HYDRAULICS 3

- Fundamentals of Fluid Flow, Fluid Flow in Pipes – Major Head Losses

I - Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Discharge or Flow Rate, Q

Discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section per
unit of time. This is expressed as a mass flow rate (ex. kg/sec), weight flow
rate (ex. KN/sec), and volume flow rate (ex. m3/s, lit/s).

Volume flow rate, Q = Av

Mass flow rate, M = ρQ

Weight flow rate, W = γQ

Where:
Q = discharge in m3/s or ft3/s
A = cross-sectional area of flow in m2 or ft2
v = mean velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s

 = mass density in kg/m3 or slugs/ft3

 = weight density in N/m3 or lb/ft3

Definitions of Terms

Steady Flow
This occurs when the discharge Q passing a given cross-section is constant with
time. If the flow Q at the cross-section varies with time, the flow is
unsteady.

Uniform Flow
This occurs if, with steady flow for a given length, or reach, of a stream, the
average velocity of flow is the same at every cross-section. This usually
occurs when an incompressible fluid flows through a stream with uniform cross-
section. In stream where the cross-sections and velocity changes, the flow is
said to be non-uniform.
Continuous Flow
This occurs when at any time, the discharge Q at every section of the stream is
the same (principle of conservation of mass).

Continuity Equation:

For incompressible fluids:

Q = A1 v1 = A2 v2 = A3 v3 = constant

For compressible fluids:

ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 = ρ3 A3 v3 = constant

or γ1 A1 v1 = γ2 A2 v2 = γ3 A3 v3 = constant

Laminar Flow
The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual fluid particles do
not cross or intersect. The flow is always laminar when the Reynolds number Re
is less than (approximately) 2100.

Turbulent Flow

The flow is said to be turbulent when the path of individual particles are
irregular and continuously cross each other. Turbulent flow normally occurs
when the Reynolds number exceed 2,100, (although the most common situation is
when it exceeds 4000).

One-Dimensional Flow
This occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and magnitude of the
velocity at all points are identical

Two-Dimensional Flow
This occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and the
streamline patterns are identical in each plane.
Energy and Head
The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of the kinetic and the
potential energy. Potential energy may in turn be subdivided into energy due to
position or elevation above a given datum, and energy due to pressure in the
fluid. The amount of energy per pound or Newton of fluid is called the head.

Kinetic Energy

The ability of the fluid mass to do work by virtue of its velocity.

1W 2
K. E. = v
2g

𝐊. 𝐄. 𝐯 𝟐
𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐨𝐫 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝 = =
𝐖 𝟐𝐠

Elevation Energy (Potential Energy)

The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with
respect to a datum plane.

Elevation Energy = Wz = Mgz

𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝 = =𝐳
𝐖

Pressure Energy (Potential Energy)

p
Pressure Energy = W
γ
𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐩
𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝 = =
𝐖 𝛄
Where:
z = position of the fluid above (+) or below (-) the datum plane.
p = fluid pressure
v = mean velocity of flow
Total Flow Energy, E
The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and the
potential energies. It can be summarized as:

Total Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energies

𝐯𝟐 𝐩
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝, 𝐄 = + +𝐳
𝟐𝐠 𝛄

Power and Efficiency

Power is the rate at which work is done. For a fluid of unit weight  (N/m3)
and moving at a rate of Q (m3/s) with a total energy of E (m), the power in N-
m/s (Joule/sec) or Watts is:

Power, P = QγE

Output
Efficiency, η = x 100%
Input

Note: 1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts

1 Horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
1 Watt = 1 N· m/s = 1 Joule/sec
Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem

The Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the application of the principles
of conservation of energy. This equation may be summarized as follows:

Eat section 1 + Eadded − Elost or extracted = Eat section 2

Bernoulli’s Principle, in physics, the

concept that as the speed of a moving fluid
(liquid or gas) increases, the pressure
within that fluid decreases. Originally
formulated in 1738 by Swiss mathematician
and physicist Daniel Bernoulli, it states
that the total energy in a steadily flowing
fluid system is a constant along the flow
path. An increase in the fluid’s speed must
therefore be matched by a decrease in its
pressure.

Energy Equation without Head Lost

If the fluid experiences no head lost in moving from section1 to section 2 then
the total energy at section1 must be equal to the total energy at section 2.
Neglecting head lost in fluid flow, the values that we get are called ideal or
theoretical values.

E1 = E2

v1 2 p1 v2 2 p 2
+ + z1 = + + z2
2g γ 2g γ
Energy Equation with Head Lost

Considering head lost, the values that we can attain are called actual values.

E1 − HL1−2 = E2

v1 2 p1 v2 2 p 2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + HL1−2
2g γ 2g γ

Energy Equation with Pump

Pump is used basically to increase the head. (Usually to raise water from a
lower to a higher elevation). The input power (Pinput) of the pump is electrical
energy and its output power (Poutput) is the flow energy.

E1 + HA − HL1−2 = E2

v1 2 p1 v2 2 p 2
+ + z1 + HA = + + z2 + HL1−2
2g γ 2g γ

Output Power of Pump = QγHA

Energy Equation with Turbine or Motor

Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do mechanical work which in turn

converted electrical energy for turbines.

E1 − HE − HL1−2 = E2

v1 2 p1 v2 2 p 2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + HL1−2 + HE
2g γ 2g γ

Input Power of Turbine = QγHE

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

Also known as pressure gradient, hydraulic grade line is the graphical

representation of the total potential energy of flow. It is the line that
connects the water levels in successive piezometer tubes placed at intervals
p
along the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is + z.
γ

Energy Grade Line (EGL)

Energy Grade line is a graphical representation of the total energy of flow

(the sum of the kinetic and potential energies). Its distance from the datum
v2 p
plane is + + z.
2g γ
II - Fluid Flow in Pipes – Major Head Losses

Fluid Flow in Pipes – Major Head Losses

Pipes are closed conduits through which fluids or gasses flows. Conduits may flow
full or partially full. Pipes are referred to as conduits (usually circular)
which flow full. Conduits flowing partially full are called open channels.

Head Losses in Pipe Flow

Head losses in pipes may be classified into two; the major head loss, which is
caused by pipe friction along straight sections of pipe of uniform diameter and
uniform roughness, and minor head loss, which are caused by changes in velocity
or directions of flow, and are commonly expressed in terms of kinetic energy.

Major Head Loss, hf

A. Darcy-Weisbach Formula (pipe-friction equation)

For circular pipes, the head loss hf may be expressed as:

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔𝐟𝐋𝐐𝟐
𝐡𝐟 = (𝐒. 𝐈. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭)
𝐃𝟓

Where:
hf = head loss due to friction in meters
f = friction factor
D = pipe diameter in meter
L = length of pipe in meters
Q = discharge in m3/s
B. Manning Formula

𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝐧𝟐 𝐋𝐐𝟐

𝐡𝐟 = (𝐒. 𝐈. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭)
𝐃𝟏𝟔/𝟑

Where:
hf = head loss due to friction in meters
n = roughness coefficient
D = pipe diameter in meter
L = length of pipe in meters
Q = discharge in m3/s

C. Hazen Williams Formula

𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝐋𝐐𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝐡𝐟 = (𝐒. 𝐈. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭)
𝐂 𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝐃𝟒.𝟖𝟕

Where:
hf = head loss due to friction in meters
C= Hazen Williams Coefficient
D = pipe diameter in meter
L = length of pipe in meters
Q = discharge in m3/s
Pipes Connected in Series

For pipes of different diameters connected in series as shown, the discharge in

all pipes are all equal and the total head lost is equal to the sum of the
individual head losses.

𝐐𝟏 = 𝐐𝟐 = 𝐐𝟑
𝐇𝐋 = 𝐡𝐟𝟏 + 𝐡𝐟𝟐 + 𝐡𝐟𝟑

Pipes Connected in Parallel

For pipes of different diameters connected in parallel as shown, the total

discharge is equal to the sum of the discharge of all pipes and the head lost
is the same among all individual pipes

𝐐 = 𝐐𝟏 + 𝐐𝟐 + 𝐐𝟑
𝐇𝐋𝐀−𝐁 = 𝐡𝐟𝟏 = 𝐡𝐟𝟐 = 𝐡𝐟𝟑
Pipes Connecting Two Reservoirs

When one or more pipes connects two reservoirs as in the figure, the total head
lost in all pipes is equal to the difference in elevation of the liquid
surfaces of the reservoir.

E1 − HL1−2 = E2

v12 p1 v22 p2
+ + z1 − HL1−2 = + + z2
2g γ 2g γ

In this particular situation, the points being considered are the points at the
liquid surface of each reservoir. At these points, there is no gage pressure.
Also, the rate at which the water level on reservoir 1 goes down (velocity at
1) and goes up at reservoir 2 (velocity at 2) are negligible since it is very
slow. We can simplify the Bernoulli equation to

v12 p1 v22 p2
+ + z1 − HL1−2 = + + z2
2g γ 2g γ

𝐳𝟏 − 𝐳𝟐 = 𝐇𝐋𝟏−𝟐
Exercise Problems

Situation 1
Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3 m/sec.

1. Find the volume flow rate in m3/sec

a. 0.026 c. 0.039
b. 0.013 d. 0.048

2. Find the mass flow rate in kg/sec

a. 39 c. 13
b. 26 d. 48

3. Find weight flow rate in N/sec

a. 127.5 c. 143.8
b. 115.6 d. 118.7

Situation 2
A liquid having specific gravity of 2.0 is flowing in a 50 mm diameter pipe.
The total head at a given point was found to be 17.5 Joule per Newton. The
elevation of the pipe above the datum is 3 m and the pressure in the pipe is
65.6 KPa. Compute:

4. The velocity of flow at that point

a. 15.46 m/s c. 14.79 m/s
b. 10.23 m/s d. 11.87 m/s

5. The horsepower in the stream at that point

a. 18.95 hp c. 14.79 hp
b. 13.37 hp d. 12.84 hp
Situation 3
A 50-mm diameter siphon discharges oil
(s =0.82) from a reservoir (elev. 20m)
into open air (elev. 15m). The head loss
from the reservoir (point 1) to the
summit (point 2, elev. 22m) is 1.5m and
from the summit to the discharge end is
2.4m.

6. Determine the flow rate in the pipe

in lit/sec
a. 12.9 c. 8.15
b. 9.12 d. 11.6

7. Determine the absolute pressure at the summit assuming atmospheric pressure

to be 101.3 Kpa
a. 59.9 Kpa c. 74.6 Kpa
b. 47.1 Kpa d. 64.3 Kpa

8. Water enters a motor through a 600mm diameter pipe under a pressure of 14

kPa. It leaves through a 900mm diameter exhaust pipe with a pressure of 4 kPa.
A vertical distance of 2.5 m separates the centers of the two pipes at the
sections where the pressures are measured. If 500 liters of water pass the
motor each second, compute the power supplied to the motor.

a. 22 hp c. 24 hp
b. 23 hp d. 25 hp
Situation 4
The pump shown draws water from reservoir A at elevation 10 m and lifts it to
reservoir B at elevation 60 m. The loss of head from A to 1 is two times the
velocity head in the 200 mm diameter pipe and the loss of head from 2 to B is
10 times the velocity head in the 150 mm diameter pipe. Considering the
discharge to be 0.03 m3/s,

9. Determine the rated horsepower of the pump

a. 26.22 hp c. 20.34 hp
b. 21.43 hp d. 22.15 hp

10. Determine the pressure head at 1

a. 12.21m c. 8.59m
b. 10.16m d. 9.86m

11. Determine the pressure head at 2

a. 61.32m c. 75.12m
b. 58.19m d. 86.43m