Ancient China

See also: Outline of ancient China

Further information: Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty
succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more
complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can
refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou
existed at the same time as the Shang.[20] This bears similarities to how China,
both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one
region, legally or culturally.[21]

The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-
emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in
this period,[22] with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who
founded the Xia dynasty.

Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BC)

Main article: Xia dynasty
The Xia dynasty of China (from c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC) is the earliest of the Three
Dynasties described in ancient historical records such as Sima Qian's Records of
the Grand Historian and Bamboo Annals. The dynasty is generally considered mythical
by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze
Age site at Erlitou that was excavated in Henan in 1959. Since no writing was
excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough
evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim
that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia Dynasty.[23] In any case, the site
of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible
with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts.[24] More importantly, the Erlitou
site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze
vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.[25]

Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC)

Main article: Shang dynasty
Further information: Chinese Bronze Age

Bronze ding (cauldron) with human faces

Archaeological evidence, such as oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted
texts attest to the historical existence of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC).
Findings from the earlier Shang period comes from excavations at Erligang, in
present-day Zhengzhou. Findings from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, were found
in profusion at Anyang, in modern-day Henan, the last of the Shang's capitals.[26]
The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far
discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the
bones or shells of animals—the "oracle bones", dating from around 1250 to 1046 BC.
[27]

A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty.[28]

Throughout their reigns, according to the Shiji, the capital city was moved six
times.[29] The final and most important move was to Yin during the reign of Pan
Geng, around 1300 BC.[29] The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang
dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the
latter half of the Shang dynasty.[28]

Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang
dynasty,[30] Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are
contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example,
archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced
civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how
far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang,
ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous
other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China
proper.[31]

Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)

Main articles: Zhou dynasty, Western Zhou, and Iron Age China
The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to approximately 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty
in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight
centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose
in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were
appointed Western Protectors by the Shang. A coalition led by the ruler of the
Zhou, King Wu, defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. They took over most of the
central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in
semi-independent states across the region.[32] Several of these states eventually
became more powerful than the Zhou kings.

The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their
rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty.[33] Like
Shangdi, Heaven (tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule
China.[34] It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural
disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had
apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be
overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.

The Zhou established two capitals Zongzhou (near modern Xi'an) and Chengzhou
(Luoyang), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance
gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River
valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley.[32]

Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)

Main article: Spring and Autumn period
In 771 BC, King You and his forces were defeated in the Battle of Mount Li by rebel
states and Quanrong barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, King
Ping, in Luoyang,[35]: 
4  beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the
Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States
periods. The former period is named after the famous Spring and Autumn Annals. The
decline of central power left a vacuum. The Zhou empire now consisted of hundreds
of tiny states, some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land.
These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony. The more
powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of
states declined over time.[36] By the 6th century BC most small states had
disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities
remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the
Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were
established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and
commercialized. Many famous individuals such as Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived
during this chaotic period.

Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between
states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize
more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between
elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—
Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and partitioned the state
between them.

The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming

during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential
intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism,[21] Legalism and Mohism were
founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two
philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture.

Warring States period (476–221 BC)

Main article: Warring States period

The Warring States, c. 260 BC

After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the
5th century BC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as the
Warring States period. Though the Zhou king nominally remained as such until 256
BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power.

Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and
mathematics—including the Zuo Zhuan within the Spring and Autumn Annals (a literary
work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21
bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, dated to 305 BC—being the world's
earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table. The Tsinghua
collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already
established during this period.[37]

As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of

modern Sichuan and Liaoning), they were now to be governed under an administrative
system of commanderies and prefectures. This system had been in use elsewhere since
the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove
resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous sheng and xian
("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China.

The state of Qin became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States
period, conquering the Shu capital of Jinsha on the Chengdu Plain; and then
eventually driving Chu from its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the
administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse.[9] Its
final expansion began during the reign of Ying Zheng, ultimately unifying the other
six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first emperor—
known to history as Qin Shi Huang.

Imperial China
"Empire of China" and "Chinese Empire" redirect here. For the empire founded by
Yuan Shikai, see Empire of China (1915–1916).
See also: Political systems of Imperial China
Early imperial China
Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)
Main article: Qin dynasty

The massive Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty (秦朝) in 221 BC effectively
formalized the region as an empire, rather than state and its pivotal status
probably lead to "Qin" (秦) later evolving into the Western term China.[38] To
emphasize his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi (始皇帝; "First August
Emperor"); the Huangdi title, derived from Chinese mythology, become the standard
for subsequent rulers.[39][a] Based in Xianyang, the empire was a centralized
bureaucratic monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial
China.[41][42] In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system
consisted of more than 36 commandaries (郡; jun),[b] made up of counties (县; xian)
and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader.[45]

Many aspects of society were informed by Legalism, a state ideology promoted by the
emperor and his chancellor Li Si that was introduced at an earlier time by Shang
Yang.[46] In legal matters this philosophy emphasized mutual responsibility in
disputes and severe punishments, while economic practices included the general
encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade.[46] Reforms occurred in
weights and measures, writing styles (seal script) and metal currency (Ban Liang),
all of which were standardized.[47][48] Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as
ordering a mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars under the guise of
Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the
historicity of this event.[46] Despite its importance, Legalism was probably
supplemented in non-political matters by Confucianism for social and moral beliefs
and the five-element Wuxing (五行) theories for cosmological thought.[49]

The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting

information on their sex, age, social status and residence.[50] Commoners, who made
up over 90% of the population,[51] "suffered harsh treatment" according to the
historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey, as they were often conscripted into forced labor
for the empire's construction projects.[52] This included a massive system of
imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around 4,250 miles (6,840 km) altogether.
[53] Other major construction projects were assigned to the general Meng Tian, who
concurrently led a successful campaign against the northern Xiongnu peoples (210s
BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops.[53][c] Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng
supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as
the Great Wall of China and oversaw the building of a 500 miles (800 km) straight
highway between northern and southern China.[55]

After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and
eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by
rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire.[56][57]

Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)

Main article: Han dynasty
Further information: History of the Han dynasty
Western Han

Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC

The Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang, who emerged victorious in the Chu–Han
Contention that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A golden age in Chinese
history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the
foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which
was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han
dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas
far west. Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape
the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to
unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of
Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese
people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used
to refer to Chinese language and written characters.

After the initial laissez-faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing, the ambitious
Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he
disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors
to control their former lands.[58] As a further step, he extended patronage to
Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society.
Imperial Universities were established to support its study. At the urging of his
Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the
dynasty with government monopolies.

Left image: Western-Han painted ceramic jar decorated with raised reliefs of
dragons, phoenixes, and taotie
Right image: Reverse side of a Western-Han bronze mirror with painted designs of a
flower motif
Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire,
limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts
led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states
in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west,
stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small
kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the
empire.

Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue

tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC, and Dian in
109 BC.[59] Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of
the south.[60] It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast
Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.[61]

After Emperor Wu, the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline.
Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects,
while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various
consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and
eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang.

Xin dynasty
Main article: Xin dynasty
In AD 9, the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the
end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin
dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms,
including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution.
These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because
they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings,
and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River;
silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of
farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant
mob in AD 23.

Eastern Han
Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and
merchant families at Luoyang, east of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era
is termed the Eastern Han dynasty. With the capable administrations of Emperors
Ming and Zhang, former glories of the dynasty was reclaimed, with brilliant
military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated. The
diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to
the shores of the Caspian Sea,[62]: 
175  thus reopening the Silk Road, and bringing
trade, foreign cultures, along with the arrival of Buddhism. With extensive
connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were
recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one
in AD 284.

The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific era of science and technology
in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, and the
numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous polymath Zhang
Heng.

Six Dynasties
Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)
Main article: Three Kingdoms
By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and
feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in
AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states
emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical
period its name. The classic historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms
dramatizes events of this period.

The warlord Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the
abdication of Emperor Xian of Han, thus initiating the Wei dynasty. Soon, Wei's
rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a
gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han
dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families.

In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but
this union was short-lived.

Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)

Main articles: Jin dynasty (266–420) and Sixteen Kingdoms
Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)

Western Jin Dynasty, c. 280 AD

View of Maijishan hill caves, grottoes and stairways.

The Jin dynasty was severely weakened by War of the Eight Princes and lost control
of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and
Chang'an. In 317, the Jin prince Sima Rui, based in modern-day Nanjing, became
emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held
southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin
dynasty as the Western Jin.

Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439)

Main article: Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the Sixteen
Kingdoms, most of which were founded by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang rulers.
These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Tibetans. Many had,
to some extent, been "sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some
of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the
frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During this period,
warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to
the Yangtze River Basin and Delta.

Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)

Main article: Northern and Southern dynasties
Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)

Southern and Northern Dynasties, 440 AD

Hanging Monastery, a temple with the combination of Taoism, Buddhism, and

Confucianism.
In the early 5th century, China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern
dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the
country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang
and finally Chen. Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling
families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks
from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern
barbarian regimes began to sinify.

In the north, the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the
Northern Wei, a kingdom founded by the Xianbei, a nomadic people who unified
northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei,
which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou. These regimes were dominated
by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period
most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete
assimilation into the Han.
Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In
southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held
frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and
Taoists had become much more tolerant of each other.[63]

Mid-imperial China
Sui dynasty (581–618)
Main article: Sui dynasty
Sui dynasty (AD 581–618)

Sui dynasty c. 609

Yang Guang depicted as Emperor Yang of Sui

The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded by
Emperor Wen in 581 in succession of the Northern Zhou, the Sui went on to conquer
the Southern Chen in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political
division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system
of Three Departments and Six Ministries, imperial examinations for selecting
officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of fubing system of the
army conscription and the Equal-field system of land distributions. These policies,
which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and
amassed excessive wealth to the state. Standardized coinage were enforced
throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was
supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction
projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the Grand Canal was
constructed, linking the capitals Daxing (Chang'an) and Luoyang to the wealthy
southeast region, and in another route, to the northeast border. The Great Wall was
also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further
pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of the Korean Peninsula during
the Goguryeo–Sui War failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to
the fall of the dynasty.

Tang dynasty (618–907)

Main article: Tang dynasty
See also: Zhou dynasty (690–705)
Tang dynasty (AD 618–907)

Tang Dynasty in 742 AD

The Fengxian cave (c. 675 AD) of the Longmen Grottoes, commissioned by Wu Zetian.

Inside a cave of Longmen Grottoes, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Dunhuang map is to date the world's oldest complete preserved star atlas.
The Tang dynasty was a golden age of Chinese civilization, a prosperous, stable,
and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature,
particularly poetry, and technology. Buddhism became the predominant religion for
the common people. Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, was the largest
city in the world during its time.[64]

The first emperor, Emperor Gaozu, came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there
by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor, Taizong, one of the greatest
emperors in Chinese history. Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers
reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought
neighboring states into a tributary system. Military victories in the Tarim Basin
kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the
west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such as
Guangzhou connected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China,
encouraging a cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were
observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notably Japan. Internally the
Grand Canal linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and
economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. Xuanzang, a
Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who travelled to India on
his own, and returned with, "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven
statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics."

The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy.
The government was organized as "Three Departments and Six Ministries" to
separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by
royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were
joined or replaced by scholar officials selected by imperial examinations, setting
patterns for later dynasties.

Under the Tang "equal-field system" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted
to each family according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for
military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the
fubing system. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a
significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's
midpoint, however, standing armies had replaced conscription, and land was
continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions
granted exemptions.

A gilt Buddhist reliquary with decorations of armored guards, from Silla, 7th-
century

A Tang period gilt-silver jar, shaped in the style of northern nomad's leather bag
decorated with a horse dancing with a cup of wine in its mouth, as the horses of
Emperor Xuanzong were trained to do.[65]
The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress Wu Zetian, the only
official empress regnant in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long
reign of Emperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to
the Aral Sea with at least 50 million people. There were vibrant artistic and
cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese poets, Li Bai and Du
Fu.

At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the An Lushan Rebellion from 755 to 763
was a watershed event. War, disease, and economic disruption devastated the
population and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon
suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as jiedushi,
gained increasingly autonomous status. With loss of revenue from land tax, the
central imperial government came to rely heavily on salt monopoly. Externally,
former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were
lost for centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the
weakened imperial bureaucracy.

In late Tang period, the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional
military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fierce factional strife and
corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power. Catastrophically, the Huang Chao
Rebellion, from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of
the southern port Guangzhou in 879 was followed by the massacre of most of its
inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves.[66][67] By 881, both
capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, fell successively. The reliance on ethnic Han and
Turkic warlords in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence.
Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following Zhu Wen's usurpation led to an era
of division.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)
Main article: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907–960)

Five Dynasties Ten Kingdoms Period 947 AD

Yunyan Pagoda in Jiangsu Province of Eastern China.

Coins of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Section and detail of Night Revels of Han Xizai, by Gu Hongzhong

The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five
Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-
century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely,
(Later) Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou, rapidly succeeded one another in control of
the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of
(Later) Tang, Jin and Han were sinicized Shatuo Turks, which ruled over the ethnic
majority of Han Chinese. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han
rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively
constituted the "Ten Kingdoms".

Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (region
along today's Great Wall) were ceded to the emerging Khitan Liao dynasty, which
drastically weakened the defense of the China proper against northern nomadic
empires. To the south, Vietnam gained lasting independence after being a Chinese
prefecture for many centuries. With wars dominated in Northern China, there were
mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift
of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of Later
Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin, and the establishment of the Song dynasty in 960, which
eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms" and reunified China.

Late imperial China

Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)
Main articles: Song dynasty, Liao dynasty, Western Xia, and Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Further information: History of the Song dynasty
See also: Dali Kingdom and Qara Khitai