BASIC CIVIL

ENGINEERING

1.BUILDIND MATERIALS
Introduction to Civil Engineering
• Civil Engineering is a professional Engineering discipline that deals with
the design, construction, and maintenance of the public utility works
• A professional engineering discipline that deals with the analysis, design,
construction and maintenance of infrastructural facilities such as buildings, bridges,
dams, roads etc.
• Civil Engineering is a composite of many specific disciplines that include
structural engineering, water engineering, waste material management and
engineering, foundation engineering etc. among many.
Civil Engineering is Everywhere
- Many Subdisciplines
DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINERING
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
• Planning, scheduling and execution of
construction activity

• Comprises of men, material, time and

money management.

• Emphasis will be on new construction

practice

• Use of appropriate and local technology

• Safety of men and material

• Utilization of marginal materials etc.

• Supervision
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
• Structure is the assemblage of two or more
basic elements such as beam, slab, column,
truss, frame, shells etc.

• Analyze and design a structure that will

safely bear the estimated loads

• Economy without compromising safety and

serviceability

• Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
• Soil investigation – Properties, bearing
capacity
• Ground improvement techniques
• Involves design of
– Foundations
– Slopes
– Retaining Structures
– Highway pavement design
– Embankments and earth dams
– Tunnels, underground structures and deep
cuts
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
• Work towards achieving a healthy environment

• To provide healthy water, air and land for human

habitation and for other organisms, and to clean up
the pollution sites.

• Waste treatment and disposal systems

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
• Application of scientific approach
(planning, design, operation and
management) to transportation systems
such as roads, railway, sea/river & air
transports.

• It involves planning, design,

construction/operation and maintenance
of transportation facility.
 Tunnel Traffic
Engineering Engineering

Road Highway
Transportation pavement
alignment
Engineering design

Airport and
Railway
harbour
Engineering
Engineering
 Hydraulics, Water Resource
&Irrigation Engineering
• Hydraulics deals with mechanics of water (fluid) flow.

• Water resource engineering identification & utilization of available

water resources minimizing the loss. (ground water utilization,
ground water recharge and rain water harvesting.

• Water management involves the use of hydrologic and hydraulic

drainage systems, Detention/retention ponds, Navigational
waterways, and Flood control levees, dams, and lakes.
 SURVEYING
• Surveying is to determine the positions of points on, above or below the
surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of
distances, elevations and directions.

• Activity involved in collection of topographic features of a location for

future construction.
• Surveying has advanced from chain surveying to remote sensing with the
advent of various electronic sophisticated instruments.
 INTRODUCTION
 The History of construction overlaps many
other fields like structural engineering and
rely on other branches of science
like archaeology, history and architecture to
investigate how the builders lived.
 The tools used and the different uses of
building materials.
 Time to time variation and technology’s
involved in construction.
 HISTORY OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
• 7000 BC end of nomadic life Settlements Civil engineering
• 4000 BC-2000 BC (Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamian, Indus Valley
Civilizations)
 CHRONOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
 Neolithic construction
 Neolithic, also known as the New Stone Age, was a
time period roughly from 9000 BC to 5000 BC.
 it was the last period of the age before wood
working began.
 These tools used to cut materials are the hand
axe, chopper, adze. They used the locally available
material for construction.
 Building materials included bones such
as mammoth ribs, stone, metal, bark, bamboo,
clay, lime plaster, and more. 5
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 COPPER AGE AND BRONZE AGE
CONSTRUCTION

 Copper came into use before 5,000 BC and

bronze around 3,100 BC, although the times
vary by region.
 Copper and bronze were used instead of tools
like axe, chisel.
 Bronze was cast into desired shapes and if
damaged could be recast.
 The Egyptians began building stone temples
with the post and lintel construction method
and the Greeks and Romans followed this style.
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0
 MIDDLE AGES
 The Middle Ages of Europe span from the 5th to 15th
centuries AD. Began with the end of the Roman era
and many techniques were adopted.
 Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed
of timber until 1000 AD
 Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy
throughout the period 600–1000 AD.
 Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut
blocks
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
 The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern
science which effects on building construction
architect-engineers began to use experimental
science to design buildings.
 Many tools introduced in modern technology, but
the line gauge, plumb-line, the carpenter's square,
the spirit level, and the drafting compass are still in
regular use.
 pulleys allowed comparatively large loads to be
lifted, and ramps were used to lift loads up to the
upper parts of buildings.
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 EIGHTEENTH C E N T U R Y

 The development of many ideas born in the late

seventeenth century. The architects and engineers
became increasingly professionalised.
 Large-scale mill construction required fire-proof
buildings and cast iron became increasingly used
for columns and beams to carry brick vaults for
floors.
 Brick production increased markedly during this
period Bricks were made by hand and fired in kilns
no different to those used for centuries before. 13
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 NINETEENTH CENTURY
 It was an industrial revolution time.
 The new kinds of transportation installations,
such as railways, canals and macadam roads.
 New construction devices included steam
engines, machine tools, explosives and
optical surveying.
 Building codes have been applied since the 19th
century, with special respect to fire safety.
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 TWENTIETH CENTURY

 With the Second Industrial Revolution in the

early 20th century elevators and cranes
made high rise buildings.
 Other new technologies were prefabrication
and computer-aided design.
 In the end of the 20th century, ecology, energy
conservation and sustainable development have
become more important issues of construction.
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TWENTY-FIRST C E N T U RY

 A new generation of wood building products,

techniques are being used in increasing numbers and
types of buildings.
 Advanced technology and modern building codes
are also expanding the use and opportunities for
wood in construction.
 The latest technology reduces cost of construction
and increase strength of building. and time
management is done through latest technology.

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Brihadeeswara Temple
• The structure is an example of
Dravidian architecture and it represents
the ideology of Tamil civilization and
Chola Empire.
• The temple has the world’s
tallest vimanam (temple tower) and
its Kumbam (the structure on the top)
weighs approximately 80 tons.
• The temple has a huge statue
of Nandi (sacred bull) at the entrance.
• The statue is carved out of a single rock
and weighs around 20 tons.
• The Lingam inside the temple is 3.7
meters tall.
KALLANAI DAM
• The purpose of the Kallanai was to divert the waters of the
Kaveri across the fertile delta region for irrigation via canals
and to its northern delta branch Kollidam/Coleroon.
• Down stream of the barrage, the river Kaveri splits into four
streams known as Kollidam Aru, Kaviri, Vennaru and Puthu
Aru.
• However, the flood waters can be allowed, by opening the
barrage/anaicut gates, to pass through the other three delta
branches also to join the sea.
• It is constructed from unhewn stone spanning the Kaviri and is
329 m (1,079 ft) long, 20 m (66 ft) wide and 5.4 m (18 ft) high.
 TAJ MAHAL
Architecture and design
The Taj Mahal was built as a mausoleum by Shah Jahan for his wife
Mumtaz Mahal, who died while giving birth to their 14th child in 1631. ... Taj
Mahal was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1983. It looks
as pristine today as it was first constructed.
•The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra.
•large palace in the centre of Agra in exchange for the land.
• An area of roughly 1.2 hectares (3 acres) was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage,
and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank.
• In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of
the tomb.
•Instead of lashed bamboo workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the
tomb.
•The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle.
 Angkor Wat
• Angkor Wat is an enormous Buddhist temple complex located in
northern Cambodia. It was originally built in the first half of the 12th
century as a Hindu temple. Spread across more than 400 acres, Angkor
Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world.
• The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone,
each of which has an average weight of 1.5 tons.
• Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple
of Angkor Wat is laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend
to the central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to a height of 213
feet (65 metres).
• The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which
can be seen on almost all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs.
 Golconda Fort
• In the 16th century, Golkonda
was the capital and fortress city
of the Qutb Shahi kingdom, near
Hyderabad.
• Golconda Fort is a very large fort
consisting of temples, mosques,
palaces, halls, apartments and
other structures.
• The fort is spread in around 11km
area and has beautiful
architecture. The fort is divided
into four forts each having
apartments, worship places, halls,
etc.
Great Pyramid
• The massive Great Pyramid—built for the Pharaoh Khufu and
finished around 2560 B.C.E.—is the only marvel of the original
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still intact.
• The monumental pyramids of the Old Kingdom, for instance, were
built out of stone blocks, while those of the later Middle Kingdom
were smaller and were typically made out of mud brick cased in
limestone.
• Up to 2.5 million limestone blocks and 50,000 granite blocks might
be used to construct a single pyramid.
Colosseum
• The Roman Colosseum or Coliseum, originally
known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, was
commisioned in AD 72 by Emperor Vespasian.
• It was completed by his son, Titus, in 80, with later
improvements by Domitian.
• The Colosseum is located just east of the Roman
empire and was built to a practical design, with its 80
arched entrances allowing easy access to 55,000
spectators, who were seated according to rank.
• The Coliseum is huge, an ellipse 188m long and 156
wide.
• Originally 240 masts were attached to stone corbels
on the 4th level.
Construction materials
 Bricks
 Stones
 Cement
 Mortar
 Sand
 Cement Concrete
 Bars
 Wood
 Plastics
 Building stones are obtained from
rocks
 Rocks are classified into
igneous rocks, sedimentary
rocks and metamorphic rocks.
 Igneous rocks are formed by
cooling of the molten materials
beneath the earth’s surface.
 Stones from igneous rocks
are harder.
 Granite which is widely used in
construction of building is a good
example.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by
deposition of weathering products on
existing rocks.
 Sandstone is a sedimentary rock (rock
formed by ancient rivers that slowly
deposited material on their beds, that built
up layer by layer over millions of years
 Metamorphic rocks are formed in the
change in character of the pre existing
rocks. Marble is a metamorphic rock
(meaning that it was made by the intense
pressures and heat deep within the earth.
Quarrying of stones
 It is the process of extracting stone blocks from
existing rocks.
In general, it is done some depth below the
top surface of rock, where the effects of weathering
are not found.
Quarrying is done by digging, heating or wedging.

In soft rocks, like lime stone and marble stones

are obtained by digging, heating or wedging by
hand tools.
In hard and dense rocks, stones are
obtained by blasting using explosives.
Dressing of stones :
Stones have irregular shape after quarrying

The process of cutting the stones to a regular

shape and size and the required surface finish is
called dressing of stones.
 Qualities of good stones
 The crushing strength of stone should be greater than 100
N/mm2
 Stones must be uniform in colour.
 Light coloured stones resist weathering action in a better
way.
 When the stones are used for roads, it
must be hard enough to resist wear and tear.
Manufacturing of cement
Cement is obtained by burning the mixture of
calcareous and argillaceous materials at a very
high temperature.
The calcined product is known as clinker

A small quantity of gypsum is added to the

clinker and is pulverised into very fine powder
known as cement.
On setting, cement resembles a variety of sand
stone in found portland in England and is
therefore called Portland cement.
 Types of cement

Rapid Hardening cement

 It is similar to port land cement.
 It develops strength rapidly
 This cement is used where high strength is required at
initial stages.
Quick setting cement
 This cement sets very quickly.
 It is due to reduction of gypsum content in normal
portland cement.
 It is used for underwater construction.
 Types of cement
Coloured cement
 It contains 5 to 10 percent of pigment with normal
portland cement for colouring.
 This is used for aesthetic purposes
White cement
 The colour of cement is white
 It has the same properties of portland cement
 It is used for architectural purposes and for
manufacturing coloured concrete, flooring tiles etc.,
 Types of cement

Masonry cement
 It has great plasticity, workability and water
retentivity
 It is used for masonry constructions in making
mortars and plasters.
Qualities of a good cement
The colour should be uniform

Cement should be cool when felt with hand.

If a small quantity of cement is thrown

into a bucket of water, it should sink.

The initial setting time should not be less than 30

minutes and the final setting time should be
around 10 hours.
Mortar is the term used to indicate a paste prepared by
adding water to a mixture of binding material (cement or lime)
and the fine aggregate.
Classification of mortar :
Bricklaying mortar:
It is used for brickwork and walls.
Depending upon the working conditions and the type of
construction , the binding materials for the mortar is
decided.
Finishing mortar :
These mortars include common plastering work and ornamental
effects.
Cement or lime is used as the binding material
for ordinary plastering mortar.
Properties of mortar
• Good adhesion (Sticking to)
• Resisting penetration of rain water
• Cheap
• Durable
• Easily workable
• Should not affect durability of material which comes into contact
• Set quickly for speedy construction
• Should not develop cracks
Uses of mortar
• Mortar is used to bind together the bricks or stones in brick or stone
masonry.
• It is used to give a soft even bed between different layers of brick or
stone masonry for equal distribution of pressure over the bed.
• It is used to fill up the spaces between bricks or stones for making
walls tight.
• It is used in concrete as a matrix.
 DEFINITION : It is a mixture of
cement, sand, crushed rock and water
which when placed in the skeleton
forms and allowed to cure becomes
hard like a stone.
Uses of concrete:
 It is used for the construction of
Reinforced Cement Concrete flat roof
slabs.
 Colored concrete is used for
ornamental finishes in buildings,
pack lanes, separating lines of road
 surfaces.
Light weight concrete is used in
multi storey constructions.
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):
 Plain concrete is very weak in
tension and cannot be used in
construction of roof slabs, beams
etc.,
Because the bottom fibres of
them are subjected to tensile
stresses.
A combination of concrete and steel
is known as Reinforced Cement
Concrete and widely used.
Advantages of Reinforced Cement Concrete :
 It is versatile building material can be used for
casting members of any shape.
 It has good fire resistance and weathering
actions.
 Easy to construct

 RCC is tough and durable

Grades of concrete
 Grade of concrete is defined as the minimum strength the concrete must
possess after 28 days of construction with proper quality control.
 Grade of concrete is denoted by prefixing M to the desired strength in MPa.
For example, for a grade of concrete with 20 MPa strength, it will be
denoted by M20, where M stands for Mix.
 These grades of concrete are converted into various mix proportions. For
example, for M20 concrete, mix proportion will be 1:1.5:3 for cement:
sand: coarse aggregates.
 Grade of concrete construction is selected based on structural design
requirements. There are two types of concrete mixes, nominal mix and
design mix.
 Nominal mix concrete are those which are generally used for small
scale construction and small residential buildings where concrete
consumption is not high. Nominal mix takes care of factor of safety
against various quality control problems generally occurring during
concrete construction.
 Design mix concrete is those for which mix proportions are obtained
from various lab tests. Use of design mix concrete requires good
quality control during material selection, mixing, transportation and
placement of concrete. This concrete offers mix proportions based on
locally available material and offers economy in construction if large
scale concrete construction is carried out.
 Mixes for constructional uses
• Large concrete construction projects use design mix concrete.
• So, suitable grade of concrete can be selected based on structural
requirements.
• Nominal mixes for grades of concrete such as M15, M20, and M25 are
generally used for small scale construction.
• Large structures have high strength requirements, thus they go for
higher grades of concrete such as M30 and above.
• The mix proportions of these concretes are based on mix design
 Special Concrete
 Frequently, concrete may be used for some special purpose for which
special properties are more important than those commonly considered.
 Sometimes, it may be of great importance to enhance one of the ordinary
properties. These special applications often become apparent as new
development using new materials or as improvements using the basic
materials.
 Some utilize special aggregates (lightweight aggregate, steel fiber, plastic
fiber, glass fiber, and special heavy aggregate).
Example
1) Increased compressive and tensile strength, water proofing, and improved
chemical resistance are achieved with polymers.
2) Admixtures for coloring concrete are available in all colors. The oldest and
cheapest is perhaps carbon black.
 Why special concrete is needed? Uses and Applications of Special
Concrete
 Special concrete is used in extreme weather.
 HPC has been used in large structures such as the Petronas Towers and the Troll
Platform. Petronas Towers was the tallest concrete building in the world built in
Malaysia in the mid-1990s. In 1998, the deepest offshore platform, the Troll
platform, was built in Norway — a structure taller than the Eiffel Tower.
 Good cohesiveness or sticky in mixes with very high binder content
 some delay in setting times depending on the compatibility of cement, fly ash and
chemical admixture
 Slightly lower but sufficient early strength for most applications
 Comparable flexural strength and elastic modulus
 Better drying shrinkage and significantly lower creep
 Good protection to steel reinforcement in high chloride environment
 Excellent durability in aggressive sulphate environments
 Lower heat characteristics Low resistance to de-icing salt scaling
 PC pipes with good resistance to chemical attack from both acidic and caustic
effluents inside the pipe, and from chemical attack on the outside of the pipe.
 Self-Compacting Concrete
 Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a flowing concrete that does not require vibration
and, indeed, should not be vibrated.
 It uses superplasticizers and stabilizers to significantly increase the ease and rate of flow.
 It achieves compaction into every part of the mould or formwork simply by means of its
own weight without any segregation of the coarse aggregate.
 The consistence of the concrete is specified and measured as a flow rate rather than the
normal slump test.
SCC offers
 Health and safety benefits (as no vibration is required).
 Faster construction times.
 Increased workability and ease of flow around heavy reinforcement.
 Excellent durability.
 Having no need for vibrating equipment spares workers from exposure to vibration. No
vibration equipment also means quieter construction sites
 Plastic as a constructional materials
'Plastic' is a general name given to a wide range of synthetic materials that are based on
polymers. The construction industry uses plastic for a wide range of applications because
of its versatility, strength
Some of the main types of plastic (Thermo plastics and Thermosetting Plastics) that are
used in construction include
• Acrylic (Textile fiber)
• Composites
• Expanded polystyrene
• ETFE.
• Polycarbonate.
• Polyethylene.
• Polypropylene.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
• PTFE
 Properties of Plastics as a Construction Material

Each plastic material has its own peculiar properties to suit its particular uses.
The success of plastic as an engineering material will depends up on the selection of
variety of plastic.
Following are the general properties of plastics
Appearance, Chemical resistance, Dimensional stability, Ductility, Durability,
Electric insulation, Finishing, Fire resistance, Fixing, Humidity, Maintenance,
Melting point, Optical property, Recycling, Sound absorption, Strength, Thermal
property, Weather resistance.
Uses of plastic in different aspects of the construction industry
Flooring, Roofing, Insulation, Wall, pipes, Windows, Doors.
 Construction Chemicals(Plasticizers)
 Construction Chemicals are designed to contribute to quality as well as
enhanced durability of construction activities undertaken and are made available
under heads like plasticizers, concrete admixtures and waterproofing chemicals.
 These provide working as specialty products and find usage in structures for
enhancing their life as well as provides for additional protection from
environmental factors.
 Further, these also support in minimizing need of cement and water needed
during construction activities.
 These chemicals can be used in large-scale construction projects and also in
construction activities involving special design and engineering support as per
the specific process requirements.
 Some of the work areas these chemicals are used in include as surface treatment,
waterproofing, concrete admixture, coating, sealer, grout, floor hardening and
others.
 In the concrete technology, plasticizers and superplasticizers are also called high
range water reducers.
 When added to concrete mixtures, they confer a number of properties including
improve workability and strength. Unless the mix is "starved" of water, the
strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the amount of water added, i.e.,
the water-cement (w/c) ratio.
 In order to produce stronger concrete, less water is added (without "starving" the
mix), which makes the concrete mixture less workable and difficult to mix,
necessitating the use of plasticizers, water reducers, superplasticizers, or
dispersants.
 Plasticizers are also often used when pozzolanic ash is added to concrete to
improve strength.
 This method of mix proportioning is especially popular when producing high-
strength concrete and fiber-reinforced concrete.
 Adding 1-2% plasticizer per unit weight of cement is usually sufficient.
 Adding an excessive amount of plasticizer will result in excessive segregation of
concrete and is not advisable.
 Depending on the particular chemical used, use of too much plasticizer may
result in a retarding effect.
 RECYCLING

 Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and
objects.
 Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third
component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle"
 CONSTRUCTION WASTE RECYCLING
 Construction waste recycling is the separation and recycling of recoverable waste
materials generated during construction and remodeling. Packaging, new material
scraps and old materials and debris all constitute potentially recoverable materials.
In renovation, appliances, masonry materials, doors and windows are recyclable.
 Most construction waste goes into landfills, increasing the burden on landfill
loading and operation.
 Construction waste is generated from construction building and demolition
activities consisting of concrete, tiles, bricks, drywall, asphalt, plastics, metals,
wood, rocks and more
Demolition waste
Construction and demolition debris (C&DD) means those materials resulting from
the alteration, construction, destruction, rehabilitation, or repair of any manmade
physical structure including houses, buildings, industrial or commercial facilities,
and roadways.
 Steps before Demolition
• Surveying
• Removal of hazardous materials
• Preparation of plan
Methods of Demolition
Placing the Explosives
APPLICATIONS
IN UNPROCESSED STATE:
• MANY TYPES OF GENERAL BULK FILLS
• BANK PROTECTION
• BASE OR FILL FOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
• ROAD CONSTRUCTION
• EMBANKMENTS
• NEW CONCRETE FOR PAVEMENTS, SHOULDERS, SIDEWALKS
• AND BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS.
 RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE
• Demolished concrete waste obtained
• After the demolition of the structure is being properly processed before the
coarse aggregates of it can be used in concrete production.
• So these processed coarse aggregates utilized in the concrete are called
recycled aggregate and concrete is called recycled aggregate concrete.
 Concrete and brick can be recycled by crushing it into rubble. Once sorted,
screened and contaminants are removed, reclaimed concrete or brick can be used
in concrete aggregate, fill, road base.
Recycled Aggregate
 Recycled aggregates is a term used to describe crushed concrete or asphalt from
construction debris that is reused in other building projects. This collection of
construction refuse is mainly used for road base, cement concrete or other
infrastructure projects.
 RCA can be substituted in concrete with conventional coarse aggregate with
various proportions of replacement like 10%,20%,30% ,40% and 50% .
 In order to reduce and reuse the construction waste and to preserve the natural
materials available reusing plays a vital role in recent days.
Buildings, Classification of Buildings,
Classification of Buildings
1.Residential building
Residential building is a multi-residential space contained in a single
structure where dwellers may rent or own their residences.
2.Educational buildings
a building designed for various activities in a primary, secondary, or
higher educational system and often including living areas for
students, such as dormitories
3.Institutional building
Institutional Areas means an area designated for Institutional use. Buildings
and structures under this shall include hospitals, clinics, homes for the
aged, orphanages, colleges, schools, offices, etc
4.Assembly building
A building used for the gathering of persons for the purposes of amusement,
deliberation, dining, drinking, education, entertainment, instruction, or
awaiting transportation
5.Business buildings
a building or part thereof for transaction of record therefore, offices, banks,
all professional establishments, court houses.
6.Industrial building
Factories and other premises used for manufacturing, altering, repairing,
cleaning, washing, breaking-up, adapting or processing any article;
generating power or slaughtering livestock.
Mercantile Building
• a building or part thereof used as shops, stores or markets for display
and sale of wholesale or retail goods or merchandise, including office,
storage and service facilities incidental sale of merchandise and
located in the same building.
 Based on the type of construction,
buildings are classified into 5 categories.
1)Fire resistive Buildings

2)Ordinary Buildings

3)Heavy timber Buildings

4)Wood framed Buildings

 Selection of site for a building
Natural defects of a site will involve considerable expenditure on construction and
maintenance of the building. While unsatisfactory conditions in the neighborhood of locality will
cause unhappy living conditions on one hand and possible deterioration of the value of property on
the other. Therefore the following general factors should be considered while selecting a site for
building construction.

1. Purpose of building
This is the most important factor to consider before purchasing or selecting a site for
residential purpose. The site should be selected keeping in view the general scope or the purpose of
building and on the basis of extent or privacy required.

2. Friendly neighborhood
The site should be situated in locality which is already fully developed or which is fast
developing. To secure happy living conditions, generally such neighborhood is preferred where the
neighbors belong to an equal status in society and who should be social and friendly.
3. Available facilities
The plot should be in a locality where the various facilities as mentioned below are available.
Community services such as police and fire protection, clearing of waste and street cleaning
 Utility services such as water supply, gas, electricity, and drainage
 Amenities such as schools, hospitals, libraries, recreation, telephone, etc
 Shopping facilities
 Means of transportation

4. Government laws: A site which comes within the limits of an area where the by-laws of the
local authority enforce restrictions regarding proportions of plots to be built up, vacant spaces to be
left in front and sides, heights of buildings, etc., should be preferred.

5. Shape & size

Area of the plot of land should be such that the house constructed, keeping in view the restrictions
of the local authority, would meet the requirements of the owner, preferably with possibilities of
future extensions. The site should not be irregular in shape or having any sharp corners.
6. Terrain condition
The site should be situated on an elevated place and also leveled with uniform slopes from one end
to the other so as to provide good and quick drainage of rain water.

7. Type of ground soil

The ground soil of the site should be good enough to provide economical foundations for the
intended building without causing and problems. Generally, for most satisfactory constructions, the
site should have rock, sand or dense soil below 60 to 120 cm layer of light soil or even black cotton
soil.

8. Natural light & air

The location of the site should be such as to ensure unobstructed natural light and air.

9. Environmental condition
The site should be available in a locality where natural beauty and man-made environment create
healthy living and working conditions. Environment also affected by nearest factories, kiln etc: so
these thing also need to be considered.
10. Legal & financial aspects
The legal and financial aspects, which dictate upon ownership rights and the costs, should be given
due consideration before the purchase of a plot.
11. Other factors
A site should be abandoned under adverse circumstances such as unhealthy, noisy or crowded
localities; immediate neighborhood or rivers carrying heavy floods, badly maintained drains;
reclaimed soils or water logged areas, subject to submergence or settlement and; industrial vicinity
having smoke and obnoxious odors.
Components of buildings
Building

Substructure Superstructure
.
• Sub Structure:
Building The lower portion of the building below ground level is
known as sub structure . It plays a major role in transmitting the load of super

structure to the soil

• Super Structure: It is the part of the building which is built above the sub-

structure (or) ground level. It contains various components like

basement Plinth Doors and windows
Walls and columns Floor Beam
Roof sun shade
 Types of Building Components
 Roof
 Parapet
 Lintels
 Beams
 Columns
 Damp proof course (DPC)
 Walls
 WINDOWS AND DOOR
 Floor
 Stairs
 Plinth Beam
 Foundation
 Plinth
Building Components

Prepared by: Sanat R Yadav

ROOF

 The roof forms the topmost component of a building

structure. It covers the top face of the building. Roofs can
be either flat or sloped based on the location and weather
conditions of the area.
PARAPETS

 Parapetsare short walls extended above the roof slab.

Parapets are installed for flat roofs. It acts as a safety wall
for people using the roof.
LINTELS

 Lintelsare constructed above the wall openings like doors,

windows, etc. These structures support the weight of the
wall coming over the opening. Normally, lintels are
constructed by reinforced cement concrete. In residential
buildings, lintels can be either constructed from concrete
or from bricks
COLUMNS

 Columns are vertical members constructed above the

ground level. Columns can be of two types: Architectural
columns and structural columns. Architectural columns are
constructed to improve the building’s aesthetics while a
structural column takes the load coming from the slab
above and transfers safely to the foundation.
Damp Proof Course(DPC)

 DPCis a layer of waterproofing material applied on the

basement level to prevent the rise of surface water into
the walls. The walls are constructed over the DPC.
WALLS

 Wallsare vertical elements which support the roof. It can

be made from stones, bricks, concrete blocks, etc. Walls
provide an enclosure and protect against wind, sunshine,
rain etc. Openings are provided in the walls for ventilation
and access to the building.
WINDOWS AND DOORS

A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof or vehicle that

allows the passage of light, sound, and sometimes air. ...
In the 19th century American west, greased paper windows
came to be used by itinerant groups.
A door in a wall is a way of overcoming that limit, a way
out of the place confined by the walls. The walls here
symbolize the physical universe.
FLOORS

 Thefloor is the surface laid on the plinth level. Flooring

can be done by a variety of materials like tiles, granites,
marbles, concrete, etc. Before flooring, the ground has to
be properly compacted and leveled.
STAIRS

A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors

in a building structure. The space occupied by a stair is
called as the stairway. There are different types of stairs
like a wooden stair, R.C.C stair etc.
PLINTH BEAM

 Plinth
beam is a beam structure constructed either at or
above the ground level to take up the load of the wall
coming over it.
PLINTH

 The plinth is constructed above the ground level. It is a

cement-mortar layer lying between the substructure and
the superstructure.
FOUNDATION

 The Foundation is a structural unit that uniformly

distributes the load from the superstructure to the
underlying soil. This is the first structural unit to be
constructed for any building construction. A good
foundation prevents settlement of the building.
 Soils
 Soil is the part of the earth’s surface comprised of disintegrated rock and humus that
provides the medium for plant growth.
 The development of soil takes time, between hundreds and thousands of years, and
consists of diverse materials which are both inorganic and organic.
 The inorganic materials are the non-living aspects of the soil such as minerals and rocks
while the organic materials are the living aspects of the soil such as the soil micro-
organisms.
 The process of soil formation is through the rock cycle together with the integration of
soil microbial and chemical activities originating from living organisms.
 For instance, during the decomposition of dead plants and animals, nutrients are mixed
up with the weathered and disintegrated rocks to form soil.
 Soil is considered as a natural resource because of its agricultural productivity benefits.
Various soils have different mineral and organic compositions that establish their
specific characteristics.
General types of soil
 General types of soil
Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils
are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and
poor in holding water, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type
of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown
or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz.
Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is made
up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is
the smooth and quite fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily
transported by moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other water
bodies. The silt soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore it is
also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility.
Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in
this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This soil
has very good water storage qualities and making hard for moisture and air to penetrate
into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest
and heaviest type of soil which do not drain well or provide space for plant roots to
flourish.
Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such that
the beneficial properties from each are included. For instance, it has the ability to retain
moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as
an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials being
sandy, clay, and silt and it also happens to have humus. Apart from these, it also has higher
calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins.
 Bearing Capacity
 All civil engineering structures whether they are buildings, dams, bridges etc. are built
on soils.
 A foundation is required to transmit the load of the structure on a large area of soil.
 The foundation of the structure should be so designed that the soil below does not fail in
shear nor there is the excessive settlement of the structure. T
 The conventional method of foundation design is based on the concept of bearing
capacity.
 Soil when stressed due to loading, tend to deform. The resistance to deformation of the
soil depends upon factors like water content, bulk density, angle of internal friction and
the manner in which load is applied on the soil.
 The maximum load per unit area which the soil or rock can carry without yielding or
displacement is termed as the bearing capacity of soils.
 Soil properties like shear strength, density, permeability etc., affect the bearing capacity
of soil. Dense sand will have more bearing capacity than loose sand as unit weight of
dense sand is more than loose sand.
Methods of determining bearing capacity

The various methods of computing the bearing capacity can be listed as follows:

 Presumptive Analysis
 Analytical Methods
 Plate Bearing Test
 Penetration Test
 Modern Testing Methods
 Centrifuge Test
 Types of Bearing Capacity of Soil
1. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)
The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails is called ultimate
bearing capacity.
2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)
By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate bearing capacity we will get net
ultimate bearing capacity.
3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)
By considering only shear failure, net ultimate bearing capacity is divided by certain factor
of safety will give the net safe bearing capacity.
qns = qnu/ F
Where F = factor of safety = 3 (usual value)
4. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)
When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of safety it will give gross safe bearing
capacity.
qs = qu/F

5. Net safe settlement pressure (qnp)

The pressure with which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable settlement is
called net safe settlement pressure.
6. Net allowable bearing pressure (qna)
This is the pressure we can use for the design of foundations. This is equal to net safe
bearing pressure if qnp > qns. In the reverse case it is equal to net safe settlement pressure.
 Factors affecting bearing capacity
Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity of Soils
1. Type of soil
2. Physical characteristics of foundation
3. Soil properties
4. Type of foundation
5. Water table
6. Amount of settlement
7. Eccentricity of loading.
Foundation
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct
contact with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely.
Objectives of a foundation
A foundation is provided for the following purposes:
•To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a larger area.
•To support the structures.
•To give enough stability to the structures against various disturbing forces, such as wind
and rain.
•To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.
Factors affecting design of foundation
• Soil types and ground water table conditions.
• Structural requirements and foundations.
• Site condition and environmental factor.
 Types of foundation
The two main types of foundation:

 Shallow foundation

 Deep foundation
• Shallow foundation
A shallow foundation is a type of building foundation that transfers building loads
to the earth very near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths
as does a deep foundation.

This type of foundation is practicable for a depth up to 5m and is normally

convenient above the water table.
Wall Footings: These footings can either be simple or stepped. The base course of these
footings can be concrete or of entirely one material.
They have only one projection beyond the width of the wall on either side. The width of
the concrete base should be at least equal to twice the width of the wall.
The depth of the concrete bed is at least equal to the projection. Generally the projection
provided in the footing is 15cm, on either side and the concrete mix comprises of cement,
sand and aggregate in proportion of 1:3:6 or 1:4:8.
Isolated or Column Footings
• They are used to support individual columns.
• In case of heavy loaded columns, steel reinforcements is provided.
Generally, 15cm offset is provided on all sides of concrete bed.
• The footing of concrete columns may be slab, stepped or sloped type.
Isolated or Column Footings
Combined Footings:
• A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row.
• The combined footing can be rectangular in shape if both the
columns carry equal loads or can be trapezoidal if both the loads are
unequal.
• Generally they are constructed of reinforced concrete.
• The location of the center of the gravity of the column loads and
centroid of the footing should coincide.
Combined Footings:
Inverted arch footing:
• This type of footing is used on soft soils to reduce the depth of the
foundation.
• Loads above an opening are transmitted from supporting walls through
inverted arches to the soil.
• In this type of footings the end columns must be stable enough to
resist the outward pressure caused by the arch action.
Inverted arch footing:
Continuous footings:
• In this type of footing a single continuous R.C. slab is provided as
foundation of two or three or more columns in a row.
• This type of footing is suitable at locations liable to earthquake
activities.
• This also prevents differential settlements in structures.
Continuous footings:
Strap or cantilever footings:
• Strap footing consists of two or more individual footings connected by
a beam called strap.
• This type of footing is used where the distance between the columns
is so great that the trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow with
bending moments.
Grillage footings:
• this type of footings is used to transmit heavy loads from steel
columns to the soils having low bearing power. This type of
arrangements prevents deep excavations and provides necessary area
at base to reduce the intensity of the pressure.
Grillage footings:
Deep foundation
• Basements.
They are constructed in place in an open excavation. They are
hollow substructures designed to provide working space below
ground level.
Basements.
Raft foundation :

 Raft foundations (sometimes known as Mat Foundations) are a large concrete

slab which can support a number of columns and walls.

The slab is spread out under the entire building or at least a large part of it
which lowers the contact pressure compared to the traditionally used strip or
trench footings
RAFT FOUNDATION
Pile Foundations.
• The pile foundation is a construction supported on piles.

• A pile is an element of construction composed of timber, concrete or

steel or a combination of them.

• The piles may be placed separately or they may be placed in form of a

cluster throughout the structure.
Pile Foundations.
Caissons
• They are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near
the surface and then sunk as single units to their required level.
Caissons
Cylinders. They are single small cell caissons.

• Shaft Foundations.
• They are constructed within deep excavation supported by lining
constructed in place and subsequently filled with concrete.
Shaft foundation