ENERGY PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Energy production is the generation of energy from resources such as renewable

and non-renewable energy resources. Energy is ability to do work.

Energy management can be broadly defined as the proactive, organized and

systematic management of energy use in a building or organization to satisfy both
environmental and economic requirements.

Energy management objectives are resource conservation, climate

protection and cost savings, while the users have permanent access to the energy
they need.

During energy production and consumption, engineers are tasked with finding a
balance between the energy, environment, and sustainable development. Modern
societies require an ever increasing amount of energy resources, adding strain to the
world economy and creating technological, as well as socio-political, challenges.
As populations grow, there is increase in demand for commodities such as energy.

Higher energy consumption leads to an increased level of environmental pollution

with negative consequences for present and future generations. Pollution related
to anthropogenic activity creates intergenerational issues, as does the massive
consumption of finite traditional resources such as fossil and nuclear fuels.

It is ethical to assure access of future generations to clean air, land, and water
and to food, energy, and knowledge with sustainable development.

Energy is extremely significant because it directly affects economic development

and generation of wealth. National energy policies and strategies are required to
maintain a balance between energy supply and demand. Local policies in the
energy sector must consider environmental impact, technological development,
economic performance, consumer preference, and integration with the world
energy market.

There are six essential factors that have to be addressed with sustainable energy
solutions, namely, (1) efficiency, (2) cost effectiveness, (3) resources use, (4)
design and analysis, (5) energy security, and (6) environment. These are detailed
below:

(1) Better efficiency is a critical element. There is a strong connection between

energy efficiency, environmental impact, and energy resource depletion because
less consumption and less pollution are associated with increased energy
efficiency.

(2) Better cost effectiveness appears to be one of the key tasks. The cost
effectiveness of energy solutions is related directly and indirectly to sustainability.
Cost effectiveness means more savings or reduced expenses for the same services
or products. More cost effective solutions are necessary to ensure reduced
environmental impact and increased sustainability.

(3) Better resource utilization is related to energy conservation and refers to the
assembly of measures leading to the rational use of resources and energy
conservation. Energy conservation leads to the stabilization of energy demand,
reduced resource consumption, and decreased environmental impact, enhancing
sustainability.

(4) Better design and analysis have a direct impact on technology development,
innovation, and knowledge enhancement. This leads to a better understanding of
processes, as well as identification of irreversibilities, energy loss, and potential
system improvements.

(5) Better energy security implies development of energy policies and geopolitical
strategies that will eventually assure equitable access to energy resources and
therefore increased sustainability and a cleaner environment.

(6) Better environment is a basic human desire. Development of energy systems

must take this desire into account. This stimulates the development of advanced
power generation systems capable of producing multiple outputs with lower
environmental impact than conventional processes.

Energy resources available on earth

An energy resource is any form of energy available on Earth which can be

converted into a useful form such as electrical power, mechanical power, or heat.
Energy resources as renewable energies, fossil fuels, and nuclear fuels.

Energy resources include substances stored in the earth’s crust (fossil fuels and
nuclear fuels), flows such as wind or water currents, lakes storing the potential
energy of water (hydro-energy), thermal energy from the earth’s crust,
electromagnetic radiation from the sun (sunlight), and gravitational forces from
the interaction of the earth, the moon, and the sun. These resources are broadly
classified under renewable and non-renewable energy resources.

Environmental impact of energy generation systems

It is generally agreed that any energy system impacts the environment. Over the
past few decades, energy-related environmental concerns have expanded from
primarily local or regional issues, encompassing the international and global
nature of major energy-related environmental problems.

Environmental problems are particularly apparent in developing or newly

industrialized countries, where energy-consumption growth rates are typically
extremely high and where environmental management has not yet been fully
incorporated into the infrastructure. Nevertheless, at present, industrialized
countries are mainly responsible for air pollution, ozone depletion, and the carbon
emissions.

The effluents expelled into the atmosphere by energy generation systems can be
divided into two categories: greenhouse gases (GHG) and aerosols. GHG are those
chemicals which are released in the terrestrial atmosphere and produce the
greenhouse effect.

When released from natural and anthropogenic activities, GHG travel through the
atmosphere and reach its upper layer, the troposphere. In the troposphere, GHG
absorb an important part of the infrared radiation emitted by the earth surface.
As a consequence, the earth’s surface temperature tends to increase, and this
process is called the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect increases the temperature of the Earth by trapping heat in
our atmosphere. This keeps the temperature of the Earth higher than it would be
if direct heating by the Sun was the only source of warming. When sunlight
reaches the surface of the Earth, some of it is absorbed which warms the ground
and some bounces back to space as heat. Greenhouse gases that are in the
atmosphere absorb and then redirect some of this heat back towards the Earth.

On the other hand, aerosols, such as VOCs (volatile Organic Compounds), soot,
and PM, are released continuously in the atmosphere and concentrate in its upper
layers. Aerosols contribute to the earth’s albedo. Due to their presence in the
atmosphere, aerosols reflect a portion of the incident solar radiation back into
space. As a result, the earth’s temperature tends to decrease. This process can be
denoted as the albedo effect.

Albedo is the measure of the reflected solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received
by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth).

The balance between greenhouse and albedo effects establishes the earth’s
temperature and regulates the earth’s climate. This mechanism of climate control
is a natural process. However, since the industrial revolution, the anthropogenic
impact on climate has become obvious due to accentuated emission of GHG by
many activity sectors (energy, transportation, industry) which then induce global
warming.

Global warming leads to drastic changes in natural systems. Permafrost ice is

increasingly melting, and, consequently, the sea level tends to rise. Moreover,
changes in global precipitation patterns have been observed (more dry areas and
more regional flooding), along with a higher frequency of extreme events
(tsunami, extreme winds, cyclones, earthquakes, tornadoes, etc.).

Another major environmental impact of energy systems results from acidic

precipitation. Gaseous effluents expelled in the atmosphere by power generation
systems can eventually form acids that return back to earth in precipitation,
contributing to acidification of soil and seas. This acidification negatively affects
all life systems. Other impacts are also possible, as it will be detailed subsequently.

The main types of pollutant emissions due to energy systems are listed in Table
2.3, and their influence is explained. The environmental impacts produced by
pollutants can be classified in seven categories determined by life cycle
assessment methodologies according to the norm ISO 14042 (2000). These
impact categories are global warming, acidification, ozone depletion, toxicity,
photooxidant formation, eutrophication, and depletion of abiotic resources.

TABLE 2.3 Atmospheric Pollutants Released by Power Generation Systems

FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels are natural fuels formed in the geological past from the remains of
living organisms. Fossil fuels are those fuels that can be mined from underground
(or undersea) deposits and include high percentages of carbon. The main types of
fossil fuels are coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
The world of today is dependent on the use of fossil fuels as a primary energy
source, and this is especially obvious in all industrialized countries. Some major
users of fossil fuels are the utility, industrial, residential, and transportation
sectors.

PETROLEUM

Liquid fuels are mainly in the form of petroleum. Petroleum is an oily, flammable,
thick dark brown or greenish liquid that occurs naturally in deposits, usually
beneath the surface of the earth; it is also called crude oil. Because of its high
demand in our daily life, it is also called “black gold.”

It is mostly used to produce fuel oil, which is the primary energy source today.
Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including solvents,
fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. Because of its high energy content and ease
of use, petroleum remains the primary energy source.

ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

1. Biogenic Theory

Most geologists view crude oil, like coal and natural gas, as the product of
compression and heating of ancient vegetation over geological time scales.
According to this theory, it is formed from the decayed remains of prehistoric
marine animals and terrestrial plants.

Over many centuries, this organic matter, mixed with mud, is buried under thick
sedimentary layers of material. The resulting high levels of heat and pressure
cause the remains to metamorphose, first into a waxy material known as kerogen
and then into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis.

These then migrate through adjacent rock layers until they become trapped
underground in porous rocks called reservoirs, forming an oil field from which the
liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.

One hundred fifty meters is generally considered the “oil window.” Although this
corresponds to different depths for different locations around the world, a “typical”
depth for an oil window might be 4-5 km.

Three situations must be present for oil reservoirs to form: - a rich source rock, a
migration conduit, and a trap (seal) that forms the reservoir.

2. Abiogenic Theory
In 1866, Berthelot proposed that carbides are formed by the action of alkali metal
on carbonates. These carbides react with water to give rise to large quantities of
acetylene, which in turn is converted to petroleum at elevated temperatures and
pressures.

For example, one can write the sequence as follows:

Mendelejeff proposed another reaction sequence involving acetylene in the

formation of petroleum. He proposed that dilute acids or hot water react with the
carbides of iron and manganese to produce a mixture of hydrocarbons from which
petroleum could have evolved. The reaction sequence according to the proposal
of Mendelejeff is:

These postulates based on inorganic chemicals, although interesting, may not be

completely accepted because:

1. One often finds optical activity in petroleum constituents that could not have
been present if the source of petroleum were only these inorganic chemicals.

2. The presence of thermo-labile organic constituents (biomarkers) in petroleum

cannot be accounted for in terms of their origin from these inorganic chemicals.

3. It is known that oil is exclusively found in sedimentary rocks, which would not
have been the case if the origin of oil could be attributed to processes involving
only these inorganic chemicals.

COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM

Petroleum is a combination of gases, liquid, and solid mixtures of many alkanes.

It principally consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons, with traces of various
nitrogenous and sulphurous compounds.

Gaseous petroleum consists of lighter hydrocarbons with an abundant methane

content and is termed “natural gas.” Liquid petroleum not only consists of liquid
hydrocarbons but includes dissolved gases, waxes (solid hydrocarbons), and
bituminous material. Solid petroleum consists of heavier hydrocarbons, and this
bituminous material is usually referred to as bitumen or asphalt. Along with these,
petroleum also contains smaller amounts of nickel, vanadium, and other elements.
The carbon: hydrogen ratio of crudes on a weight basis usually lies in the range
6:1 to 8:1.

Petroleum Hydrocarbons

A typical crude oil will contain many thousands of different and distinct
hydrocarbon compounds. Obviously it would be an enormous undertaking to
analyse completely such a complex mixture, and in practice this is not attempted,
since it has been found that with few exceptions the hydrocarbons present in crude
oil and natural gas belong to just five clearly defined families. These families are
known as homologous series, referring to the structural characteristics which
define each family (or series) and which are associated with definite physical and
chemical properties. This approach to the analysis of petroleum fluids is
sometimes called PNA analysis or PONA analysis, the initials referring to the
paraffin (P), olefin (O), naphthene (N) and aromatic (A) families of hydrocarbons
respectively. The five homologous series occurring in petroleum are as follows:

1) n-paraffins (or n-alkanes)

2) iso-paraffins (or iso-alkanes)

3) naphthenes (or cyclo-alkanes or cycloparaffins)

4) aromatics (or arenes)

5) mixed naphtheno-aromatics (or cycloalkanoaromatics)

In the petroleum industry the older names - paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics -

are still widely used in preference to the modern chemical names - alkanes,
arenes, etc.

1) n-paraffins
These are straight-chain saturated hydrocarbons, i.e. hydrocarbons with a carbon
skeleton having all its carbon atoms in an unbranched straight chain; this is
indicated by the n- (standing for normal). (Strictly speaking, the carbon chain in
these compounds is staggered and not straight, since the four valencies of the
carbon atom are equally distributed in space, and the angles between the adjacent
bonds are all therefore 109.5°: however, for convenience the chain is usually
represented in diagrams as straight).

A saturated hydrocarbon is one which has no double or triple bonds - i.e. all the
four valencies of each carbon atom are fully utilised in single bonds linking it with
other carbon atoms or with hydrogen atoms. It is therefore not possible to add
any more hydrogen atoms to the molecule.

The first (or lowest) member of the n-alkane series is taken to be methane, CH4,
although it has only one carbon atom in the molecule and therefore has no chain
as such. Methane is the main constituent of natural gas. The next higher member
of the n-alkane series is ethane, C2H6, the third member is propane, C3H8, the
fourth member is butane, n-C4H10 and so on.

It can easily be shown that the general formula covering all the n-alkanes is
CnH2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. If n has the
value 4 or greater, the n- (for normal) must be inserted in the chemical formula
for an n- alkane, because as will be seen below alternative alkane structures exist
with the same chemical formula but with the carbon atoms arranged in a branched
chain layout.

At room temperature the n-alkanes with between 4 and 18 carbon atoms in the
molecule are liquids, and those with more than 18 carbon atoms in the molecule
are waxy solids. N-alkanes up to C42H86 have been identified in some crudes.

2) iso-paraffins

These are saturated hydrocarbons with the same general formula as n-paraffins,
but having a branched rather than an unbranched carbon chain. The first member
of the series is iso-butane, written i-C4H10.

Compounds with a low degree of branching (only 1 side-chain) are usually present
in crudes in larger amounts than those with 2 or 3 side-chains. The simplest side-
chain is a methyl group (CH3-); others may be ethyl (C2H5-), propyl (C3H7-),
etc. These groups (methyl, ethyl, etc) are collectively referred to as alkyl groups.
Where only one side-chain is present, it is most often attached to the second
carbon atom in the main carbon chain; if this side-chain is a methyl group, the
resulting compound would be referred to as a 2-methyl derivative (numbering the
carbon atoms in the main chain from the end).

Compounds such as n-butane and iso-butane which have the same empirical
formula but different molecular structures are called isomers, and it can easily be
seen that butane has only two isomers, since there are two possible structures
both having the chemical formula C4H10. As the number of carbon atoms in the
molecule, n, is further increased, the number of possible isomers increases
rapidly. Pentane (C5H12) has 3 isomers, hexane (C6H14) has 5 isomers and
heptane (C7H16) has 9 isomers. The alkane C15H32 has 4,347 isomers. (In
petroleum industry practice, any hydrocarbon with a branched chain carbon
skeleton tends to be identified by the iso- prefix, although organic chemists use
this term in a more restricted manner).

Different isomers of a given formula (e.g. C4H10) have different physical

properties (density, boiling point, etc.) and show some differences in chemical
properties. In the formal system of chemical nomenclature each isomer will have
its own name reflecting its own distinct chemical structure. In practice, however,
these differences are usually quite small, and the practice in the petroleum
industry is often to ignore them and group all the isomers of a given chemical
formula together; e.g. the heptanes as C7, the octanes as C8 and so on. In
carrying out analyses of reservoir fluids, the common practice is to give a detailed
analysis from methane (usually denoted by C1) up to the hexanes, and then to
group together the heptanes and all the higher hydrocarbons (C8, C9, C10, etc)
as ‘heptanes plus’, indicated by the symbol C7+.

3) Naphthenes, cyclo-paraffins.

These have molecules based on one or more saturated carbon rings, with or
without side-chains attached. The commonest types occurring in crudes are
cyclopentanes (having five carbon atoms in the ring) and cyclohexanes (having
six carbon atoms in the ring) and their derivatives:

The examples given above are monocyclic, i.e. they contain only 1 ring in the
molecule. Naphthenes may also have 2 (bicyclic) or more rings in the molecule,
linked together in various ways. Bicyclic naphthenes are important constituents in
many crudes and the heavier fractions distilled from them such as kerosene and
gas-oil. It is estimated that many crudes contain from 30% to 60% of naphthenes.
The general formula for naphthenes is CnH2n+2-2R where R is the number of
rings in the molecule. In the above examples, only the carbon atoms are shown,
for simplicity, and it is assumed that the remaining (single) bonds of each carbon
atom are linked to hydrogen atoms.

4) Aromatics

These are compounds which contain one or more benzene rings in the molecule,
with or without attached alkyl side-chains. The lowest member of the arene family
is benzene, C6H6, discovered by Faraday in 1825 in the liquid recovered from the
mains transporting coal-gas. The next higher member of the series is toluene,
C6H5CH3, followed by xylene, C6H5(CH3)2. Xylene has three isomers, m- (for
meta), o- (for ortho), and p- (for para).

Aromatics are unsaturated compounds having distinctive properties; for example,

the distinctive sweetish smell which many of them possess and which is
responsible for the name. Aromatics have higher specific gravities than alkanes or
cycloalkanes of similar molecular weight. Since the aromatics are unsaturated, it
is possible to add hydrogen to them; in the case of benzene, for example, it may
be converted to cyclohexane, C6H12, by reacting it with hydrogen in the presence
of a suitable catalyst. Aromatics with two or more benzene rings in the molecule
(polynuclear or polycyclic aromatics) form a significant proportion of the heavier
molecules in many crudes.

5) Mixed naphtheno-aromatics

These compounds have molecules which contain at least 1 naphthenic ring and 1
benzene ring with alkyl side-chains. These will be large molecules, hence the
compounds will have fairly high boiling points and will be present in the heavier
fractions of the crude and the products distilled from it.

Other homologous series of hydrocarbons apart from those mentioned above are
important in petroleum processing, in particular the olefins (or alkenes) which
contain a double carbon-carbon bond, and the acetylenes (or alkynes), which
contain a triple carbon-carbon bond. These are both unsaturated series, and are
chemically much more reactive than the paraffins. Olefins and acetylenes are not
found to any significant extent in naturally occurring petroleum crudes, although
it has been reported that some Pennsylvania crudes contain small amounts of
higher olefins. Olefins play an important role in some refinery processes,
particularly those involving cracking, and the first member of the olefin series,
ethylene (C2H4), is the basic building block of the modern petrochemical industry.

It is found that although crude oils contain many different hydrocarbon

compounds, each of these hydrocarbons belongs to one of the five families (or
series) just described, with many members of each family being present in each
crude. Within each of these families the lower members are gases or volatile
liquids at ordinary temperatures, with quite small molecules and low boiling points,
while the higher members are solids with very large molecules and
correspondingly high boiling points. Although the molecular size and physical
properties of the family members vary enormously, each member has the basic
chemical structure associated with its own family. Hence although differences in
the hydrogen to carbon ratios of crudes are small, the physical properties of these
crudes can vary very widely depending on the relative proportions of the lower
and higher members of each family present.

Non-Hydrocarbons in Petroleum

The elements oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, together with some metals, are found
in all crude oils and have an important effect on their properties, although the
amounts present are relatively small. Oxygen is present in the form of metal salts
of organic acids (such as carboxylic acids) and phenols. Nitrogen occurs in a
variety of complex organic compounds. Sulphur is present in the form of organic
compounds such as mercaptans or disulphides, or in inorganic form as hydrogen
sulphide, carbonyl sulphide (COS) or occasionally as free elemental sulphur.

Some of the metals are present in complexes such as porphyrins, which have
structures related to such biological materials as chlorophyll and haemoglobin.
Some crudes (e.g. from Venezuela and California) contain up to 400 ppm of
vanadium. Natural gas reservoirs may contain high concentrations of nitrogen,
carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulphide. Small amounts of mercury are quite
commonly found in natural gases, and it has been recently shown that traces of
arsenic compounds are present in some natural gases.

Asphaltenes and resins are non-hydrocarbon materials of very high boiling point
and complex chemical composition which are found in crude oils and which are
major constituents of bitumen and similar materials. Bitumen is a solid or semi-
solid form of naturally-occurring petroleum. The terms bitumen and asphalt are
often used interchangeably, although recent practice has been to use the term
asphalt for the manufactured materials produced during petroleum processing
(and used, e.g. for road making and roofing purposes), and to use the term
bitumen for the various semi-solid materials which occur naturally in certain
locations (and have been used from very ancient times for waterproofing and
building as mentioned in the book of Genesis in the Old Testament). Bitumen is
also sometimes called ‘native asphalt’.

When crude oils are heated and the more volatile components distilled off, the
liquid residue left behind (which becomes semi-solid on cooling) consists of resins
and asphaltenes together with waxes and some other hydrocarbon compounds of
very high molecular weight. In refinery operations this material is referred to as
residuum (or residue or bottoms). Most crudes when distilled in refinery
processing are found to give between 10% and 30% by weight of residuum, while
some heavy crudes give more. Waxes are alkanes (including some isoalkanes and
cycloalkanes) and have already been discussed above.
Asphaltenes are more readily soluble in carbon disulphide and aromatic solvents,
and when obtained in pure form are brittle powdery solids, while resins are viscous
liquids. In most crudes, it is found that resins are present in larger amounts than
asphaltenes. During transport of crude oils, asphaltenes and waxes may
precipitate out and obstruct flow in pipelines. This can be a particularly difficult
problem in subsea pipelines, where the cooling caused by low sea temperatures
encourages such deposition. Various inhibitors can be added to the crude to
control the problem.

CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES

The physical and chemical properties of crude oils vary considerably and are
dependent on the concentration of the various types of hydrocarbons and minor
constituents present.

A. Specific gravity

The specific gravity of crude oils is normally defined based on a standard

temperature of 60°F and is given the symbol γ° or d: -

It is assumed that both the crude and the water are at atmospheric pressure
(although the value obtained will be relatively insensitive to pressure). The density
of the water is approximately 62.4 lb/ft3

SG Less than 1.0, oil floats on water. Greater than 1.0, oil sinks in water. Majority
of oils “float” In the oil industry it has long been common practice to use the API
gravity (API= American Petroleum Institute) to specify the densities of crudes and
of liquid petroleum fractions.

B. API (American Petroleum Institute) Gravity

This is defined by:

There is thus an inverse relationship between the API gravity (quoted in degrees
API) and the specific gravity, and in order to avoid confusion it is essential to make
clear which gravity is being referred to. There is an inverse relationship between
API gravity and density; the higher the density the lower the API gravity.

Light oils, containing a high proportion of low molecular weight hydrocarbons, will
have low specific gravities and API gravities up to 50º or more. Heavy oils have
API gravities between 20° and 10°; very heavy oils have API gravities less than
10° usually have very high viscosities (up to 10,000 cp) and will consist mostly of
high-molecular weight compounds, giving 40% or more of residuum on distillation.
Very heavy oils of less than 10° API are often referred to as bitumen, asphalt or
tar. Pure Water has arbitrary API Gravity of 10.

C. Surface tension

Surface Tension is the force of attraction between the surface molecules of a liquid.
Surface Tension together with viscosity affects the rate of spread over water or
ground. The lower the surface tension, the greater its potential spreading rate.
Low surface tensions characteristic of low specific gravity oils. As temperature
increases, surface tension decreases, and the rate of spread increases.

Interfacial or Surface tension exists when two phases are present. These phases
can be gas/oil, oil/water, or gas/water. Interfacial tension is the force that holds
the surface of a particular phase together and is normally measured in dynes/cm.
The surface tension between gas and crude oil ranges from near zero to
approximately 34 dynes/cm. It is a function of pressure, temperature, and the
composition of each phase.

D. Viscosity

The viscosity of an oil is a measure of the oil’s resistance to shear. Viscosity is

more commonly known as resistance to flow. Viscosity is determined by the
amount of light ends. High viscosity implies a high resistance to flow while a low
viscosity indicates a low resistance to flow. The principal factors affecting viscosity
are: Oil composition, Temperature, Dissolved gas and Pressure

E. Pour point

Temperature at which the oil becomes “plastic” and will not flow. Lighter oils with
low viscosities have lower pour points.

F. Flash point

The flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a sample of liquid gives off
sufficient vapour to flash momentarily on application of a small flame. The
flashpoint is an important indication of the degree of hazard presented by a
flammable liquid. Fuel oil, which has had almost all its lower hydrocarbons
removed during refining, has a high flashpoint, and is therefore much less
hazardous to store and handle than crude oil, which typically has a low flashpoint.

The density of hydrocarbon gases and vapours is a vital factor in considering safety
issues in processing and storage facilities. Most natural gases at atmospheric
temperature are much less dense than air; if released to atmosphere they will
therefore rise, and tend to be diluted and dispersed in the surrounding air quite
rapidly once the source of the release is closed off. However, fuel gases such as
propane, LPG, butane and some streams of heavier hydrocarbons occurring in
processing operations have densities greater than air, and if released will sink and
can accumulate in hollows, pits, low-lying spaces, the hulls of vessels, etc. after
displacing the air originally present.

These dense gases can remain in such locations for long periods if undisturbed,
presenting very serious dangers long after the original release has been closed
off. Such accumulations have been the cause of numerous injuries and fatalities
due to fire, explosion (and asphyxiation) in places such as basements, cellars,
bunded areas surrounding storage tanks, boats and floating vessels, etc.

It should also be remembered that gases released from pressurised vessels,

pipelines,
etc. will undergo Joule-Thomson cooling, causing their densities to increase.
Methane
gas boiled off from stored LNG will have a density greater than air owing to its
very low
temperature, and can therefore give rise to the same type of hazard as just
described, although on a more short-term basis

G. Solubility in water

Solubility of oil in water is generally very low ~ 5 ppm or one grain of sugar in a
cup of water. Despite the low solubility, crude oil can have important
consequences for the potential toxicity of hydrocarbons to aquatic organisms.

H. Bubble point

In their original condition, reservoir oils include some natural gas in solution. The
point at which this natural gas begins to come out of solution and form bubbles is
known as the bubble point. The corresponding temperatures and pressure are
bubble point temperature and bubble point pressure.