packages that have never been displaced by oil during migration (O’Sullivan et al.,
2012).

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Figure 7(A) Sandstone mineralogy and clay percentages in V&V area (modified after Konar et al. ,2018) (B)
Reservoir quality is further modified by mineral diagenesis and cementation (primarily 3 types), which does not have
any specific trend with depth. Cement dissolution created highly permeable sandstone zones (modified after
Majumdar et al., 2017) (C) Schematic representation of occurrence of erratic & isolated water zones throughout V&V
sedimentary package

Total porosity of sandstones ranges 10-20%; however, permeability varies from 0.01-
300 millidarcy. Diagenetic alteration and development of secondary porosity is evident in these
reservoirs, leaving no definitive porosity-depth trend. Based on scanning electron microscope
(SEM) imaging along with pore size distribution from mercury injected capillary pressure (MICP)
data, three distinct sandstone sub classes are identified: tight sands (~0.01-0.5mD), moderately
tight sand (~0.2-10mD) and sands with cement dissolution (~10-300mD) (Figure 3C). 14% of
the total sandstone population consist of good sands, 38% is moderately tight sand and 48% is
tight sand.

Conglomerate, heterolithics and chaotic deposits: Conglomerates, heterolithics and


chaotic deposits comprises the poorest reservoir facies. These deposits have poor reservoir
potential primarily due to extreme anisotropic permeability in vertical and horizontal directions.
Clastic injection complexes are also common in conglomerates and heterolithics.

Conglomerates commonly have a mean grain size of upper very coarse sand and are
matrix supported. Normally these deposits have argillaceous basal sandstone beds containing
greenish and reddened igneous lithic clasts (pre-rift lithology) and bedding aligned with
intrabasinal mud clasts (Figure 8A). Matrix supported conglomerates are potentially better-
quality reservoir with higher porosity due to the higher percentage of porous sandstone matrix.

Heterolithics are alternations of sand, mud or silt at decimeter scales or less and are
typically formed of a succession of graded beds (Figure 8B). These deposits are distinguished
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from sandstones by the presence of preserved fine-grained bed caps. Individual bed
thicknesses vary from > 10 cm up to < 5 cm.

Figure 8. A) Basal part of an argillaceous sandstone bed with greenish and reddened igneous lithic clasts
(IC) and bedding aligned mud clasts (AM) suggesting low density debris flow origin and a sharp erosional base (SB).
B) Heteroliths comprising of sand shale intercalation, locally disrupted by sand injectites (SI). C) ‘Starry night’ deposit,
matrix supported with scattered sand to granule grade clasts. D) Soft sediment deformation (SFD) observed in finely
laminar porcellanite facies. E) Gravity collapse (GC) faults within laminated porcellanite facies.

Chaotic deposits are typically poorly sorted or unsorted and matrix dominated, with a
wide range of grain-size from mud to pebbles and cobbles. Occasionally ‘starry night’ facies are
observed in cores (Haughton et al., 2003), a characteristic ungraded matrix supported deposit
with scattered sand to granule grade clasts (Figure 8C).

Porcellanite: This facies includes distinct fine scale laminated deposits of silt and mud
deposited mainly in the distal and fringe parts of field. They are interpreted as dominantly
pelagic, with reservoir quality normally poor and have variable shale content. Mineralogically,
the silt layers are cryptocrystalline quartz, transitioned from opal-A. Commonly structureless
with occasional siderite banding within the lamina, slip surfaces associated with gravity collapse
and soft sediment deformation (Figure 8D, 8E). Post depositional clastic intrusions,
characteristic of hydraulic fracturing of host material due to overpressure reservoir units, are
observed in places.

Mudstones: Non-laminated deposits of silt and mudstones comprise of mainly


impermeable pelagic and hemipelagic deposition. They are often contorted and deformed,
showing recumbent folds and slip surfaces. Clastic intrusions are common, reducing sealing
capacity of mudstones and increasing vertical permeability amongst coarser sediments.

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DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
Character, distribution and stacking pattern of stratal units, distribution range of
lithofacies and reservoir properties of V&V sedimentary column confirm to signatures of
‘balanced-filled” and ‘underfilled’ lake basins (Bohacs, 2002).

The lower and the upper packages are separated by a basin-wide regional shaley
porcellanite layer (BH-6). This level separates two different stratal accumulations, belonging to
distinctly different sedimentological packages (Figure 9A). These variations are created tectonic
subsidence and shifts in sediment supply created by active fault movement and climatic
fluctuations. The Lower Package (BHT50, 40, 30) represents a predominantly shaly system, as
evidenced from acquired wireline logs and well cuttings. The lower package is characterized by
stacked, thin transgressive sheetflood sands/silts deposited during early lake highstand. Thin
fluvial channels and interbedded throughout the overall shaley sequence (Figure 9B).

Figure 9. (A) BH sedimentary packages exhibiting variation in disposition as in seismic (B) variation in
lithology and stratal accumulations as seen in logs (modified after Konar et al. ,2018). Log mnemonics Gamma
-GR, Resistivity -LLD, Neutron porosity -TNPH, Density porosity -RHOB, Magnetic Resonance -T2.

The upper package (BH-10) lies above the BH-6 porcellanitic shale. The BH-10 has a
more aggradational pattern with a higher net to gross ratio. The package is comprised by flood-
induced hyperpycnal flows (Zavala, 2019; Zavala et al., 2012). Laterally migrating channel
networks dominate a lacustrine slope apron similar to the one described by Cunlei et al. 2016).
They progressively down-slope grade into unconfined terminal splays at distal positions (Figure
10A and Figure 10B). These slope apron channel complexes underwent frequent abandonment
due to climate-induced avulsion or sediment supply changes. Figure 9A shows two distinct
upper package BH-10 mounds, (Vijaya and Vandana after which the field is so named) which
are clearly discernible in seismic.

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Figure 10 summarizes some of the features of the BHT-10 unit, which is prolific of the
reservoir units.

Figure 10. A) Schematic sedimentological model of BHT10 reservoir unit showing deposition took place in a
slope apron setting. B) In the distal areas, the BHT-10 thins considerably into terminal splays which exhibit significant
presence of porcellanite due to their proximity to Aishwarya paleo-high (as in well NR4z). C) The BHT-10 slope apron
complex is preserved today in form of two mounds- clearly discernible in seismic used to construct the sediment
thickness map. D) Morphology of channel complexes within individual slope apron systems. E) Morphology of
individual channel shows, shows a typical width of 200 m and thickness of 5 meters.

Seismic amplitude maps show that individual channels within the slope aprons are
narrow (150-200m wide) and attain a maximum thickness of 6m with an average of about 3
meters (Figure 10D and E). Abrupt changes in lithology occur within a short distance, both
laterally and vertically (as attested by core data) and is attributed to frequent changes in load
carrying capacity. Climate-induced avulsion can result in laterally migrating channel network
systems, imparting lobe-like radial pattern to the mound in the medial part of the V&V graben.
The sub-aqueous channel systems are orientated broadly NE-SSW from the eastern basin
margin fault. It is possible that these channels were extensions of axial river systems associated
with pre-existing Mesozoic rift on the eastern basin margin (Mandal et al., 2017).

The presence of Teredolites traces, asphalt balls and disseminated organic debris in
cores suggest an extrabasinal origin for gravity flows. Presence of syneresis cracks in cores
5km from basin margin fault points to salinity changes that at times linked the Barmer Hill lake to
the more marine Cambay rifts to the southeast, forming the upper end of an estuary. Limited
diversity and diminutive forms within trace fossil assemblage (Gyroliths, Planolites–Teichichnus)
support estuarine deposits (Fillion & Pickerill, 1990, Bin Hu et al., 2014). Relative proportions of
different lithologies are constrained by flow rheology, in turn controlled by amount of
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precipitation in the catchment areas. Recurring matrix supported chaotic deposits (heteroliths
and coarse pebbly sandstone) is probably deposited from bed load and -slurry flow sandy
debrites within a slope setting. These deposits show sand injectites, soft sediment deformation
structures, over-steepened laminations, rotated and slump features (Figure 11). The finer load
fraction comprised of medium to fine grained sandstone and silt, was deposited as turbidites
(sensu stricto, Shanmugam, 2000) from suspension in sediment plumes as the flow waned.

Figure 11. Sedimentological logs of a cored section from the BHT-10 unit, showing 4 broad depositional
units which are constrained by climate and sediment supply changes.

A relative decrease of heteroliths and increase sand towards the central basinal marks a
lithologic transition of the BHT-10 from a proximal sandy debrites to distal turbidites, also with
reduced thickness (Figure 10B). Such transitions have been reported from deep lacustrine
deposits elsewhere by Cunlei et al. (2016) and Zou et.al, (2012). Complex interactions between
differential compaction and syn-depositional sand remobilization and avulsion resulted in the
present mound like morphology, as similar to that described by Jenssen et al. (1993).

Intervals dominated by shales most likely developed during dry climate seasons, where
sediment supply was shut down, allowing pelagic deposition to dominate

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DIAGENETIC PATHWAYS
Initially, pore system diagenesis developed during compaction in open fluid systems with
later fluids and cements forming in a closed system. Diagenetic pore modifications are an
important secondary control on producibility and must also be understood when designing
hydraulic fracturing or potential formation damage caused by any well bore stimulation or drilling
fluids.

Figure 12 shows the diagenetic alterations observed in V&V sandstones. There are
significant chloritized volcaniclastic glomeromorphs and retipomorphs, replaced partly by
ferroan dolomite locally coated by finely crystalline siderite (Figure 12A). Secondary porosity
due to dissolution of plagioclase feldspar and corresponding ferroan calcite poromorphs are
common. Euhedral micro-pyrite (Figure 12B) mixed with unstained, anhedral siderite, sparry
ferroan dolomite cement (Figure 12C) formed after the siderite occur in significant proportions.
Pore filling kaolinite, discontinuous quartz overgrowths (Figure 12D) are also ubiquitous.
Euhedral quartz overgrowths enclosing earlier siderite and kaolinite but are later encased by
blocky carbonate cements. Clay fractions ranging from pore-lining chlorite (Figure 12F), blocky
kaolinite (Figure 12G) and illite occluded both the primary and secondary porosity. Minor illite
and carbonate cements comprising ferroan calcite and ferroan dolomite, coat pore-lining chlorite
and discontinuous quartz overgrowths. Minor cubic pyrite is precipitated over quartz overgrowth
in places. Quartz cementation happened for prolonged durations and post-dated kaolinite
formation and hydrocarbon charge (Figure 12H).

Figure 12. Photomicrographs showing A) a large central grain of chloritized volcaniclasts (chv) now partly
replaced by ferroan dolomite (fdo). It is coated by very finely crystalline siderite (sid), which is post-dated by
authigenic kaolin (ka), filling several adjacent pores. B) 2500x higher magnification SEM image showing a cluster of
pyrite crystals (py) which cement detrital clay (DC). Kaolinite and microporosity (p) are also present. C) ferroan calcite
(fca) occludes secondary porosity after the partial dissolution of plagioclase feldspar (PF). Degraded volcanic
fragments (dVF) are also present. D) Locally widespread unstained, anhedral siderite cement (probably replacing
detrital clays). Sparry ferroan dolomite cement is also present and probably post-dates the siderite. E) Pore filling
kaolinite, discontinuous quartz overgrowths (qzo) and remnant porosity (rp) in a poorly sorted sandstone (F) 2500x
higher magnification SEM image pore-lining chlorite (ch), which is coated by illite (i) and enclosed by later pore-filling,
blocky kaolinite. The kaolinite is also enclosed by discontinuous quartz overgrowths. G) Occlusion of porosity by
microporous authigenic kaolinite. Note also the small, early formed, high relief crystals of siderite on grain
surfaces. H) Discontinuous euhedral quartz overgrowths, locally coated by residual hydrocarbons (ro).
Hydrocarbon (HC) enclosed within quartz overgrowths suggesting quartz precipitation after HC charge

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EARLY DIAGENESIS
The major diagenetic alterations in V&V happened in two stages: Early and Late.

Early diagenesis commenced with grain re-organization and mechanical compaction.


This was followed by the dissolution of unstable volcanic grains (Figure 13A), resulting in the
release of iron in a water-logged and organic-rich, methanic, reducing environment.

Figure 13. Sedimentological logs of a cored section from BHT-10 unit, showing 4 broad depositional units,
constrained by varying climate and sediment flow. A) Eogenetic Stage A: mechanical compaction results decrease in
porosity up to ~10-15%. B) Eogenetic Stage B: mechanical, chemical compaction and early cementation causes an
overall decrease in porosity up to ~5-10%. Volcaniclasts (DV) and feldspar (DF) undergo dissolution with siderite
precipitation in acidic pore waters. C) Early Mesogenetic Stage: dissolution of feldspar & rock fragments by organic
acid-rich fluids resulting in increases in permeability and changes in pore water chemistry. Quartz overgrowth (OQ),
chlorite (Chl) formation and siderite dissolution (DS) begins. D) Late Mesogenetic Stage: Late cementation leading
decrease in permeability with Illite formation (FI) and pyrite deposition.

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Consumption of organic matter by sulphate-reducing bacteria resulted in the


precipitation of framboidal pyrite (Figure 13B) in areas with detrital clay and degraded volcanic
rock fragments. This was followed by the replacement of unstable volcanic fragments by
chlorite. Once the available sulphate had been exhausted in the formation of pyrite, it is likely
that a period of reverse methanogenesis (anaerobic oxidation of methane -AMO as described
by Moore et al., 2004) ensued, resulting in the formation of intergranular, finely crystalline
siderite crystals.

CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2 H2O ---- (i)


CH3COOH → CH4 + CO2 ---- (ii)
SO4 2− + CH4 → HCO3− + HS− + H2O ---- (iii)

Typical of early diagenetic cases, high sulphate concentration ensured precipitation of


pyrite followed by siderite in low sulphate, organic rich conditions. Possible clay infiltration in the
vadose zone cannot be ruled out during early diagenesis processes (Curtis et al., 1986).

Anaerobic degradation of organic matter, by deeply infiltrating meteoric water, was


probably initiated during increased alkalinity and consequent carbonate cementation
(Mansurbeg, 2017, Mansurbeg et al., 2012, Morad et al., 2000).

LATE DIAGENESIS
The main period of weak to moderate burial compaction ceased prior to the onset of late
diagenesis. This is a function of depositional characteristics and early diagenetic processes
(Ajdukiewicz et al., 2010). The sediments experienced approximately 3000m of overburden and
corresponding porosity reduction by as much as 10-15% (Majumdar et al., 2017).

Continued acidic pore waters are likely to have initiated the main period of grain
dissolution (mainly K-feldspar grains & volcanic rock fragments), which marks the onset of late
diagenesis.

2KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + H2O = Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4SiO2 + 2K+ ---- (iv)

3KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ = KAl3Si3O10(OH)2+ 6SiO2 + 2K+ ---- (v)

KAlSi3O8 +Al2Si2O5(OH)4 = KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 2SiO2 +H2O ---- (vi)

The common presence of isomorphs proves that the majority of unstable grains
underwent dissolution at this stage, with no further significant compaction.

As the main period of unstable grain dissolution continued, more silica and alumina ions
were liberated into the pore fluids and subsequently re-precipitated as well crystallized kaolinite
booklets or vermicules. These kaolinite booklets choked both primary and secondary pores, as
the morphology of kaolinite is associated with dissolved feldspar and feldspathic rigid volcanic
rock fragments. Anatase is also likely to have precipitated at this time.

Excess silica from unstable grain dissolution was also partially consumed by the
precipitation of locally significant euhedral quartz overgrowths (Figure 13C). Quartz overgrowths

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are seen to have precipitated after the main period of burial-related diagenesis, as quartz
overgrowths are typically thin or terminate completely at long grain contacts.

Following the period of sustained acidic diagenesis, the evolving pore waters are likely to
have turned increasingly alkaline. This is most likely to be due to the liberation of carbonate,
magnesium and iron ions from maturing nearby mudrocks undergoing clay mineral
transformations, most notably from smectite to illite (Stewart, 1986) (Figure 13D).

KAlSi3O8 +2K0.3Al1.9Si4O10(OH)2 = 2K0.8Al2.4Si3.5O10(OH)2 + 4SiO2 ---- (vii)

Relative timing of carbonate cements and illite coating pore lining chlorite and quartz
overgrowth is unclear as they are not seen to overlie/interact with one another.

Pore fluids are then interpreted to have become acidic for a final time, which is
associated with the replacement of ductile sedimentary rock fragments, volcanic fragments and
organic debris.

Diagenesis is largely terminated, when hydrocarbons invaded the reservoir. Quartz


overgrowths enclosing residual oil in some cases points to some degree of diagenesis that may
have continued after the invasion of hydrocarbons.

RESERVOIR EVOLUTION MODEL


Synrift lacustrine turbidites, similar to the one in V&V, commonly have fluvial input points
updip (Dou et. al, 2019; Xian et. al., 2018, Zavala et. al., 2006) and the sediments tend to have
poorly to moderately textural maturity due to shorter transport distance in a partially confined
basin (Dodd et. al., 2019). The size and volume of the fluvial inputs, is a function of the structure
of the rift and rainfall in the watershed, which commonly tends to be low. The fluvial inputs
generally come into the basin through structural relay ramps between insipient faults, and the
number of such inputs decreases with evolution of the rift (Figure 14A).

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Figure 14. A) Schematic diagram of deposition from hyperpycnal flows during early phase of rifting. B)
Sequence of sedimentation and the factors responsible for reservoir characteristic presently. Arrows show
detrimental factors, while green arrows show beneficial effects on reservoir properties. One might miss the sweet
spot by approaching too close to the fault, or, conversely far away in the basin. A middle ground is best in these
cases.

The disposition of the sediments largely take place along the structural lows close to the
basin margin faults, generating an overall elongated profile. For intracratonic rifts with no or
minimal marine influence, the density of the standing water body is commonly lower than the
sediment laden fluvial inputs. This suggests that the deep-water deposits in this intracratonic
rifts are more commonly hyperpycnites. A better reservoir quality is expected in the deeper
portions of the basin as hydroplaning in some surge-like hyperpycnal flows ensures sediment
segregation by the effect of turbulence.

Presence of a significant amount of ductile material and volcanic clasts due to immature
nature of the sediment ensures severe effects of mechanical and chemical compaction in the
sandstones. These effects are more prominent in the proximal part. Effect of early diagenesis is
more pronounced because of mud clasts reworked from muddy slopes at the basin and bound
in Bouma A facies (Carvalho et al., 1995; Mansurbeg et al., 2009). Changes in fluid chemistry
in regions with higher extrabasinal inputs are more prone to development of generations of
secondary porosity, as the system become effectively closed at the end of compaction and
diagenesis (Figure 14B).

The presence of random, highly discontinuous, unconnected water bearing sands


present between the pay zones is quite characteristic of this type of system. The limited extent
of these units can be very clearly seen by examining the scattered, discontinuous nature of the
formation pressure data (O'Sullivan et. al., 2012). Water saturation vs. height plots to not show
clear-cut trends, indicating a lack of clear connectivity as well as highly variable rock type and
pore throat geometry. In some wells within the mounds, well test results with higher water cut
occur at higher structural locations (Figure 15).

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Figure 15. Seismic-geologic section from Aishwariya Field to V&V Field with depth to maturity lines overlain
showing possible explanation of water sands within different V&V intervals

This kind of multiple disconnected accumulations over a large area and absence of
structural control and lack of any trend in the distributions of water sands within a hydrocarbon
column are what have been termed by Zhao et al. (2019) as “quasi-continuous” accumulations.
They describe such accumulations as within extremely tight reservoirs, lying in close proximity
of the source-kitchen area and where overpressure driven secondary migration takes place over
a short distance within the reservoirs, becoming tight prior to charging.

SUMMARY
Reservoir disposition and quality within the V&V Barmer Hill sedimentary package are
controlled primarily by climate and tectonically induced depositional processes and burial
diagenesis. Flood-induced hyperpycnal flows are considered to be the prime factor in triggering
the deposition of this 500 meters plus sedimentary package. Based on the nature of grain size,
stratal pattern, net to gross, subsidence rate and organic content, the reservoirs were deposited
in a laterally migrating channel network system undergoing frequent abandonment caused by
climate-induced avulsion. Sediment was fed into the basin along relay ramps between active
faults, focusing deposition into two major lobe-like radial patterned mounds. Reservoir sediment
disposition within the channel complexes and fans, penecontemporaneous deformation and
differential compaction with sand remobilization resulted in the mound morphologies.

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Burial diagenesis resulted in authigenic clay mineral cementation under the influence of
changing pore water geochemistry at elevated pressures and temperatures. The final
diagenetic changes drastically reduced porosity and permeability, creating tight reservoirs (1-10
millidarcies) interbedded with lenses of much higher permeability, some of which is due to
secondary dissolution of grains and others by favorable depositional setting.
Compartmentalization is thus high and connectivity poor, but oil is pervasive throughout the tap.

The distribution of hydrocarbons in the V&V field is not controlled by structure. The trap
was initial a combination trap with a major fault seal to the southwest and an updip facies
pinchout toward Aishwariya Field porcellanites along the edges of the clastic fans. Oil first
migrated into the trap about 30 million years ago during maximum burial of the V/V area (Naidu
et al.,2017). Basin inversion in the northern part of the basin and V/V area began during the late
Oligocene-early Miocene as the India plate docked with the Himalayas. This uplift was most
dramatic from 24-11 million years ago, and ending hydrocarbon generation in the V/V area.

Occurrences of multiple disconnected oil accumulations over a large area with no distinct
boundaries, oil-water contacts and random distribution of water sands, often at structurally
higher positions, indicates this trap resembles unconventional accumulations in similar settings
where mature source rock is interbedded with highly discontinuous deep-water facies.
However, the V/V Field appears to be more of a hybrid stratigraphic-unconventional trap that
does not fit a simple classification system. The V/V area has over a kilometer of reservoirs
stacked within thermally mature source rocks within a giant stratigraphic trap geometry that has
persisted since early deposition in the Eocene. The ongoing appraisal campaign will shed more
light on the intermediate hydrocarbon accumulation model and determine the exploitation
methods of Vijaya and Vandana field of the Barmer Basin.

The learnings from development of this field will be widely applicable to future traps of
this nature that are bound to be found in other lacustrine rift systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Cairn Oil and Gas, vertical of Vedanta Limited and joint
venture partner Oil and Natural Gas Corporation for giving permission to publish this work. This
work has been benefited greatly from the inputs from John Dolson and Dr. George Pemberton
of DSP Geosciences and Associates LLC, Dr. Ben Kneller, Mark McKinnon of University of
Aberdeen and Andrew Taylor of Skolithos Ltd. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Carlos
Zavala for constructive comments and pertinent suggestions, which helped us to improve the
manuscript significantly.

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TABLES

Table 1: Core and wireline data available in the drilled wells in V&V area

Table 2: Studies undertaken on the acquired core data

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