Chapter 9

Foundations of Group
Behavior
 Defining and Classifying Groups
• Group:
– Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent,
who have come together to achieve particular objectives
• Formal Group:
– Defined by the organization’s structure with designated
work assignments establishing tasks
• Informal Group:
– Alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined
– Appear naturally in response to the need for social contact
– Deeply affect behavior and performance
 Subclassifications of Groups

Formal Groups Informal Groups

• Command Group • Interest Group
– A group composed of the – Members work together to
individuals who report attain a specific objective
directly to a given manager with which each is concerned
• Task Group • Friendship Group
– Those working together to – Those brought together
complete a job or task in an because they share one or
organization but not limited more common characteristics
by hierarchical boundaries
 Why People Join Groups –
Social Identity

• Similarity
• Distinctiveness
• Status
• Uncertainty
Reduction
Five Stages of Group Development
Model
 The Five Stages of Group
Development
1. Forming
– Members feel much uncertainty
2. Storming
– Lots of conflict between members of the group
3. Norming Stage
– Members have developed close relationships and
cohesiveness
4. Performing Stage
– The group is finally fully functional
5. Adjourning Stage
– In temporary groups, characterized by concern with
wrapping up activities rather than performance
 Critique of the Five-Stage Model
• Assumption: the group becomes more effective
as it progresses through the first four stages
– Not always true – group behavior is more complex
– High levels of conflict may be conducive to high
performance
– The process is not always linear
– Several stages may occur simultaneously
– Groups may regress
• Ignores the organizational context
 An Alternative Model for Group
Formation
Temporary groups with deadlines don’t follow the five-
stage model
•Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
– Temporary groups under deadlines go through transitions
between inertia and activity—at the halfway point, they
experience an increase in productivity.
– Sequence of Actions
1. Setting group direction
2. First phase of inertia
3. Half-way point transition
4. Major changes
5. Second phase of inertia
6. Accelerated activity
 Group Properties
Norms
Status
Roles

Group
Performance

Cohesiveness Size
 Group Property 1: Roles
• Role
– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying
a given position in a social unit
• Role Identity
– Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role
• Role Perception
– An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given
situation – received by external stimuli
• Role Expectations
– How others believe a person should act in a given situation
– Psychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out mutual
expectations of management and employees
• Role Conflict
– A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations
 Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
• Faked a prison using student
volunteers
• Randomly assigned to guard
and prisoner roles
• Within six days the
experiment was halted due
to concerns
– Guards had dehumanized the
prisoners
– Prisoners were subservient
– Fell into the roles as they
understood them
– No real resistance felt
 Group Property 2: Norms
• Norms
– Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that
are shared by the group’s members
• Classes of Norms
– Performance norms - level of acceptable work
– Appearance norms - what to wear
– Social arrangement norms - friendships and the like
– Allocation of resources norms - distribution and
assignments of jobs and material
 Group Norms and the Hawthorne
Studies
A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western Electric Company’s
Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924 and 1932
•Research Conclusions
– Worker behavior and sentiments were closely related.
– Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting individual behavior.
– Group standards (norms) were highly effective in establishing individual
worker output.
– Money was less a factor in determining worker output than were group
standards, sentiments, and security.
 Norms and Behavior
• Conformity
– Gaining acceptance by adjusting one’s behavior to
align with the norms of the group
• Reference Groups
– Important groups to which individuals belong or hope
to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely
to conform
• Asch Studies
– Demonstrated the power of conformance
– Culture-based and declining in importance
 Defying Norms: Deviant Workplace
Behavior
• Deviant Workplace Behavior
– Also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility

– Voluntary behavior that violates significant

organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the
well-being of the organization

– Typology:
• Production – working speed
• Property – damage and stealing
• Political – favoritism and gossip
• Personal Aggression – sexual harassment
Group Influence on Deviant Behavior
– Group norms can influence the presence of
deviant behavior
– Simply belonging to a group increases the
likelihood of deviance
– Being in a group allows individuals to hide –
creates a false sense of confidence that they
won’t be caught
 Group Property 3: Status
A socially defined position or rank given to groups
or group members by others – it differentiates
group members
– Important factor in understanding behavior
– Significant motivator

•Status Characteristics Theory

– Status derived from one of three sources:
• Power a person has over others
• Ability to contribute to group goals
• Personal characteristics
 Status Effects
• On Norms and Conformity
– High-status members are less restrained by norms and
pressure to conform
– Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status members
so long as it doesn’t affect group goal achievement
• On Group Interaction
– High-status members are more assertive
– Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and
creativity
• On Equity
– If status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in
various forms of corrective behavior.
 Group Property 4: Size
• Group size affects behavior
• Size:
– Twelve or more members is a “large” group
– Seven or fewer is a “small” group
• Best use of a group:
Attribute Small Large
Speed X
Individual Performance X
Problem Solving X
Diverse Input X
Fact-finding Goals X
Overall Performance X
 Issues with Group Size
• Social Loafing
– The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when
working collectively than when working individually
– Ringelmann’s Rope Pull: greater levels of productivity but
with diminishing returns as group size increases
– Caused by either equity concerns or a diffusion of
responsibility (free riders)
• Managerial Implications
– Build in individual accountability
– Prevent social loafing by:
• Setting group goals
• Increasing intergroup competition
• Using peer evaluation
• Distributing group rewards based on individual effort
Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
Degree to which group members are attracted to
each other and are motivated to stay in the group

•Managerial Implication
– To increase cohesiveness:
• Make the group smaller.
• Encourage agreement with group goals.
• Increase time members spend together.
• Increase group status and admission difficulty.
• Stimulate competition with other groups.
• Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
• Physically isolate the group.
Group Decision Making vs. Individual
Choice
• Group Strengths:
– Generate more complete information and knowledge
– Offer increased diversity of views and greater creativity
– Increased acceptance of decisions
– Generally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most
accurate group member)
• Group Weaknesses:
– Time-consuming activity
– Conformity pressures in the group
– Discussions can be dominated by a few members
– A situation of ambiguous responsibility
 Group Decision-Making Phenomena
• Groupthink
– Situations where group pressures for conformity deter
the group from critically appraising unusual, minority,
or unpopular views
– Hinders performance
• Groupshift
– When discussing a given set of alternatives and
arriving at a solution, group members tend to
exaggerate the initial positions that they hold. This
causes a shift to more conservative or more risky
behavior.
Group Decision-Making Techniques
Made in interacting groups where members meet face-to-
face and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication.
•Brainstorming
– An idea-generating process designed to overcome pressure for
conformity
•Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
– Works by restricting discussion during the decision-making
process
– Members are physically present but operate independently
•Electronic Meeting
– Uses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50 people
 Evaluating Group Effectiveness
Type of Group
Brain-
Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Nominal Electronic
storming
Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High
Social Pressure High Low Moderate Low
Money Costs Low Low Low High
Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Task Orientation Low High High High
Potential for Interpersonal
High Low Moderate Moderate
Conflict
Commitment to Solution High N/A Moderate Moderate
Development of Group
High High Moderate Low
Cohesiveness
 Global Implications
• Status and Culture
– The importance of status varies with culture
– Managers must understand who and what holds
status when interacting with people from another
culture
• Social Loafing
– Most often in Western (individualistic) cultures
• Group Diversity
– Increased diversity leads to increased conflict
– May cause early withdrawal and lowered morale
– If the initial difficulties are overcome, diverse
groups may perform better