NUCLEAR REACTOR

INTRODUCTION
A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control
a self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors operate on the principle of nuclear
fission, the process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two smaller fragments. The
nuclear fragments are in very excited states and emit neutrons, other subatomic particles,
and photons. The emitted neutrons may then cause new fissions, which in turn yield more
neutrons, and so forth. Such a continuous self-sustaining series of fissions constitutes a
fission chain reaction. A large amount of energy is released in this process, and this energy is
the basis of nuclear power systems.

Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in nuclear
marine propulsion. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid (water or gas),
which in turn runs through steam turbines. These either drive a ship's propellers or turn
electrical generators' shafts. Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial
process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical
and industrial use, or for production of weapons-grade plutonium. As of early 2019, the
IAEA reports there are 454 nuclear power reactors and 226 nuclear research reactors in
operation around the world.
Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after coal, gas, hydroelectricity
and wind power. As of March 2018, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 7 nuclear
power plants, with a total installed capacity of 6,780 MW. Nuclear power produced a total
of 35 kWh and supplied 3.22% of Indian electricity in 2017. More reactors are under
construction with a combined generation capacity of 4,300 MW.
PROJECT BODY

WORKING
Nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled nuclear fission into
thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms.

NUCLEAR FISSION: The Heart of the Reactor

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the
nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller, lighter nuclei. The fission process often
produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy even by the
energetic standards of radioactive decay.
Nuclear fission of heavy elements was discovered on December 17, 1938 by German
Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann, and explained theoretically in January 1939 by
Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch.
The actual mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of nucleons.
This difference is known as the mass defect and is a measure of the total binding energy
(and, hence, the stability) of the nucleus. This binding energy is released during the
formation of a nucleus. This conversion of mass to energy follows Einstein’s equation, E =
mc2, where E is the energy equivalent of a mass, m, and c is the velocity of light.

The nuclear fission process may take place spontaneously in some cases or may be
induced by the excitation of the nucleus with a variety of particles (neutrons, protons,
deuterons, or alpha particles) or with electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays.
In the fission process, radioactive products are formed, and several neutrons are
emitted. These neutrons can induce fission in a nearby nucleus of fissionable material and
release more neutrons causing a chain reaction. If controlled in a nuclear reactor, such a
chain reaction can be used to generate power. If uncontrolled [atomic bomb], it can lead to
an enormous explosion.
Uranium is the most common fissile used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium
is a common element on Earth and has existed since the planet formed. Uranium isotopes in
natural uranium are Uranium-238 or U-238 or 238U (99.27%) and Uranium 235 or U-235 or
235U (0.72%). Uranium-235 (U-235) is the one most important fissile to the production of
both nuclear power and nuclear bombs. Uranium-235 can undergo fission when bombarded
with slow neutrons only. U-235 decays naturally by alpha radiation: It throws off an alpha
particle, or two neutrons and two protons bound together. It's also one of the few elements
that can undergo induced fission. Fire a free neutron into a U-235 nucleus and the nucleus
will absorb the neutron, become unstable and split immediately. The decay of a single U-
235 atom releases approximately 200 MeV (million electron volts). That may not seem like
much, but there are lots of uranium atoms in a pound (0.45 kilogram) of uranium. The
splitting of an atom releases heat and gamma radiation, or radiation made of high-energy
photons. The two atoms that result from the fission later release beta radiation (superfast
electrons) and gamma radiation of their own, too.
Uranium-235 isn't the only possible fuel for a power plant. Another fissionable material,
Plutonium-239 is created by bombarding U-238 with neutrons.

THE REACTOR

In order to turn nuclear fission into electrical energy, nuclear power plant operators have to
control the energy given off by the enriched uranium and allow it to heat water into steam.
That steam then drives turbines to generate electricity.
The following describes the structure of a nuclear reactor in general:

 Reactor Core: There are several different types of nuclear reactors, but they all have
some common characteristics. All of them have a supply of radioactive fuel pellets --
 usually uranium oxide, which are arranged in tubes to form fuel rods in the reactor
core. Enriched uranium typically is formed into 1-inch-long (2.5-centimeter-long)
pellets, each with approximately the same diameter as a dime. Next, the pellets are
arranged into long rods, and the rods are collected together into bundles. The
bundles are submerged in water inside a pressure vessel. The water acts as a
coolant. Left to its own devices, the uranium would eventually overheat and melt.
 Control Rods: The reactor also has the control rods -- made of neutron-absorbing
material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron -- which are inserted into the core to
control or halt the reaction. Control rods are inserted into the uranium bundle using
a mechanism that can raise or lower them. Raising and lowering the control rods
allow operators to control the rate of the nuclear reaction. When an operator wants
the uranium core to produce more heat, the control rods are lifted out of the
uranium bundle (thus absorbing fewer neutrons). To reduce heat, they are lowered
into the uranium bundle. The rods can also be lowered completely into the uranium
bundle to shut the reactor down in the event of an accident or to change the fuel.
 Moderator: A reactor also has a moderator, a substance that slows the neutrons and
helps control the fission process. Most reactors in the United States use ordinary
water, but reactors in other countries sometimes use graphite, or heavy water, in
which the hydrogen has been replaced with deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with
one proton and one neutron.
 Coolant: Another important part of the system is a coolant -- again, usually ordinary
water-- which absorbs and transmits heat from the reactor to create steam for
turning the turbines and cools the reactor core so that it doesn't reach the
temperature at which uranium melts (about 6,900 degrees Fahrenheit, or 3,815
degrees Celsius).
 Containment: Finally, a reactor is encased in a containment, a big, heavy structure,
typically several feet thick and made of steel and concrete, that keeps radioactive
gases and liquids inside, where they can't hurt anyone.
The working of the reactor:
The uranium bundle acts as an extremely high-energy source of heat. It heats the water and
turns it to steam. The steam drives a turbine, which spins a generator to produce power.
There are a number of different reactor designs in use, but most of the reactors are
pressurized water reactors (PWRs). In a pressurized water reactor, the water is pumped into
contact with the core and then kept under pressure, so that it can't turn into steam. That
pressurized water then is brought into contact with a second supply of unpressurized water,
which is what turns to steam to turn the turbines. Another kind of reactors are boiling water
reactors (BWRs). With BWRs, the water that comes directly into contact with the reactor
core is allowed to become steam for generating electricity In some nuclear power plants,
the steam from the reactor goes through a secondary, intermediate heat exchanger to
convert another loop of water to steam, which drives the turbine. The advantage to this
design is that the radioactive water/steam never contacts the turbine. Also, in some
reactors, the coolant fluid in contact with the reactor core is gas (carbon dioxide) or liquid
metal (sodium, potassium); these types of reactors allow the core to be operated at higher
temperatures.

PROTECTION

As the source can emit harmful levels of radiation, extra precautions are required.
A concrete liner typically houses the reactor's pressure vessel and acts as a radiation shield.
That liner, in turn, is housed within a much larger steel containment vessel. This vessel
contains the reactor core, as well as the equipment plant workers use to refuel and maintain
the reactor. The steel containment vessel serves as a barrier to prevent leakage of any
radioactive gases or fluids from the plant.
An outer concrete building serves as the final layer, protecting the steel containment vessel.
This concrete structure is designed to be strong enough to survive the kind of massive
damage that might result from earthquakes or a crashing jet airliner.
These secondary containment structures are necessary to prevent the escape of
radiation/radioactive steam in the event of an accident. The absence of secondary
containment structures in Russian nuclear power plants allowed radioactive material to
escape in Chernobyl.
Workers in the control room at the nuclear power plant can monitor the nuclear reactor and
take action if something goes wrong. Nuclear facilities also typically feature security
perimeters and added personnel to help protect sensitive materials.
CONCLUSION
What's nuclear power's biggest advantage? It doesn't depend on fossil fuels and isn't
affected by fluctuating oil and gas prices. Coal and natural gas power plants emit carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere, which contributes to climate change. With nuclear power
plants, CO2 emissions are minimal, though uranium mining, construction of reactors,
transportation of fuel and other parts of nuclear energy do generate greenhouse gases.
According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, the power produced by the world's nuclear plants
would normally generate 2.2 billion tons (2 billion metric tons) of CO 2 per year if they
depended on fossil fuels. In fact, a properly functioning nuclear power plant actually
releases less radioactivity into the atmosphere than a coal-fired power plant. That's because
when coal is burned for electricity, fly ash (which contains very concentrated amounts of
uranium and thorium) is released. This fly ash has 100 times more radioactivity than the
radioactivity released by a nuclear power plant producing the same amount of energy. Plus,
nuclear energy comes with a far lighter fuel requirement. Nuclear fission produces roughly a
million times more energy per unit weight than fossil fuel.
But there are many negatives as well. Historically, mining and purifying uranium hasn't been
a very clean process. Even transporting nuclear fuel to and from plants poses a
contamination risk. And once the fuel is spent, you can't just throw it in the city dump. It's
still radioactive and exposure to this waste can cause radiation sickness, cancer or even
death, depending on how much radiation you absorb. According to the U.S. Government
Accountability Office, the U.S. has accumulated 88,185 tons (80,000 metric tons) of nuclear
waste generated by power plants, most of which was still stored at company sites, as the
federal government struggles to come up with a better solution.
And as if this weren't bad enough, nuclear power plants produce a great deal of low-level
radioactive waste in the form of shoe covers, wiping rags, equipment and other materials.
Another threat from the nuclear reactors is a ‘nuclear disaster’. A nuclear disaster could take
several forms. The most obvious would be a meltdown at a nuclear reactor plant. Though
the plant could not explode, the results of such a disaster would very likely be the release of
massive amounts of radiation and radioactive material into the environment. And it would
take hundreds of years to decay to anything near "safe" levels.
A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or
the facility". Examples include lethal effects to individuals, radioactive isotope to the
environment, or reactor core melt." The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one
in which a reactor core is damaged and significant amounts of radioactive isotopes are
released, such as in the Chernobyl disaster in 1986.
The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate since the first nuclear reactors
were constructed in 1954, and has been a key factor in public concern about nuclear
facilities. Technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of
radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted, however human error
remains, and "there have been many accidents with varying impacts as well near misses and
incidents". As of 2014, there have been more than 100 serious nuclear accidents and
incidents from the use of nuclear power. Fifty-seven accidents or severe incidents have
occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and about 60% of all nuclear-related
accidents/severe incidents have occurred in the USA.
The two worst nuclear disaster of history are Fukushima Disaster – March 11, 2011 in Japan
and Chernobyl Disaster – April 26, 1986 in Ukraine.
A massive 8.9-magnitude quake hit northeast Japan on Friday, March 11, 2011, causing
dozens of deaths, more than 80 fires, a 10-meter tsunami along parts of the country’s
coastline and a huge explosion at the Fukushima I nuclear plant, causing a level 6 nuclear
disaster.

The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Ukrainian SSR (now Ukraine). The accident took place
in the reactor number 4 near the Pripyat town. It is considered the most serious nuclear
power plant accident in history, and is the only accident classified as a level 7 event on the
International Nuclear Event Scale. Thirty plant workers were killed. The number of deaths
caused by radiation-related illnesses is still unclear, but a 2006 World Health Organization
study estimated that it may have caused 9,000 cancer deaths.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Wikipedia
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 International Atomic Energy Agency
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