The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Theory

The big bang theory is a cosmological model stating that the universe started its expansion about 13.8 billion years ago.
Pieces of evidence supporting this theory are (1) occurrence of redshift, (2) background radiation, and (3) abundance of light
elements.

Redshift

In the 1910s, VestoSlipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the wavelengths of light from spiral nebulae, which are
interstellar clouds of dust and ionized gases. They discovered that the light from the nebulae increased in wavelength. They
explained their discovery as a Doppler shift. The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that when an object gets closer
to us, its light waves are compressed into shorter wavelengths (blueshifted, because blue light has the shortest wavelength
in the visible region). On the other hand, when an object moves away from us, its light waves are stretched into longer
wavelengths (redshifted, because red light has the longest wavelength in the visible region).

Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the redshift or increase in wavelength was due to the increase in the distance between
the Earth and the nebulae. They concluded that the redshift occurred due to the expansion of space.

In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to calculate the velocities and distances of these galaxies
from the Earth. He discovered that they were moving away from the Earth and from each other. His calculations supported
the theory that the universe is expanding.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered a low, steady “hum” from their Holmdel Horn antenna (an antenna
built to support NASA’s Project Echo). They concluded that the noise is Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation (CMBR), the remains of energy created after the big bang expansion.

Abundance of Light Elements

The observed abundance of light elements supports the big bang theory. The theory predicts that the universe is composed
of 73% hydrogen and 25% helium by mass. The prediction correlated to the measured abundances of primordial material
in unprocessed gas in some parts of the universe with no stars.

Formation of Light Elements

Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the light elements during the big bang expansion. In the beginning,
the universe was very hot that matter was fully ionized and dissociated. Few seconds after the start of the big bang, the
universe was filled with protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos, and positrons. After the first three minutes, the universe
cooled down to a point where atomic nuclei can form. Protons and neutrons combined to form atomic nuclei such as
deuterium.
However, the temperature of the universe was still much greater than the binding energy of deuterium. Binding energy is
the energy required to break down a nucleus into its components. Therefore, deuterium easily decayed upon formation.

When the temperature cooled down below 1010 K, deuterium nuclei combined with other nuclei to form heavier ones.

Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a neutron.

Tritium or hydrogen-3 was produced from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a proton.

Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and helium-3.

Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of deuterium and tritium.

For the first three minutes, a substantial amount of neutrons was converted into helium-4 nuclei, before their decay. Helium
then combined to other nuclei to form heavier ones such as lithium-7 and beryllium-7.

Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.

Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and helium-4.

Among the light elements formed, deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. Beryllium-7 was unstable and
decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.
Key Points
• Pieces of evidence that support the big bang theory are redshift, cosmic microwave background radiation, and
abundance of light elements.
• Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of light element formation.
• The light elements that formed after the big bang were helium, deuterium, and trace amounts of lithium and
beryllium.
• Deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. On the other hand, beryllium-7 was unstable and
decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.

Nucleosynthesis: The Beginning of Elements , Physical Science

The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and Evolution
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by
which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.

Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud. As the
cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar
contracts and its temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear reactions begin.
The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and stop the contraction. When the contraction stops,
the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence star.

In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton chain. When most of the hydrogen
in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point
that helium and hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is converted to helium in
the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.

When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate of fusion decreases. Gravity again
squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon
fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into space. The only thing
that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such that temperature and pressure
increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes through a series of stages where heavier elements are
fused in the core and in the shells around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen
fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon fusion. The star becomes a
multiple-shell red giant.

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter than iron can be fused because when
two of these elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their masses. The missing mass
is released as energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy. However, this does not happen
to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei requires an input of energy. Therefore, elements
lighter than and including iron can be produced in a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.

When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity squeezes the core until the star
explodes and releases a large amount of energy. The star explosion is called a supernova.

Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the 20th century provided a crucial piece of
evidence to support the star formation theory. Other pieces of evidence come from the study of different stages of formation
happening in different areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.

Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star formation. For instance, astronomers
measure the IR released by a protostar and compare it to the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction. Extinction in
astronomy means the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust particles between an emitting
astronomical object and an observer. The IR measurements are then used to approximate the energy, temperature, and
pressure in the protostar.

Key Points
• Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars.
• The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud.
• A protostar is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a collapsed molecular cloud contract.
• A main sequence star is formed when gravitational equilibrium is reached during the hydrogen fusion in a
protostar.
• A red giant is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the core and switched into the thermonuclear fusion
of hydrogen in the shell surrounding the core.
• A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the elements oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, and iron
are formed in its core together with carbon, helium, and hydrogen.
• A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.
• Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions from the different stages of star evolution.

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

The Indivisible Atom

Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus (c.500 B.C.) were Greek scholars who
believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles until such point where it can no longer be divided anymore. They
became the first proponents of the atomic theory. Their early ideas on atoms are summarized below.

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, which come from the Greek word atomos meaning
uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible, impenetrable, and unchangeable.
 2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously moving in a “void” that surrounds them, repelling each
other when they collide, or combining into clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no void or empty space inside that will make them prone to
disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.

These proposed ideas about atoms were supported by some Greek philosophers but were strongly opposed by others
especially Aristotle.

Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms. He disregarded the existence of atoms proposed by Leucippus
and Democritus. He did not believe that matter is a collection of atoms. Instead, he believed that everything in the universe
is made up of the four elements, air, fire, water, and earth. He stated that believing in atoms would mean putting restriction
on the gods, who have the power to divide elements smaller than the atom.

Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the Middle Ages in Europe, where Roman Catholics were strongly influenced
by his ideas. They believed that ideas about the atoms equated to Godlessness. Thus, the whole concept of the atom was
dismissed for centuries. However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's arguments were rediscovered in France
at the start of the Renaissance period. The theory of Aristotle was proven incorrect, and Democritus' and Leucippus' theory
on the existence of atoms was proven right.

Key Points
• Democritus and Leucippus, ancient Greek philosophers, first proposed the idea of the atom.
• Their theory states that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
• They believed that the atoms are very small, have different shapes and sizes, are continuously moving, and can
combine with other atoms.
• Aristotle did not believe that matter is strictly a collection of atoms, and that matter can be made of air, fire, water,
or earth.
• Democritus’ idea on the existence of atoms was accepted, and Aristotle’s argument was proven incorrect.

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements, Physical Science

The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic Particles
reek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed the idea that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles
called atoms. However, their atomic theory was based only on assumptions. It was not until the early 1800s that experiments
were performed to develop models for the structure of the atom.

In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures of gases. He studied how the properties of individual
gases affect the properties of the mixtures of these gases. He developed the hypothesis that the sizes of the particles making
up different gases must be different. After several experiments, he concluded that all matter is composed of spherical atoms,
which cannot be broken down into smaller pieces. He added that all atoms of one element are identical to each other but
different from the atoms of another element.

Discovery of the Subatomic Particles

The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model
In 1897, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, proposed an atomic model known as the plum pudding model. His
model consisted of negatively charged particles (plum) spread evenly throughout the positively charged material (pudding).
The small, negatively charged particles are called electrons.

The Protons in the Planetary Model

In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born physicist, established the planetary model which described the
atom as small, dense, and has a positively charged core called the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are positively charged
particles called the protons. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles or electrons. The electrostatic
attraction between electrons and nucleus mimics the gravitational force of attraction between planets and the sun.

The Neutrons

In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron, which is also situated in the nucleus together with the
proton. It has the same mass as the proton but unlike the latter, it has no electric charge.

Recent Atomic Models

Bohr’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus have opposite charges which according to the laws of physics,
will attract each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would have electrons collapsing into the nucleus, making the atom
unstable. Niels Bohr solved this problem by proposing that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels. An
electron absorbs energy if it moves from lower to higher energy level, and it emits energy if it returns to the lower energy
level.

Quantum Mechanical Model

The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons called orbitals. It
explains that it is impossible to determine the exact location of the electron at a given time, but one can find its probable
location. It incorporates the concept of Bohr’s model where the electrons move in one orbital to another by absorbing or
emitting energy.

Key Points
• John Dalton described the atom as spherical.
• Joseph John Thomson discovered the electron.
• Ernest Rutherford proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus. He, together with his students, discovered
the proton.
• Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels.
• James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
• Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels.
• In the quantum mechanical model, the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons called orbitals.

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements, Physical Science

Understanding the Structure of Atom:The Contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels
Bohr
J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron
In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a series of experiments using a high-vacuum cathode-ray
tube that was composed of negatively charged particles 1000 times lighter than the hydrogen atom. He also proposed a sea
of positive charge for the overall neutrality of the atom. He then proposed an atomic model known as the plum pudding model
depicting a sphere of positive charge (pudding) with negatively charged particles (plums) embedded all throughout.

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing positively charged particles called protons. He advised his
students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to bombard a thin sheet of gold foil with alpha particles. He assumed that the
alpha particles would just pass straight through the foil, meaning an atom has a void space. However, after the experiment,
some particles passed right through it, and some were deflected. He arrived at these two conclusions: (1) The atom contained
an empty space, as some particles went through the foil; and (2) The atom had a very dense center of positive charge. From
these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He believed that the electrons moved around a nucleus.

Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use of X-ray in studying the structure of the atom. During this time,
a coherent structure of the atom was being developed, starting from J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron to Rutherford’s
publication of his planetary model. He published results of his measurements of wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some
elements that coincided with the order of their atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data backed up Rutherford’s
structure of the atom with a very dense center of positive charge. The data also justified that the atomic number of an element
is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In Rutherford’s model, since the electron and the nucleus have
opposite charges, the electrons would collapse into the nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model
by proposing that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits by absorbing or emitting energy.

Key Points
• J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the plum pudding model.
• Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed the planetary model.
• Henry Moseley used the X-rays in studying the structure of the atom. The results of his experiments supported
Rutherford's model.
• Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits.

The Polarity of a Molecule Based on Its Structure

There are millions of different molecules, and there are many ways to sort them. One way to classify them is based on
polarity. Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based on polarity, molecules can be polar or
nonpolar.

Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to zero (or do not cancel out). Water and carbon
monoxide are examples of polar molecules.

Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole moments add up to zero (they cancel out). Carbon
tetrachloride and methane are examples of nonpolar molecules.

Generally, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on:

 • its structure or shape
• the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule

Steps in Determining the Polarity of a Molecule

1. Draw the correct Lewis structure and molecular geometry of the molecule.
2. Identify the polarity of each bond present in the molecule. A bond is polar when the atoms in the bond have different
electronegativities. Recall that electronegativity is the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding
pair of electrons. (You may use the periodic table to determine the electronegativity values of the atoms.)
3. Draw the dipole moment vectors for polar bonds. The dipole moment vector points to the more electronegative
atom.

4. Determine the sum of the dipole moment vectors. If the dipole moments cancel out each other, the molecule is
nonpolar; otherwise, it is polar.

Example 1

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the gas that you exhale.

1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:

2. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, the C—O bonds are polar.
3. Since CO2 has a linear symmetrical structure, the dipole moments of the C—O bonds cancel out.

CO2 is a nonpolar molecule.

Example 2

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless toxic gas formed by burning sulfur in air.
 1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:

2. Oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Therefore, the S—O bonds are polar.
3. Since the molecule is bent-shaped, the dipole moments do not cancel out.

SO2 is a polar molecule.

Key Points
• Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based on polarity, molecules can be polar or
nonpolar.
• Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to zero (or do not cancel out).
• Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole moments add up to zero (they cancel
out).
• In general, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on the shape of the molecule and the polarity of
the individual bonds present in the molecule.

The Structure and Properties of Matter, Physical Science

The Properties of a Molecule Based on Its Polarity
The properties of the molecules are related to their polarity. To understand the relationship, you must be able to describe
the force of attraction between the molecules.

Polar molecules have partially positive and negative ends. When two polar molecules are near each other, the negative
end of one molecule is attracted to the positive end of the other. The separation of charges result in a strong force of attraction
between the molecules.

On the other hand, nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Between two neighboring nonpolar
molecules, the attraction is very minimal.

How do you relate the strength of attraction between the molecules to their observable properties?

Solubility

Do you remember the rule of thumb “like dissolves like” in your previous Chemistry lessons? This rule is applied on the
concept of solubility of molecules. Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents. For example, sucrose is soluble in water because
both of them are polar molecules. On the other hand, nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents. For example, hexane
(C6H14) and benzene (C6H6) are nonpolar molecules because they only contain nonpolar C-H bonds. The combination of
these molecules form a solution.

Melting point
Melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into liquid. Heat is needed to break the forces of attraction between
the molecules. Because the polar molecules have relatively stronger forces of attraction compared to nonpolar ones, greater
amount of heat must be applied to break these forces. Therefore, in general, polar molecules have higher melting points
than nonpolar molecules. For example, hydrogen fluoride (HF) is polar while fluorine (F2) is nonpolar. HF has higher
melting point than F2.

Boiling point

Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into gas. Similar to melting point, greater amount of heat is needed
to break the forces of attraction of polar molecules compared to nonpolar ones. Generally, polar molecules have higher
boiling points than nonpolar molecules. For example, methanol (CH3OH) is a polar molecule while methane (CH4) is
nonpolar. The boiling of CH3OH is higher than that of CH4.

Example
Study the illustrations below to compare a polar and a nonpolar molecule.

Water molecules are polar. The partially negative end of one molecule is attracted to the partially positive end of another
molecule.

Carbon dioxide molecules are nonpolar. There is a minimal force of attraction between the molecules.

Based on the interaction of molecules, water is expected to have higher melting and boiling points than carbon dioxide.

Key Points
• Polar molecules have stronger attractive forces compared to nonpolar molecules.
• In general, polar molecules have higher boiling and melting points compared to nonpolar ones.
• “Like dissolves like.” Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents while nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces present between molecules. Generally, they are called van der Waals forces,
named after the Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals.

The different types of intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) are:

• London dispersion forces (LDF)

• Dipole-dipole forces
• Hydrogen bonding

London dispersion forces

• present in all molecules

• caused by fluctuations in the electron distribution within atoms or molecules
• weak type of IMFA
Example
In a nonpolar molecule, such as O2, there are no positive or negative ends. However, the electrons of this molecule are
constantly moving. There are times when electrons move to one end, making such end partially negative while the other end
becomes partially positive. Hence, the molecule can have an instantaneous dipole.

The temporary dipole of a molecule induces instantaneous dipoles on neighboring molecules.

Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of London dispersion forces between two different substances, compare their molecular
weight and size. Larger and more massive molecules are more polarizable (i.e. they have a greater tendency to have
distorted electron clouds) and have stronger IMFA.

Dipole-dipole forces

• attractive forces between polar molecules

• result of the electrical interactions among dipoles on neighboring molecules
• moderately strong type of IMFA

Example
HCl is a polar molecule. It has partially positive and partially negative ends.

The partially positive end of the molecule is attracted to the partially negative side of another molecule.
Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of dipole-dipole forces between two different substances, compare their polarities. A more
polar substance will have stronger dipole–dipole forces compared to a less polar one.

Hydrogen bonding

• a special kind of dipole-dipole force

• an attractive force between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and a highly electronegative atom (O, N, or F) of
another molecule
• strongest type of IMFA

Example
Consider the water molecule, H2O.
The hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen atom of another molecule.

Key Points
• Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces between molecules.
• The three types of IMFA are London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonding.

The Structures, Properties, and Functions of Biomolecules

Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s processes, such as respiration and metabolism.
There are numerous biomolecules with different structures and functions. They are generally classified into four major groups
– proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

In this lesson, you will look into the general structure, properties, and functions of each of these groups of biomolecules.

Proteins

Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. Amino acids are organic molecules that have a central carbon
atom bonded to four different groups — an amino group (−NH2), an acidic carboxyl group (−COOH), a hydrogen atom, and
a variable side chain, R. The side chain can range from a single hydrogen atom to complex ring structures.

In a protein, the amino acids are linked via a peptide bond. This peptide bond is formed between an amino group of one
amino acid and an acid carboxyl group of another amino acid. A chain of two or more amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds is called a peptide.

The smallest protein has about 50 amino acids. However, large proteins can have as many as 1000 amino acids, arranged
in any possible sequence. It is estimated that human cells can create between 80 000 to 100 000 different proteins.

The shape of a protein is important so that it can carry out its function. Long chains of amino acids fold into a unique three-
dimensional shape. Some areas of the protein may twirl into helices, like the coils of a telephone cord. Other areas may be
repeatedly bent into a pleated sheet, like the folds of an accordion. An important intermolecular force of attraction that
dictate and maintain the shape of a protein is the hydrogen bonding.

Properties
Proteins can participate in neutral, acidic, or basic reactions because their amino acids have an acidic carboxyl end and a
basic amino end. The amino acids are amphoteric which means they can function either as an acid or a base. Also, proteins
have high molecular weights because they are comprised of many amino acids.

Functions

The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s shape and function. Proteins play many important roles in living cells.
They can hasten chemical reactions, transport substances, and provide structural support.

Many proteins function as enzymes, which are molecules that catalyze or speed up chemical reactions in the body. The
reactant molecules bind to the active site of the enzymes, where they react to form products. Enzymes have shapes that
are highly specific for their functions. A slight change to their structures will inhibit them to do their function.

Transport proteins carry small particles throughout the body. For example, the protein haemoglobin carries oxygen in the
blood from the lungs to the rest of the body. An important part of hemoglobin is its iron group (called heme), the part to which
oxygen binds.

Structural proteins are fibrous proteins which have long, thin structures. A typical example of a structural protein is keratin,
which is a component of the protective covering of most animals – hair, nails, skin or feathers.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a general formula
of CnH2nOn. They can be grouped depending on the number of their monomer units called saccharides.

Carbohydrates can be divided into three major groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They contain either five or six carbon atoms. They have open-
chain and cyclic forms. A typical example of monosaccharide is glucose, C6H12O6, one of the products of photosynthesis
in plants.

Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded to each other. The monosaccharides are linked through
an ether (C−O−C) group. A common example of a disaccharide is the sweetener sucrose, or table sugar. Sucrose is formed
by glucose and fructose.

Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units. They are also called complex carbohydrates. Similar to
disaccharides, the monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are linked through an ether bond. An example of a polysaccharide
is starch, which is used to store energy in plants. It is comprised solely of glucose subunits.

Properties

Monosaccharides and disaccharides are small molecules with multiple polar groups so they are water soluble. Because
they exhibit hydrogen bonding in their structures, they have high melting points.

In comparison, polysaccharides are less soluble due to their large sizes and complex shapes. For example, starch and
glycogen are both insoluble in water. On the other hand, cellulose, also water-insoluble, cannot be digested by humans
because the appropriate enzyme to breakdown cellulose into simpler monosaccharides is lacking. Hence, nutritionists call
cellulose as dietary fiber because it just passes through the digestive system unchanged.

Functions
The main function of carbohydrates is to store and provide energy. They are broken down into smaller glucose units that
can be easily absorbed by the cells. When glucose is further broken down, the energy released by breaking its chemical
bonds are used or stored by the body in the form of glycogen.

Some carbohydrates also serve as the framework of cellular structures. For example, cellulose makes up the cell wall of
plant cells. Chitin, another carbohydrate, forms the exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell wall of fungal cells.

Lipids

Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules. They are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Unlike proteins and
carbohydrates, lipids are not polymers with repeating monomer subunits. They have many kinds including triglycerides,
waxes, and steroids.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are lipids composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is a molecule with three carbons, each containing a
hydroxyl (−OH) group while fatty acid is a long chain of carboxylic acid.

When three fatty acids bond to glycerol, they form ester bonds.

Triglycerides can be solid or liquid at room temperature. If solid at room temperature, they are called fats. Fats, such as lard
and butter, are produced by animals. If liquid at room temperature, they are called oils. Oils, such as coconut and olive oils,
are produced by plants.

Waxes

Waxes are lipids that are composed of a fatty acid with a long chain of alcohol. They are produced by both plants and
animals. Plants often produce wax that coats their leaves which prevents them from drying out. Animals such as bees also
produce wax. Bees create their honeycomb structures from beeswax.

Steroids

Steroids are lipids without fatty acid chains. Instead, they have multiple rings in their structures. They are built from the basic
four-ring steroid structure.

An example of a steroid is dietary lipid cholesterol. Cholesterol is the precursor of hormones such as estrogen and
progesterone. Recall that hormones are molecules that communicate between organs to regulate physiology and behavior.

Properties

Lipids such as triglycerides and waxes are mostly made of nonpolar hydrocarbon chains, making them generally insoluble
in water. The hydrocarbon chains are the “hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails” of lipids. On the other hand, their hydroxyl, ester,
and ether groups can interact with water. These groups are called “hydrophilic (water-loving) heads.” When lipids are mixed
with water, they arrange themselves in a spherical form called a micelle.

Functions

Lipids are the reserved sources of energy. The energy stored in their bonds is used by the body for fuel. When the energy
is abundant, cells store the excess energy in the fatty acids of triglycerides.

Lipids like waxes are used as a protective coating of organisms. Because they are hydrophobic, lipids protect plants and
animals from drying out by controlling evaporation.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids, discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869, are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of
nucleotides. Nucleotides are monomers with three components, a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base. The nucleotides are linked through phosphodiester bonds.

If the sugar is ribose, then the nucleotides make up the ribonucleic acid (RNA). On the other hand, if the sugar is
deoxyribose, then the nucleotides make up the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Both DNA and RNA have nitrogenous bases.
The five common nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).

Properties

DNA and RNA are very stable molecules because of the stacking interaction between their hydrophobic parts. Also, hydrogen
bonding present between the polar parts of the molecule plays a role in maintaining the structure of the nucleic acid.

Functions
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of organisms. This genetic information is
converted by the RNA into amino acid sequences of proteins. RNA has three types, messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal
RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic sequence information between the DNA and
ribosomes. In ribosomes, proteins are synthesized. The rRNA catalyzes the peptide bond formation while the tRNA serve
as the carrier molecules of the amino acids that make up the protein.

Key Points
• Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s processes. They are generally classified
into four major groups – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s
shape and function. In the human body, proteins hasten chemical reactions, transport substances, and provide
structural support.
• Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a general formula
of CnH2nOn. Their functions are to store energy and serve as the framework of cellular structures.
• Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They function as
reserved sources of energy and protective coating of organisms.
• Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of nucleotides, which are made up of a 5-
carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. They encode, transmit, and express genetic information.