B. E.

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) and Outcome Based Education (OBE)
SEMESTER - VII
SPACE MECHANICS
Course Code 18AS71 CIE Marks 40
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) (3:0:0) SEE Marks 60
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03
Course Learning Objectives:
 Understand the basic concepts of space mechanics and the general N-body.
 Study satellite injection and satellite orbit perturbations.
 Acquire the knowledge of interplanetary and ballistic missile trajectories.
Module-1
Space Environment: Peculiarities of space environment and its description, effect of space environment on
materials of spacecraft structure and astronauts, manned space missions, effect on satellite life time.
Module-2
Basic Concepts and Two body Problem: The solar system, reference frames and coordinate systems,
terminology related to the celestial sphere and its associated concepts, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and
proof of the laws, Newton’s universal law of gravitation, motion of body under central force field, two
body problem, relations between position and time, orbital elements, orbit types.
Module-3
Satellite Injection and Satellite Perturbations: General aspects of satellite injection, satellite orbit transfer,
various cases, orbit deviations due to injection errors, special and general perturbations, Cowell’s method and
Encke’s method, method of variations of orbital elements, general perturbations approach.
Module-4
Interplanetary Trajectories: Two-dimensional interplanetary trajectories, fast interplanetary trajectories, three
dimensional interplanetary trajectories, launch of interplanetary spacecraft, trajectory estimation about the
target planet, concept of sphere of influence, Lambert’s theorem.
Module-5
Ballistic Missile Trajectories: Introduction to ballistic missile trajectories, boost phase, the ballistic phase,
trajectory geometry, optimal flights, time of flight, re-entry phase, the position of impact point, influence
coefficients.
Course Outcomes: At the end of the course the student will be able to:
1. CO1: Apply the basic concepts of space mechanics and the general N-body.
2. CO2: Explain satellite injection and satellite orbit perturbations.
3. CO3: Distinguish between interplanetary and ballistic missile trajectories.
Question paper pattern:
 The question paper will have ten full questions carrying equal marks.
 Each full question will be for 20 marks.
 There will be two full questions (with a maximum of four sub- questions) from each module.
 Each full question will have sub- question covering all the topics under a module.
 The students will have to answer five full questions, selecting one full question from each module.

Name of the
Sl No Title of the Book Name of the Publisher Edition and Year
Author/s
Textbook/s
1 Rocket Propulsion and Space Cornelisse, J.W W.H. Freeman&co 1984
Dynamics
2 Introduction to Space Thomson Dover Publications Revised
Dynamics edition,2012
Reference Books
1 ElementsofAstromechanics VandeKamp,P. Pitman 1979
2 Space Flight Dynamics Willian E. Create Space Independent 3rd Edition ,2010
Wiesel Publishing Platform
3 Rocket Propulsion Elements George P. Wiley India Pvt Ltd 7th edition, 2010
Sutton and
Oscar Biblarz
Module 1
The Space Environment
What Is Space
 Space is a place where things happen: spacecraft orbit Earth, planets orbit the Sun, and the Sun
revolves around the center of our galaxy.
 Space begins at an altitude where a satellite can briefly maintain an orbit. Thus, space is close. It’s
only about 130 km (81 mi.) straight up.
 Sun, a fairly average yellow star powered by nuclear fusion. Surface temperature > 6000 K. Output
includes Electromagnetic radiation that we see and feel here on Earth as light and heat, Streams of
charged particles that sweep out from the Sun as part of the solar wind, Solar particle events or solar
flares, which are brief but intense periods of charged- particle emissions.
 Our solar system is about half way out on one of the Milky Way galaxy’s spiral arms. Our galaxy is
just one of billions and billions of galaxies in the universe. NASA defines space at an altitude of 92.6
km (57.5 mi.).

Peculiarities of Space Environment

Six major environmental factors affect spacecraft in Earth orbit.

1. Gravity
2. Atmosphere
3. Vacuum
4. Micrometeoroids and space junk
5. Radiation
6. Charged particles

1. Effect of Gravity
 Gravity reduces with increase in altitude.
 There is gravity everywhere. It gives shape to the orbits of the planets, the solar system, and even
galaxies. Gravity from the Sun reaches throughout the solar system and beyond, keeping the planets
in their orbits. Gravity from Earth keeps the Moon and human-made satellites in orbit.

 It is true that gravity decreases with distance, so it is possible to be far away from a planet or star and
feel less gravity. But that doesn't account for the weightless feeling that astronauts experience in
space. The reason that astronauts feel weightless actually has to do with their position compared to
their spaceship. We feel weight on Earth because gravity is pulling us down, while the floor or
ground stop us from falling. We are pressed against it. Any ship in orbit around the Earth is falling
slowly to Earth. Since the ship and the astronauts are falling at the same speed, the astronauts don't
press against anything, so they feel weightless.

 Gravitational forces in space are much lesser than the forces experienced on earth.
 Material behaviour may be different with the change in gravitational force
 Reduced gravitational force on humans has detrimental effect.
o Decreased Oxygen carrying capacity of the Blood
o Increased blood viscosity which increases resistance to blood flow. This decreases the
cardiac output and hence reduces the physical work potential.

• Sleep Difficulty
Sleep in sleeping bags attached to walls
Sleep in ventilated area so that CO 2 is not reinhaled

• Increased risk of infections as bacteria circulate for longer time in the absence of gravity

Freefall : an object is in Freefall is falling under the influence of gravity, free from other forces.
• In free fall you don’t feel the force of gravity even though gravity is present
Free fall causes three potentially harmful physiological changes in the human body.
• Decreased hydrostatic gradient—fluid shift
• Altered vestibular functions—motion sickness
• Reduced load on weight-bearing tissues

2. Atmospheric effects
• Earth’s atmosphere isn’t completely absent in low-Earth orbit.
It can cause
 Drag—which shortens orbit lifetimes
 Atomic oxygen—which can damage exposed surfaces

The density of Earth’s atmosphere decreases exponentially as you go

higher. Even in low-Earth orbit, however, you can still feel the effects of
the atmosphere in the form of drag. The drag on spacecraft in orbit
depends on these same variables: the air’s density plus the spacecraft’s
speed, shape, size, and orientation to the airflow

Drag immediately affects spacecraft returning to Earth. For example, as the Space Shuttle re-enters the
atmosphere enroute to a landing , the astronauts use the force of drag to slow the Shuttle from an orbital
velocity of over 25 times the speed of sound (27,900 km/hr or 17,300 m.p.h.) to a runway landing at about
360 km/hr. (225 m.p.h.). Similarly, drag quickly affects any spacecraft in a very low orbit (less than 130 km
or 81 mi. altitude), pulling them back to a fiery encounter with the atmosphere in a few days or weeks.

The effect of drag on spacecraft in higher orbits is much more variable. Between 130 km and 600 km (81 mi.
and 375 mi.), it will vary greatly depending on how the atmosphere changes (expands or contracts) due to
variations in solar activity. Acting over months or years, drag can cause spacecraft in these orbits to gradually
lose altitude until they re-enter the atmosphere and burn up

Atmospheric Gases
It occurs when oxygen molecules in the air combine with the metal creating an oxide-rust. This oxidation
problem is bad enough with O2 , but when O by itself is present, the reaction is much, much worse.
Spacecraft materials exposed to atomic oxygen experience breakdown or “rusting” of their surfaces, which
can eventually weaken components, change their thermal characteristics, and
degrade sensor performance.

On the good side, most atomic oxygen floating around in the upper atmosphere combines with oxygen
molecules to form a special molecule, O 3 , called ozone . Ozone acts like a window shade to block harmful
radiation, especially the ultraviolet radiation that causes sunburn and
skin cancer.

3. Vacuum

Beyond the thin skin of Earth’s atmosphere, we enter the vacuum of space. This vacuum environment creates
three potential problems for spacecraft
• Out-gassing—release of gasses from spacecraft materials
• Cold welding—fusing together of metal components
• Heat transfer—limited to radiation

Materials used in the spacecraft construction, especially composites, such as graphite/epoxy, can trap tiny
bubbles of gas while under atmospheric pressure. When this pressure is released in the vacuum of space, the
gasses begin to escape. This release of trapped gasses in a vacuum is called out-gassing.
Usually, out-gassing is not a big problem; however, in some cases, the gasses can coat delicate
Sensors, such as lenses or cause electronic components to arc, damaging them. When this happens, out-
gassing can be destructive. For this reason, we must carefully select and test materials used on spacecraft. We
often “bake” a spacecraft in a thermal-vacuum chamber prior to flight

Another problem created by vacuum is cold welding. Cold welding occurs between mechanical parts that
have very little separation between them. When we test the moving part on Earth, a tiny air space may allow
the parts to move freely. After launch, the hard vacuum in space eliminates this tiny air space, causing the
two parts to effectively “weld” together. When this happens, ground controllers must try various techniques
to “unstick” the two parts

Finally, the vacuum environment creates a problem with heat transfer. Heat gets from one place to
another in three ways.
Conduction is heat flow directly from one point to another through a medium
Convection takes place when gravity, wind, or some other force moves a liquid or gas over a hot surface.
Heat transfers from the surface to the fluid.
We can use both of these methods to move heat around inside a spacecraft but not to remove heat from a
spacecraft in the free fall, vacuum environment of space. So we’re left with the third method—radiation.
Radiation is a way to transfer energy from one point to another. Because radiation doesn’t need a solid or
fluid medium, it’s the primary method of moving heat into and out of a spacecraft.

4. Micrometeoroids and Space Junk

The space around Earth is not empty. In fact, it contains lots of debris or space junk most of which we’re
used to. If you’ve seen a falling star, you’ve witnessed just one piece of the more than 20,000 tons of natural
materials— dust, meteoroids, asteroids, and comets—that hit Earth every year.

However, since the beginning of the space age, debris has begun to accumulate from another source—human
beings. With nearly every space mission, broken spacecraft, pieces of old booster segments or spacecraft, and
even an astronaut’s glove have been left in space. The environment near Earth is getting full of this space
debris (about 2200 tons of it). The problem is posing an increasing risk to spacecraft and astronauts in orbit.
A spacecraft in low orbit is now more likely to hit a piece of junk than a piece of natural material

One frightening debris hazard is the collision of two spacecraft at orbital velocity. A collision between two
medium-sized spacecraft would result in an enormous amount of high velocity debris. The resulting cloud
would expand as it orbited and greatly increase the likelihood of impacting another spacecraft. The domino
effect could ruin a band of space for decades. Thus, there is a growing interest in the level of debris at
various altitudes.

5. The Radiation Environment

In many cases, visible light hitting the spacecraft solar panels generates electric power through solar cells
(also called photovoltaic cells). This is a cheap, abundant, and reliable source of electricity for a spacecraft
This radiation can also lead to several problems for spacecraft
• Heating on exposed surfaces
• Degradation or damage to surfaces and electronic components
• Solar pressure

Normally, the EM radiation in the other regions of the spectrum have little effect on a spacecraft. However,
prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation can begin to degrade spacecraft coatings. This radiation is
especially harmful to solar cells, but it can also harm electronic components, requiring them to be shielded,
or hardened , to handle the environment.

6. Charged Particles
Perhaps the most dangerous aspect of the space environment is the pervasive influence of charged particles.
Three primary sources for these particles are
• The solar wind and flares
• Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs)
• The Van Allen radiation belts

the Sun puts out a stream of charged particles (protons and electrons) as part of the solar wind—at a rate of 1
× 10 9 kg/s (2.2 × 10 9 lb/s). During intense solar flares , the number of particles ejected can increase
dramatically.
As if this source of charged particles wasn’t enough, we must also consider high-energy particles from
galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) . GCRs are particles similar to those found in the solar wind or in solar flares,
but they originate outside of the solar system.
GCRs represent the solar wind from distant stars, the remnants of exploded stars, or, perhaps, shrapnel from
the “Big Bang” explosion that created the Universe. In many cases, however, GCRs are much more massive
and energetic than particles of solar origin. Ironically, the very thing that protects us on Earth from these
charged particles creates a third hazard, potentially harmful to orbiting spacecraft and astronauts—the Van
Allen radiation belts

As the solar wind interacts with Earth’s magnetic field, some high- energy particles get trapped and
concentrated between field lines. These areas of concentration are the Van Allen radiation belts, named after
Professor James Van Allen of the University of Iowa.
Whether charged particles come directly from the solar wind, indirectly from the Van Allen belts, or from the
other side of the galaxy, they can harm spacecraft in three ways
• Charging
• Sputtering
• Single-event phenomenon

Spacecraft charging results when charges build up on different parts of a spacecraft as it moves through
concentrated areas of charged particles. Once this charge builds up, discharge can occur with disastrous
effects—damage to surface coatings, degrading of solar panels, loss of power, or switching off or
permanently damaging electronics.

These particles can also damage a spacecraft’s surface because of their high speed. It’s as if they were “sand
blasting” the spacecraft. We refer to this as sputtering. Over a long time, sputtering can damage a
spacecraft’s thermal coatings and sensors.

Finally, a single charged particle can penetrate deep into the guts of the spacecraft to disrupt electronics.
Each disruption is known as a single event phenomenon (SEP).

Effect of space environment on Spacecraft structure0

Radiation, primarily from the Sun, can cause
• Heating on exposed surfaces
• Damage to electronic components and disruption in communication
• Solar pressure, which can change a spacecraft’s orientation
Charged particles come from three sources
• Solar wind and flares
• Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs)
• Van Allen radiation belts
Earth’s magnetic field (magnetosphere) protects it from charged particles
. The Van Allen radiation contain charged particles, trapped and concentrated by this magnetosphere Charged
particles from all sources can cause
• Charging
• Sputtering
• Single event phenomena (SEP)
Effect of space environment on astronauts

 Temperature Effects
Spacecraft in low orbit of the earth travel at Mach 25, or about 8 km per second
The crew controls the temperature in the crew compartment of the space shuttle and modules of the
International Space Station, with an average temperature between 21 and 23°C. When on the sun-lit side of
the earth, the temperature on the spacecraft or space station can reach over 100°C
Forty-five minutes later, during a night pass through earth’s dark shadow, temperatures can plunge to –100°C
During spacewalks, the personal life-support system of the spacesuit provides active cooling

 Circadian dyssynchrony
• The light–dark transition that occurs every 45 minutes results in changes in the thermal properties of the
spacecraft and in power generated from solar arrays
• The irregular light pattern caused by the 16 daily sunsets and sunrises may disrupt the circadian rhythm of
astronauts
• Leading to degradation of the quality of their sleep

 High vacuum
• A high vacuum exists in space
• The pressure inside ISS is regulated to 101.34 kPa (14.7 psi) and is adjusted after docking and before hatch
opening
• NASA’s suit for space-walks (extravehicular mobility unit) is pressurized to 29.5 kPa with 100% oxygen.
The Russian Orlan spacesuit is pressurized to 40 kPa.
• The transition from ambient pressure to vacuum during airlock depressurization causes considerable
decompression stress to spacewalking astronauts. Thus, before spacewalks, astronauts perform an oxygen
pre- breathe protocol that reduces the level of nitrogen in the tissues

 Ionizing radiation
• The primary radiation sources are galactic cosmic rays (energetic particles from outside our solar system),
particles trapped in the earth’s magnetic field (the Van Allen Belts) and solar energetic particle events (solar
flares).
• The 52° orbital inclination of the International Space Station causes it to pass through the South Atlantic
Anomaly daily. This region, located east of Argentina, is characterized by an anomalous perturbation in the
earth’s geomagnetic field with trapped energetic particles found at lower altitudes. These pertubations briefly
subject astronauts to higher fluxes of ionizing radiation

 Space debris
• Micrometeoroids exist naturally in the solar system from breakups of comets and asteroids, and space
debris is associated with increased frequency of space flight.
• This debris includes leftover satellites, broken-up rocket stages and even paint flakes from deteriorating
spacecraft
• Suit penetration from a micrometeoroid strike or an inadvertent puncture from a tool, wire or sharp edge is
a risk associated with spacewalks. The 14 layers of material that make up the spacesuit include a layer of
Kevlar to reduce the probability of suit penetration

 Human Effects
• From a clinical perspective, the 2 major challenges associated with human space flight are the radiation
effects and the physiologic consequences.
• All organ systems are affected in space to some degree where gravitational loading, hydrostatic pressure,
convection, buoyancy and sedimentation do not exist. Consequently, microgravity is the most profound
aspect of the space environment on human physiology
Psychological stresses on astronauts
• Excessive workload
• Isolation, loneliness, and depression
Also psychological effects of isolation are a major factor and have to be considered during the design of
manned space flight.
Characteristic Impact on crew health Mitigation measure
and safety
•Temperature extremes Degradation of •Thermal control
o structural components systems on spacecraft
100 to –100 C of the space station and in space suits
•Spacewalking •Active heating, passive
astronauts are at risk of heating and active
thermal injury cooling systems in the
extravehicular mobility
unit
Circadian dyssynchrony •Disruption of circadian •Short-acting sleeping
rhythms medication is available
•Reduced quality of to crew
sleep •Modafinil is available to
crew to optimize
performance while
fatigued
High vacuum10^-7 •Spacewalking •Micrometeoroid
Torr astronauts are at risk of shielding is incorporated
decompression sickness in the space station
•Spacecraft and design
spacesuits may be •The extravehicular
punctured resulting in mobility unit spacesuit
acute depressurization incorporates a
micrometeoroid shield
•Ionizing radiation - 425 •Long-term risks of •Spacecraft shielding
μSv/d ionizing cataracts and cancer •Onboard radiation
dosimeters
•Pharmaceutical
radioprotectants may be
used in the future
Microgravity< 1 •Gravity-dependent •Numerous counter
17 functions of organ measures exist to
μg (quasi-steady level) systems are altered prevent the deleterious
physiologic effects of
space flight
•Micrometeoroids and •Breach of the spacecraft Meteor shower
11 12 hull would result in cabin forecasts are used to
orbital debris , >12 000 depressurization and schedule space walks
debris objects larger would be considered an and other sensitive
than 10 cm; orbital emergency operations
speeds of 8–70 km/s •Spacecraft shielding
•Collision-avoidance
maneuvers
•System redundancy
Milestones
• Sub orbital flights lasting minutes
• Sputnik 1 : First man made object in orbit 4 Oct 1957.
• First man made object on moon : Luna 2 - 1959
• First Living being in Orbit : Yuri Gagarin – 1961
• First interplanetery flyby – Venera flyby of Venus - 1961
• First Moon landing – Apollo 11 – June 20 1969
• First Space Station : Salayut 1 – April 19 1971
• International Space Station – Only full functional space station with continious inhabitance since 2000
• First interstellar flight – Voyager 1 departed solar system August 15 2012
Longest time in space
Valeri Polyakov performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days,
17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). Gennady Padalka has spent the most total time in space on multiple
missions, 879 days.
Longest-duration crewed space station:
The International Space Station has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November
2000 to present (20 years and 336 days). This record was previously held by Mir, from Soyuz TM-8 on 5
September 1989 to the Soyuz TM-29 on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,644 days (almost 10 years).

Satellite Life Time

Every satellite is designed to meet certain objective and has a finite life time
For satellites closer to Earth, major factor affecting satellite life time is Atmospheric Drag
For satellites with higher altitudes, component failures, propellent depletion or impact with space objects are
the major factors effecting satellite life time.
The useful lifetime of satellite can be determined by the maximum acceptable deviation in inclination and
orbital location and reliability of the satellites sub systems.
A satellite is maintain in its orbital location by firing jet thrusters regularly using stored fuel. Hence lifetime
of satellite depend upon fuel storage capacity of satellite. This method is used when applicable.

To increase the lifetime of the satellite we can increase the fuel capacity and we can also save fuel by
accepting orbital deviations to the maximum limit possible.
Both the above techniques are used according to the application.But there is practical limit to fuel storage
capacity of the satellite because it increases the load of the satellite.
Hence alternative method which can be used to increase the lifetime of the satellite is to increase fuel
efficiency which is used for propulsion.

Lifetime of satellite also depends on the quality of batteries used on board satellite and amount of power
consumed by the satellite. The lifetime of the satellite increases from 7-10 years to 12-15 years by improving
the efficiency of the fuel.

The lifetime of the satellite also depends open the reliability of the hardware used in the satellite.
Therefore the lifetime of the satellite increases when the hardware used in the satellite is more reliable.