Chapter 4.

The second law of thermodynamics

4.1. A certain refrigerator has a COP of 5.00. When the refrigerator is running,
its power input is 500 W. A sample of water of mass 500 g and temperature
20.0°C is placed in the freezer compartment. How long does it take to freeze the
water to ice at 0°C? Assume all other parts of the refrigerator stay at the same
temperature and there is no leakage of energy from the exterior, so the operation
of the refrigerator results only in energy being extracted from the water.

4.2. A particular heat engine has a mechanical power output of 5.00 kW and an
efficiency of 25.0%. The engine expels 8.0 × 10 3 J of exhaust energy in each
cycle. Find (a) the energy taken in during each cycle and (b) the time interval
for each cycle.
Answer: (a) Q1 = 10.7 kJ (b) 0.53 s

4.3. Suppose a heat engine is connected to two energy reservoirs, one a pool of
molten aluminum (660°C) and the other a block of solid mercury (-38.9°C). The
engine runs by freezing 1.00 g of aluminum and melting 15.0 g of mercury
during each cycle. The heat of fusion of aluminum is 3.97 × 105 J/kg; the heat of
fusion of mercury is 1.18 × 104  J/kg. What is the efficiency of this engine?
Answer: 55.4 %

4.4A. A refrigerator has a coefficient of performance of 3.00. The ice tray

compartment is at 220.0°C, and the room temperature is 22.0°C. The
refrigerator can convert 30.0 g of water at 22.0°C to 30.0 g of ice at -20.0°C
each minute. What input power is required?
Answer: 77.8 W

4.4B. You have half an hour before guests start arriving for your party when
you suddenly realize that you forgot to buy ice for drinks. You quickly put 1.00
L of water at 10.0C into your ice cube trays and pop them into the freezer. Will
you have ice in time for your guests? The label on your refrigerator states that
the appliance has a coefficient of performance of 5.5 and a power rating P = 550
W. You estimate that only 10 percent of the electrical power contributes to the
cooling and freezing of the water.
4.5. A freezer has a coefficient of performance of 7.30. It is advertised as using
electricity at a rate of 457 kWh/year. (a) On average, how much energy does it
use in a single day? (b) On average, how much energy does it remove from the
refrigerator in a single day? (c) What maximum mass of water at 20.0°C could
the freezer freeze in a single day? Note: One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is an amount
of energy equal to running a 1-kW appliance for one hour.

Answer: (a) 4.51×106 J (b) 2.84 × 107 J (c) 68.1 kg

4.6. A Carnot engine has a power output P. The engine operates between two
reservoirs at temperature T1 and T2. (a) How much energy enters the engine by
heat in a time interval t? (b) How much energy is exhausted by heat in the
time interval t?.

Answer: (a) (b)

4.7. One of the most efficient heat engines ever built is a coal-fired steam
turbine in the Ohio River valley, operating between 1870°C and 430°C. (a)
What is its maxi- mum theoretical efficiency? (b) The actual efficiency of the
engine is 42.0%. How much mechanical power does the engine deliver if it
absorbs 1.40 × 105 J of energy each second from its hot reservoir?
Answer: (a) 67.2% (b) 58.8 kW

4.8. At point A in a Carnot cycle, 2.34 mol of a monatomic ideal gas has a
pressure of 1400 kPa, a volume of 10.0 L, and a temperature of 720 K. The gas
expands isothermally to point B and then expands adiabatically to point C,
where its volume is 24.0 L. An isothermal compression brings it to point D,
where its volume is 15.0 L. An adiabatic process returns the gas to point A. (a)
Determine all the unknown pressures, volumes, and temperatures as you fill in
the following table:

(b) Find the energy added by heat, the work done by the engine, and the change
in internal energy for each of the steps A  B, B  C, C  D, and D  A. (c)
Calculate the efficiency of the engine. (d) Show that the efficiency is equal to 1
– TC/TA, the Carnot efficiency.
Answer: (a) and (b)

(c) 0,237 (d) 0.237

4.9. An electric generating station is designed to have an electric output power

of 1.40 MW using a turbine with two-thirds the efficiency of a Carnot engine.
The exhaust energy is transferred by heat into a cooling tower at 110°C. (a)
Find the rate at which the station exhausts energy by heat as a function of the
fuel combustion temperature T1. (b) If the firebox is modified to run hotter by
using more advanced combustion technology, how does the amount of energy
exhaust change? (c) Find the exhaust power for T1 = 800°C. (d) Find the value
of T1 for which the exhaust power would be only half as large as in part (c). (e)
Find the value of T1 for which the exhaust power would be one-fourth as large
as in part (c).
Guide
(a)
W W 2 T2
= = (1− )  Q2/Δt (9)
Q1 W +Q2 3 T1
Note W/Δt = P = 1.40 MW
(b) From Eq. 9 
(c) By student (Answer: 1.87 MW)
(d) By student (Answer: 3.84 ×103 K)
(e) No answer exists

4.10. A heat pump used for heating shown in Fig. 4.10 is essentially an air
conditioner installed backward. It extracts energy from colder air outside and
deposits it in a warmer room. Suppose the ratio of the actual energy entering the
room to the work done by the device’s motor is 10.0% of the theoretical
maximum ratio. Determine the energy entering the room per joule of work done
by the motor given that the inside temperature is 20.0°C and the outside
temperature is -5.0°C.
Guide: By student
Answer: 1.17 J

Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11

4.11. An idealized diesel engine operates in a cycle known as the air-standard

diesel cycle shown in Fig. 4.11. Fuel is sprayed into the cylinder at the point of
maximum compression, B. Combustion occurs during the expansion B  C,
which is modeled as an isobaric process. Show that the efficiency of an engine
operating in this idealized diesel cycle is:

Guide: By student

4.12. In 1816, Robert Stirling, a Scottish clergyman, patented the Stirling

engine, which has found a wide variety of applications ever since, including
current use in solar energy collectors to transform sunlight into electricity. Fuel
is burned externally to warm one of the engine’s two cylinders. A fixed quantity
of inert gas moves cyclically between the cylinders, expanding in the hot one
and contracting in the cold one. Fig. 4.12 represents a model for its
thermodynamic cycle. Consider n moles of an ideal monoatomic gas being
taken once through the cycle, consisting of two isothermal processes at
temperatures 3Ti and Ti and two constant-volume processes. Let us find the
efficiency of this engine. (a) Find the energy transferred by heat into the gas
during the isovolumetric process AB. (b) Find the energy transferred by heat
into the gas during the isothermal process BC. (c) Find the energy transferred by
heat into the gas during the isovolumetric process CD. (d) Find the energy
transferred by heat into the gas during the isothermal process DA. (e) Identify
which of the results from parts (a) through (d) are positive and evaluate the
energy input to the engine by heat. (f) From the first law of thermodynamics,
find the work done by the engine. (g) From the results of parts (e) and (f),
evaluate the efficiency of the engine. A Stirling engine is easier to manufacture
than an internal combustion engine or a turbine. It can run on burning garbage.
It can run on the energy transferred by sunlight and produce no material
exhaust. Stirling engines are not currently used in automobiles due to long
startup times and poor acceleration response.

Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13

Guide: By student
Answer: ε = 0.273.

4.13. A 1.00-mol sample of an ideal monatomic gas is taken through the cycle
shown in Fig. 4.13. The process A  B is a reversible isothermal expansion.
Calculate (a) the net work done by the gas, (b) the energy added to the gas by
heat, (c) the energy exhausted from the gas by heat, and (d) the efficiency of the
cycle. (e) Explain how the efficiency compares with that of a Carnot engine
operating between the same temperature extremes.
Guide: By student
Answer: (a) 4.10 kJ (b) 1.42 × 104 J (c) 1.01 × 104 J (d) 0.289

4.14. A 1.00-mol sample of a monoatomic ideal gas is taken through

the cycle shown in Fig. 4.14. At point A, the pressure, volume, and
temperature are Pi, Vi, and Ti, respectively. In terms of R and Ti, find
(a) the total energy entering the system by heat per cycle, (b) the total
energy leaving the system by heat per cycle, and (c) the efficiency of
an engine operating in this cycle. (d) Explain how the efficiency
compares with that of an engine operating in a Carnot cycle between
the same temperature extremes.
Guide: By student
Answer: (a) 10.5nRTi (b) 8.50nRTi (c) 0.190

4.15. A 1.0-mol sample of an ideal gas (γ = 1.40) is carried through the Carnot
cycle described in Fig. 4.15. At point A, the pressure is 25.0 atm and the
temperature is 600 K. At point C, the pressure is 1.0 atm and the temperature is
400 K. (a) Determine the pressures and volumes at points A, B, C, and D. (b)
Calculate the net work done per cycle.

Guide: By student
Answer: (a) VA = 1.97 L, VB = 11.9 L, VC = 32.8 L, VD = 5.44 L; PA = 25.0 atm,
PB = 4.14 atm, PC = 1.0 atm, PD = 7.03 atm. (b) 2.99 kJ

Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15

4.16. The compression ratio of an Otto cycle as shown in Fig 4.16 is

VA/VB = 8.00. At the beginning A of the compression process, 500 cm
of gas is at 100 kPa and 20.0°C. At the beginning of the adiabatic
expansion, the temperature is TC = 750°C. Model the working fluid as
an ideal gas with γ = 1.40. (a) Fill in this table to follow the states of
the gas:

(b) Fill in this table to follow the process

Figure 4.16
Identify (c) the energy input, (d) the energy exhaust and (e) the net
output work. (f) Calculate the thermal efficiency. (g) Find the number
of crankshaft revolutions per minute required for a one-cylinder
engine to have an output power of 1.00 kW. Note: The
thermodynamic cycle involves four piston strokes.
Guide: By student
Answer:

(a)

(b)
(c) 149 J (d) 65.0 J (e) 84.3 J (f) 0.565
(g) Let f (rev/s) represents the angular speed of the crankshaft.
 The frequency at which we obtain work in the amount of 84.3 J/cycle: f/2
 1000 = (f/2)84.3  f = 23.7 (rev/s)

4.17. Consider an Otto cycle, as shown in Fig. 10.3, with

VA/VB = 4.00. At the beginning of the compression process
(state A), 0.02 moles of gas is at 1atm and 20.0°C. At the
beginning of the adiabatic expansion (state C), the
temperature is TC = 500°C. Model the working fluid as an
ideal gas with γ = 1.40. Find:
a. State parameters (P, V, T) of the gas at each state in the
Otto cycle. Fig. 10.3
 b. The work done by the gas, the heat obsorbed by the gas and
the change in the internal energy of the gas in each process of
the cycle.
c. Identify the energy input, the energy exhaust and the net
output work.
d. Calculate the thermal efficiency.

4.18. A Carnot engine has a cycle as shown in Fig. 4.17. If W and W’ represent
work done by 1 mole of monatomic and diatomic gas, respectively, calculate
W/W’.

Figure 4.17

Entropy
4.19. Suppose a 1.0-kg sample of water at temperature T1 = 30.0°C is added to a
2.0-kg sample of water at T2 = 90.0°C in an insulated calorimeter of negligible
heat capacity at a constant pressure of 1.00 atm. (a) Find the change in entropy
of the system. (b) Find the change in entropy of the universe.
Guide:
If a substance is heated from temperature T1 to temperature T2 at constant
pressure, the heat absorbed 𝛿Q is related to its temperature change dT by:
𝛿Q = CPdT
We can approximate reversible heat transfer if we have a large number of heat
reservoirs with temperatures ranging from just slightly greater than T 1 to T2 in
very small steps. We could place the substance, with initial temperature T 1, in
contact with the first reservoir at a temperature just slightly greater than T 1 and
let the substance absorb a small amount of heat. Because the heat transfer from
each reservoir is approximately isothermal, the process will be approximately
reversible. We then place the substance in contact with the next reservoir at a
slightly higher temperature, and so on, until the final temperature T2 is reached.
If heat dQ is absorbed reversibly, the entropy change of the substance is
 δQ C P dT
dS= =
T T
Integrating from T1 to T2 , we obtain the total entropy change of the substance:
T2
dT T
∆ S=∫ C P =C P ln 2
T1
T T1

This result gives the entropy change of a substance that is heated from T 1 to T2
by any process, reversible or irreversible, as long as the final pressure equals
the initial pressure and CP is constant. It also gives the entropy change of a
substance that is cooled. In the case of cooling, T 2 is less than T1, and entropy
change is negative.
(a) Find the final temperature Tf = 343 K.
Calculate the entropy changes of 1 kg water and 2 kg water:
S1 = 0.52 kJ/K
S2 = -0.47 kJ/K
 The Entropy change of the system: S = 0.05 kJ/K
The calorimeter is insulated  The Entropy change of the surroundings:
Ssurroundings = 0 J/K.  The Entropy change of the universe: Su = 0.05 kJ/K
4.20. During each cycle, a Carnot engine absorbs 100 J from a reservoir at 400
K, does work, and releases heat to a reservoir at 300 K. Compute the entropy
change of each reservoir for each cycle, and show explicitly that the entropy
change of the universe is zero for this reversible process.
Guide:
The entropy change of the universe equals the sum of the entropy changes of the
reservoirs: Su = S300 + S400
S400 = - Qh/Th = -0.250 J/K
S300 = Qc/Tc = (Qh – W)/Tc
W = εQh = (1-TC/Th)Qh  S300 = Qh/Th = 0.25 J/K
…
4.21. A solid that has a latent heat of fusion Lf melts at a temperature Tf .
Calculate the change in entropy of this substance when a mass m of the
substance melts.

Guide: We can choose any convenient reversible path to follow that connects
the initial and final states. It is not necessary to identify the process or the path
because, whatever it is, the effect is the same: energy enters the substance by
heat and the substance melts. Because the melting takes place at a fixed
temperature, we categorize the process as isothermal.
δQ 1 m Lf
∆ S=∫ = ∫ δQ=
T Tf Tf

4.22. Find the entropy change for the free expansion of 0.75 mol of an ideal gas
from V1 = 1.5 L to V2 = 3.0 L.

Guide: For a free expansion of an ideal gas the initial and final temperatures
are the same. Thus, the entropy change S for a free expansion from V1 to V2 is
the same as S for an isothermal process from V1 to V2. For the isothermal
process U = 0  Q = Wby. We first calculate Q, then  S = Q/T = 4.3 J/K

4.23. A body of constant heat capacity C, and a temperature T 1 is put into

contact with a reservoir at temperature T f. Equilibrium between the body and
the reservoir is established at constant pressure. Determine the total entropy
change.

Guide: Assume the temperature of the reservior does not change.

The temperature of body changes at constant pressure.

Tf
dT T
 ∆ S1 =∫ C T =Cln T f
T1 1

The entropy change of the reservior:

δQ −1 1
∆ S2 =−∫ = ∫ δQ=¿− C(T f −T 1) ¿
T Tf Tf
…
4.24. Calculate the change of entropy involved in heating a gram-atomic weight
of silver at constant volume from 0 to 30°C. The value of c’v, over this
temperature may be taken as a constant equal to 5.85 cal/K.mole.
Answer:

4.25. 1 kg of H2O at 0°C is brought in contact with a heat reservoir at 100C.

When the water has reached 100°C, (a) what is the change in entropy of the
water? (b) what is the change in entropy of the universe? (c) how could you heat
the water to 100°C so the change in entropy of the universe is zero?

Guide: The process is irreversible. In order to calculate the change of entropy

of the water and of the whole system, we must construct a reversible process
which has the same initial and final states as the process in this problem.
(a) We assume the process is a reversible process of constant pressure. Apply
the entropy chang of a reversible process of constant pressure. The change in
entropy of the water is SH2O:= … = 1305 J/K. Here, we use m = lkg, and CH2O =
4.18 J/g.

(b) The change in entropy of the heat source is: Ssource = -Q/T = mCH2OT/T =
… = -11121 J/K

Therefore the change of entropy of the universe is: …

(c) We can imagine infinitely many heat sources which have infinitesimal
temperature difference between two adjacent sources from O°C to 100°C. The
water comes in contact with the infinitely many heat sources in turn in the order
of increasing temperature. This process which allows the temperature of the
water to increase from 0°C to 100°C is reversible; therefore S = 0.

4.26. Compute the difference in entropy between 1 g of nitrogen gas at a

temperature of 20°C and under a pressure of 1 atm, and 1 of nitrogen liquid at a
temperature -196C, which is the boiling point of nitrogen, under the same
pressure of 1atm. The latent heat of vaporization of nitrogen is 47.6 cal/gm.
Regard nitrogen as an ideal gas with molecular weight 28, and with a
temperature-independent molar specific heat at constant pressure equal to 7.0
cal/mol.K.

Guide:
The entropy difference of an ideal gas at 20°C and at -196°C is
S = nc’pln(T1/T2) = ?
The entropy change at phase transition is S’ = nL/T2 = ?
Therefore: S = S + S’ = 0.97 cal/K.

4.27. n = 0.081 kmol of He gas initially at 27°C and pressure = 2 × 10 5 N/m2 is

taken over the path A  B  C as shown in Fig. 4.27. For He c’ v = 3R/2 , c’p =
5R/2. Assume the ideal gas law. (a) How much work does the gas do in
expanding at constant pressure from A  B? (b) What is the change in internal
energy of the helium from A  B? (c) How much heat is absorbed in going
from A  B? (d) If B  C is adiabatic, what is the entropy change and what is
the final pressure?

By student
 Fig. 4.26

4.28. A mole of an ideal gas undergoes a reversible isothermal expansion from

volume V1 to 2V1. (a) What is the change in entropy of the gas? (b) What is the
change in entropy of the universe?
Suppose the same expansion takes place as a free expansion: (a) What is the
change in entropy of the gas? (b) What is the change in the entropy of the
universe?
Guide
In a reversible isothermal expansion: by student
As its final state is the same as for the isothermal process, the change in
entropy of the system is also the same. In this case, the state of the heat source
does not change, neither does its entropy. Therefore the change in entropy of
the universe is Rln2.

4.29. A thermally insulated box is separated into two compartments (volumes V l

and V2) by a membrane. One of the compartments contains an ideal gas at
temperature T; the other is empty (vacuum). The membrane is suddenly
removed, and the gas fills up the two comparments and reaches equilibrium. (a)
What is the final temperature of the gas? (b) Show that the gas expansion
process is irreversible.

Guide
(a) Show that dU = 0  T = const
(b) Show S > 0
4.30. One kilogram of water is heated by an electrical resistor from 20°C to
99°C at constant (atmospheric) pressure. Estimate: (a) The change in internal
energy of the water. (b) The entropy change of the water.
4.31. A cylindrical container is initially separated by a clamped piston into two
compartments of equal volume. The left compartment is filled with one mole of
neon gas at a pressure of 4 atmospheres and the right with argon gas at one
atmosphere. The gases may be considered as ideal. The whole system is initially
at temperature T = 300 K, and is thermally insulated from the outside world.
The piston is now unclamped and released to move freely without friction.
Eventually, it comes to rest in an equilibrium position. Calculate: (a) The new
temperature of the system (b) The ratio of final neon to argon volumes. (c) The
total entropy change of the system. (d) The additional entropy change which
would be produced if the piston were removed.
(e) If, in the initial state, the gas in the left compartment were a mole of argon
instead of a mole of neon, which, if any, of the answers to (a), (b) and (c) would
be different?
Guide
(a) Show that the internal energy of the total system does not change.
(b) Show that the volume ratio is the ratio of molecular numbers, and is also the
ratio of initial pressures.
VNe :VAr = 1: n = 4: 1  the mole number of the argon gas is n = 1/4.
(c)

(d)

(e) If initially the gas on the left is a mole of argon, the answers to (a), (b) and
(c) will not change. As for (d), we now have S' = 0.
 Chapter 5. Real gases
5.1. Calculate the Van der Waals constants for carbon dioxide if its critical
temperature TC = 304 K and critical pressure PC = 73 atm.
By student
5.2. Find the specific volume of benzene (C6H6) in critical state if its critical
temperature TC = 562 K and critical pressure PC = 47 atm.
By Student
5.3. Determine the pressure in atm exerted by 1 mole of methane placed into a
bulb with a volume of 244.6 mL at 25° C. Assume that methane behaves as a
real gas and obeys the van der Waals equation and for methane a = 2.303
L2.atm.mol-2 and b = 0.0431 L/mol.
By student
5.4. Determine the molar volume of propane at 660 K and 91 atm using the Van
Der Waals equation. The van der Waals constants of propane are a =9.39
L2.atm.mol-2 and b = 0.0905 L/mol.
By student
5.5. 0.6 kmol of CO2 in a rigid container of volume V = 0,5 m 3. If the pressure
of gas is doubled, how does the gas temperature change? Assume the initial
pressure of the gas is 3.106 N/m2 and the gas obeys the Van Der Waals equation
with a = 3.64 ×105 J.m3/kmol2.
By student
5.6. Find the relation between temperature T and volume V of a gas obeying the
Van Der Waals equation in an adiabatic process.
Answer:

Chapter 7. Liquid
7.1. Find the coefficient of surface tension of a liquid if it rises to a height h =
32.6 mm in a capillary of diameter d = 1 mm. The edge angle of meniscus is
zero. The density of the liquid is 𝜌 = 1 g/cm3.
7.2. The surface tension of a liquid can be determined by weighing a drop when
it breaks from a capillary and measuring the neck of the drop at the instant of
breaking off. It is found that 318 drops weigh 5 g, and d = 0.7 mm. Find the
surface tension.
7.3. A vertical glass capillary is attached to one arm of a balance and kept in
equilibrium by weights on the other arm. What happens to the balance if a
vessel containing water is carefully brought up below the capillary so that its
end touches the water surface?
7.4. What is the difference in the levels of a liquid in two communicating
capillaries of diameters d and D? The surface tension of the liquid is σ. The
edge angles of the menisci are zero. The density of the liquid is 𝜌.
7.5. What is the change in the level difference of water in two communicating
capillaries of diameters d = 0.1 mm and D = 0.3 mm on heating from 20° to 70°,
if the surface tension of water at these respective temperatures are 73 and 64
dyne/cm of water.
7.6. What is the extra pressure in a mercury droplet of diameter d = 1 m at
15°C, if the surface tension of mercury at this temperature is σ = 487 dyne/cm?
7.7. What is the extra pressure inside a soap bubble of diameter d = 0.8 cm if the
surface tension of the soap solution is 40 dyne/cm?
7.8. There is a crack of width a = 0.02 mm in the bottom of a vessel. To what
height h can the vessel be filled with mercury before any flows out through the
crack? The density of mercury is 𝜌 = 13.6 g/cm3. The surface tension (at 15°) is
σ = 487 dyne/cm.
7.9. Gas bubbles of diameter d = 0.05 mm separate at the bottom of a pond of
depth h = 2 m. What will be the diameter D of the bubbles when they rise to the
surface? σ = 73 dyne/cm.
Guide: Consider the gas in a bubble as an ideal gas. When the gas bubble rises
to the surface, the gas undergoes an isothermal process.
 P1V1 = P2V2
P1 and P2 are the pressures of gas inside the bubble when the bubble is at the
bottom and the surface, respectively.
We assume that P1 and P2 equal to extermal pressurees acting on the bubble
when the bubble is at the bottom and the surface, respectively.

( 3 2σ
 P0 + ρgh+ R d = P0 + R D
1
) (
3 2σ
2
)
Here, R! =d∧R 2=D
7.10. A vertically mounted glass capillary of length l and radius r is closed at
the top. To what height h does water rise in the capillary when its lower end is
brought into contact with the surface of water?
Guide: The final pressure P of gas inside the closed capillary when the water
rises:
P0 l=P ( l−h ) P=…
Consoder two points M and N:
P M =P0

2σ
P N =P+ ρgh−
r

PM = PN

h=
( P0 + ρgl +
2σ
r) √(
− P 0+ ρgl+
r )
2 σ 2 8 σρgl
−
r
2 ρg

7.11. A soap bubble of radius r, filled with air, is contained in a cylinder with a
movable piston. The air pressure outside the bubble is at first equal to the
atmospheric pressure Po. On moving the piston slowly the bubble is compressed
until its radius is halved. Find the pressure of the outer air in the cylinder at this
instant.
Guide:
4σ
The initial pressure of gas in the bubble of radius r: P1=P0 + r

The final pressure of gas in the bubble of radius r/2 (isothermal process):
3
r
3
P1 r =P2  P2=8 P1
8
4σ
P2=Pout +
On the other hand, r
2
 The pressure of the outer air in the cylinder when the bubble radius is
halved:

(
Pout =8 P0 +
r )
4 σ 8σ
−
r
=8 P O +
24 σ
r

7.12. To what height h does the water rise between two vertical glass plates
partially submerged in water, if the distance between them is d = 0.5 mm? For
water, σ = 73 dyne/cm. The edge angle can be taken as zero in this case.
Answer:
2 σcosθ 2 σ
h= = =3 cm
ρgd ρgd