Big Bang Theory

Approx 15 billion years ago, all the matter in the universe existed in the form of energy and was concentrated into a tiny region called a singularity. Then there
was an explosion which caused massive inflation.
- First 10^-43 seconds of the universe known as Planck Era. In this period space and time began and temp was 10^32 Celsius. Gravity became a distinct
force at the end of this era. Universe was 10^-35cm wide.
- 10^-43 seconds to 10^-36 seconds known as grand unified era. First matter begins to form through Pair Production in which 2 gamma rays collide to
form a particle of matter and a particle of antimatter, (this formation occurred with a bias towards matter.) As these particles are oppositely charged as
soon as they formed, they were attracted to each other and annihilate into energy (photons).
- 10^-36 seconds to First 10^-32 seconds, known as inflation period. Universe rapidly expanded to 10^50 times its original size. This rapid expansion
quickly separates matter and antimatter stopping them from being annihilated. This allows the formation of new particles such as quarks and leptons.
- 10^-6 seconds known as Hadron era. Temp of the universe had dropped to a point which allowed 3 quarks could form into protons and neutrons
(Hadrons). Most hadrons were quickly annihilated by their antiparticle counterpart which led leptons (electrons) to dominate.
- 3mins to 20mins Nucleosynthesis occurs. Annihilation with antimatter became less common and protons and neutrons began colliding with each other
to form nuclei of basic elements such has H 1&2, He and Li. Each time hadrons collide there is a release of energy (gamma rays), this is associated with
cosmic background energy.
- 379,000 years Neutralisation Occurs. The nuclei which have formed are ionised, at this time the temperature of the Universe drops to a point at which
the nuclei accept electrons and lose their charge. The first atoms are created, and light is free to radiate great distances.

Big Bang Theory Evidence

- Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. This is a mathematical model of the Universe, and by solving it he found the dynamic nature of the universe.
This was not accepted at the time, so he changed the cosmological constant to reveal a static Universe. However, later Alexander Freidman spotted
Einstein’s error and revealed to the world the dynamic nature of the Universe.
- Hubble’s Contribution: During the 1920’s Hubble analysed the light from stars and found they were similar to the spectra of the elements such as
hydrogen and helium, but it appeared to be red shifted. Astronomers interpreted this redshift as meaning that the galaxies were receding from us at
huge speeds, this helped show that the universe is expanding. When graphing his data (degree of redshift vs Distance) he noticed a linear trend. This is
known as Hubble’s Law, and it states that the speed of recession of a galaxy is proportional to its distance v=Hod. This is called Hubble’s Constant Ho
(70km/s/MPC).
- CMB: Physicists at the University of Princeton decided that if the big bang did in fact happen it must have been extremely hot at the beginning and large
amounts of energy must have been released. They also proposed that as the Universe continues to expand, this radiation would have been stretched by
the expansion and they calculated the wavelength to be approximately a millimetre. As it happened, two other physicists, Robert \Wilson and Amo
Penzias, at the nearby Bell Telephone labs, had discovered that their new antennas, designed to pick up radio signa1s from satellites, seemed to be
picking up 'interference from space. It turned out that this radiation was at just the sort of wavelength that Princeton physicists were looking for.
Furthermore, it had the characteristics of heat radiation of just 2. 7 K (that is, 2. 7 degrees above absolute zero) as predicted. This was solid evidence in
favour of the big bang theory.
Spectra
- Emission Spectra: Consists of coloured lines on a black background and are unique for every element. They occur when the electrons in an atom are
excited and jump into higher energy levels, as these electrons fall to their ground state, they release energy as EM waves which we see as light.
- Absorption Spectra: Consists of dark lines on a coloured background. They can be produced when a continuous spectrum passes through a cool gas, as
some wavelengths are absorbed by the gas for excitation.
- Chemical Composition of Stars from Spectra: The core of a star emits a continuous spectra, as it passes through the atmosphere, certain wavelengths
this spectra is absorbed by the elements present in the atmosphere. By comparing the absorption spectra of stars to the absorption spectra of known
elements, the chemical composition of the star can be observed.
- Temperature of Stars from Spectra: To find the temperature of a star, the peak intensity of light emitted by the star can be measured. After doing so,
this wavelength can be measured by comparing it to the results of a black body radiation curve, or using Wein’s law, λmax = b/T
- Translational Velocity: The doppler effect is a phenomenon that occurs when there is relative motion between the source and the observer. If the star
is moving away, then its spectra appears to be red-shifted due to doppler effect as the wavelengths of light are stretched. If the star is moving towards
the Earth, it appears to be blue shifted as the wavelengths have been shortened. The greater the shift, the greater the velocity of the star.
- Rotational Velocity: If a star is in rotation, then the side rotating away will show strong red-shift as it moves away, and the side rotating towards the
Earth will show a blue-shift or weak red-shift, hence the spectra will appear broad.
- Density: In a high-density star, as the wavelengths of light pass through the atmosphere of the star, they will diffract significantly, producing a broad
absorption spectra. In a low-density star, the diffraction is weak, hence a narrow absorption spectra is produced.

Hertzsprung – Russell Diagrams

- Obtained when Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell plotted the luminosity of a star
against its temperature.
- Main sequence stars appear as a diagonal in the middle, red giants and super giants
appear above this diagonal and white dwarfs appear below this diagonal.
- Data from H-R diagram can be used to determine the type of star we are looking at. To
do so we need to analyse the stellar spectrum and determine the dominant
wavelength, through this the temperature is found. Next, by measuring the luminosity,
the position on the H-R diagram can be plotted, which can aid in finding the type of
star.

Life Cycle of Stars

 - Nebula: Due to Newton’s Laws of Universal Gravitation, hydrogen particles attract towards each other forming a gas cloud called a Nebula.
- Proto Star: As the Nebula gets bigger, it attracts particles which are further away, and the protostar gets bigger. Due to the gravitational contraction
forces, the pressure within the protostar increases which increases the temperature.
- Main Sequence Stars: Due to these high temperatures, hydrogen fusion starts, converting hydrogen into helium. This is known as a main sequence star.
It lies in a delicate balance, counteracting the inward gravitational contraction forces with outward expansion forces due to the hydrogen fusion.
- Stars Less than 8 Solar Masses: When these stars come to the end of their, they have a high pressure on their helium core, causing it to fuse into
heavier elements. Due to the high temperature of the core, the atmosphere expands forming a red giant. As the atmosphere expands, hydrogen fusion
occurs. This atmosphere then becomes a nebula, and the now solid core becomes a white dwarf, consisting of primarily iron and oxygen, but can have
up to iron.
- Stars larger than 8 solar Masses: When a star of mass 8 times larger than our sun begins running out of H fuel, at first the atmosphere expands forming
a red supergiant. As the H fuel continues to run out, the star begins to contract significantly.
The temperature and pressure also increase to a point where nuclear fusion reaction occurs Note: As Hydrogen is depleted, nuclear reaction is no
producing an iron core. Due to the high density of iron, the core undergoes implosion and a longer sustained and the core collapses, heating up
massive explosion known as a supernova occurs. In this explosion the iron in the core fuses shell surrounding core, then hydrogen in shell begins
into heavier elements such as uranium, the centre part of the core has tremendous amount to fuse to helium and it begins to expand due to
of pressure, forcing protons and electrons together to form neutrons. A fight begins between radiation pressure and becomes more red. Then
the outward forces of the neutrons trying to move away from each other and the inward Helium fusion in core will start.
forces of gravity. If the outward forces overcome inward forces a neutron star forms, if the
inward forces overcome outward forces a black hole forms.

Powering the Sun

Nuclear fusion becomes a possibility when chemical reactions and gravitational potential energy fall short in sustaining the sun.
- Neutron-Proton Fusion: Occurs when protons and neutrons are fused together to form Deuterium. Forms very strong
nuclear bonds once fused and releases gamma waves (releases high amounts of energy). Requires high temp and pressure for
it to occur, conditions similar to early universe (this reaction occurring in early universe eliminated a vast number of neutrons). However, the ratio of protons
to neutrons is 7:1, due to pair production and annihilation. This means there is not enough neutrons in the sun for this reaction to occur.
- Proton-Proton Fusion: Neutrons were not abundant enough for fusion, hence protons and protons fused. However, for
protons to fuse extreme conditions are required to overcome the electrostatic repulsion of protons (these conditions are
found in the sun). One proton emits a positron (e) and a neutrino (v) to become a neutron, then a similar reaction to Neutron-
Proton fusion occurs.
Proton-Proton
Nucleosynthesis Reactions in Stars
- Proton-Proton Chain: Forms helium atom by fusion of 4 hydrogen atoms. Dominant form of energy
production in stars. Type of nuclear fusion seen in stars with core temps lower than 18 million degrees.
Step 1 Proton-Proton Fusion to form deuterium. Step 2 deuterium and proton fuse forming helium 3
and releasing gamma rays. Step 3 Helium and Helium fusion, produces stable ionised helium 4 and
releases 2 protons and a neutrino.
- As a star matures, it slowly loses its hydrogen source, accumulating helium in its core as it uses all of its
hydrogen. As a result, it begins to contract, increasing temp and luminosity. Towards end of main sequence, its non-fusing helium core is encased in a
shell of hydrogen.
- CNO Cycle: Dominant in massive stars with core temperature greater than 18 million K. Involves fusion of carbon into
nitrogen, then oxygen and then back to carbon. Rate of fusion is significantly greater than hydrogen fusion, hence stars
undergoing carbon fusion have a shorter lifespan.
- Step 1 carbon 12 and proton fusion forming Nitrogen 13 and gamma rays. Step 2 Nitrogen 13 beta decay releasing
positron and neutrino. Step 3 Carbon 13 and proton fusion forms nitrogen 14 and gamma radiation. Step 4 Nitrogen 14
and proton fusion, forms oxygen 15 and gamma rays. Step 5 Oxygen 15 beta decay to form Nitrogen 15, a positron and a
neutrino. Step 6 Nitrogen 15 and proton fusion to form Carbon 12 and a Helium nucleus (Deuterium).
- CNO process is similar to Proton-Proton Chain in that 4 protons fuse to form an alpha particle, only difference is
involvement of heavier elements however these act as catalyst and can be reused. Also, 1 extra gamma ray is emitted.