Chapter 6

Security Analysis

VKT 1
 Content
• System State Classification,
• Security Analysis,
• Contingency Analysis,
• Sensitivity Factors,
• Factors Affecting Power System Security.

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 What is power system security?
• The Power System needs to be operationally secure, i.e. with
minimal probability of blackout and equipment damage. An
important component of power system security is the system’s
ability to withstand the effects of contingencies. A contingency
is basically an outage of a generator, transformer and or line,
and its effects are monitored with specified security limits.
• System security can be broken down into TWO major
functions that are carried out in an operations control centre:
(i) Security assessment and
(ii) security control.

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Security of power systems depends on three factors:
 The Physical System
 The integrated generation, transmission and
distribution system, and loads
 Protection and controls
 The Business Structures
 Owning and operating entities
 Performance and service contracts
 The Regulatory Framework
 Roles and responsibilities of individual entities
 Well chosen, clearly defined and properly enforced
VKT 4
 Challenges to Secure Operation of
Today's Power Systems
 Large complex power systems
 Thousands of devices requiring harmonious interplay
 Complex modes instability
 Global problems
 Different forms of instability: rotor angle, voltage, frequency
 "Deregulated" market environment
 Many independent entities with diverse business interests
 Lack of integrated and inter-regional planning
 Power systems can no longer be operated conservatively
within pre-established limits
 A comprehensive approach to system security is required.
VKT 5
Comprehensive Approach to System Security

1. Proper selection, design and application of power

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Cont…..
5. Implementation of a Reliability Management
System (RMS) for setting, monitoring and enforcing
security related standards

6. Development and application of real-time wide

7. Widespread use of distributed generation

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 System State Classification
 The states of power system are classified into
FIVE states:
1. Normal
2. Alert
3. Emergency
4. Extreme Emergency and
5. Restorative.

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VKT 9
 Normal State Controls
 Generator controls:
 Excitation controls: AVR, PSS
 Prime-mover, energy supply system controls
 Transmission controls:
Voltage regulators
 Switched reactors/capacitors, SVCs
 HVDC and FACTS controls

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 Preventive and Emergency Controls

 Preventive Controls
 Generation shifting
 Increase in VAR reserve
 Emergency Controls
 Generator tripping
 Generation runback/fast valving
 Load shedding
 Dynamic braking
 Transient excitation boosting
 HVDC link rapid power ramping
 Controlled system separation
 Transformer tap-changer blocking
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 The operation of a power system is usually in a normal state.
Voltages and the frequency of the system are within the
normal range and no equipment is overloaded in this state.
 The system can also maintain stability during disturbances
considered in the power system planning. The security of the
power system is described by Thermal, voltage and stability
limits. The system can also withstand any single contingency
without violating any of the limits.
 The system transits into the emergency state if a disturbance
occurs when the system is in the alert state. Many system
variables are out of normal range or equipment loading
exceeds short-term ratings in this state. The system is still
complete.
 Emergency control actions, more powerful than the control
actions related to alert state, can restore the system to alert
state. VKT 12
 The emergency control actions include fault clearing,
excitation control, fast valving, generation tripping, generation
run back-up, HVDC modulation, load curtailment, blocking of
on-load tap changer of distribution system transformers and
rescheduling of line flows at critical lines.
 The extreme emergency state is a result of the occurrence of an
extreme disturbance or action of incorrect of ineffective
emergency control actions.
 The power system is in a state where cascading outages and
shutdown of a major part of power system might happen. The
system is in unstable state. The control actions needed in this
state must be really powerful. Usually load shedding of the
most unimportant loads and separation of the system into small
independent parts are required.

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 Security Analysis
Thousands of outages may have to be studied before they occur
• A Security Analysis procedure run at an Energy Control Centre
must be very fast
• Three Techniques commonly used
– Study the Power System with Approximate but fast Algorithms
(DC Power Flow Methods, Linear Sensitivity factors)
– Select only important cases for detailed analysis (Contingency
Selection)
– Use Multiple Processors or Vector Processors: running cases in
parallel (Still in research stage)

VKT 14
 Contingency Analysis
 Power System Problems due to events such as
Transmission Line and Generator Outages etc, can
cause serious damage within very short duration
 Contingency Analysis Programs
– Model the events before they occur
– Combined with standard analysis procedures such as
power flow etc to study the system.
– Generate Operator Alarms

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 Other Features
– Fast solution methods
– Automatic contingency selection
– Automatic initialization of contingency power flows
Using actual system data and state estimation
Procedures.
 Security Constrained Optimal Power Flow (SCOPF)
 Third Major Security Function
 Contingency Analysis Combined with OPF

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VKT 17
 Line and Generator outages may result in line flow
and Bus Voltage limit violations.
 The way in which lost generation is distributed
among remaining units is important.
 Contingency Analysis procedures are used to predict
effects of outages.
 Lost Generation is picked up by units in its own area
as well as neighboring areas.
 Contingency analysis procedures Model
1. Single Event outages (Ex: 1 Line, 1 Generator out)
2. Multiple Event Outages (2 Line, 2 Generators)

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All Credible Outages are Studied one after
another
The C.A procedure tests lines and voltages
against their respective limits.
Difficulties
• Speed of Solution
• Selection of All Credible outages
• Changed system conditions over time

VKT 19
 Sensitivity Factors
 One of the simplest ways to present a quick
calculation of possible overloads is to employ
network (linear) sensitivity factors.
 These factors give the approximate change in
line flows for changes in generation in the
system and can be calculated from the DC
load flow. They are mainly of two types:
1. Generation shift factors
2. Line outage distribution factors
VKT 20
Factors Affecting Power System
Security

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VKT 22
Conclusion

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VKT 24
VKT 25
 Power Quality
• Power Quality:
– Electrical network’s ability to supply a clean & stable power
supply
• Poor Power Quality:
– sufficient deviation in the power supply to cause equipment
failure
• Good Power Quality:
– power supply is sufficient for the equipment to operate
satisfactorily
• Power Quality = Voltage Quality, P = V I

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 Power Quality Problems
• Voltage sag (or dip)
• Short-interruptions
• Long interruptions
• Voltage spikes
• Voltage swells
• Harmonic distortion
• Voltage fluctuations
• Noise
• Voltage Imbalance

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 Voltage Sag(or Dip)
• Definition:
– Decrease of the voltage level
between 10 and 90% of the
nominal rms voltage
• Causes:
– Faults on the transmission or
distribution network.
– Faults in consumer’s installation.
– Connection of heavy loads &
start-up of large motors.
• Consequences:
– Malfunction of microprocessor-
based control systems that may
lead to a process stoppage.
– Tripping of electromechanical
relays.

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 Short-Interruptions
• Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from few milliseconds to one
or two seconds.
• Causes:
– Opening and automatic reclosure of protection devices.
– Insulation failure, lightning and insulator flashover.
• Consequences:
– Tripping of protection devices.
– Loss of information and malfunction of data processing equipment.
– Stoppage of sensitive equipment (such as ASDs, PLCs).

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 Long Interruptions
• Total interruption of electrical supply for duration greater than 1
to 2 seconds.
• Causes:
– Equipment failure in the power system network.
– Storms and objects (trees, cars, etc) striking lines or poles, fire.
– Human error, bad coordination or failure of protection devices.
• Consequences:
– Stoppage of all equipment.

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 Voltage Spike
• Definition:
– Very fast variation of the voltage value
for durations from a several
microseconds to few milliseconds
• Causes:
– Lightning, switching of lines or power
factor correction capacitors,
disconnection of heavy loads.
• Consequences:
– Destruction of components
(particularly electronic components)
and of insulation materials
– data processing errors or data loss
– electromagnetic interference. 31
 Voltage Swell
• Definition:
– Increase in RMS voltage above
110% at power frequency
• Causes:
– Start/stop of heavy loads.
– Poorly dimensioned power sources.
– Poorly regulated transformers.
• Consequences:
– Flickering of lighting and screens.
– Damage or stoppage or damage of
sensitive equipment.

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2
 Harmonic Distortion
• waveform corresponds to the sum of different sine-waves with different
magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are multiples of power
frequency
• Causes:
– all non-linear loads: power electronics equipment
– SMPS, data processing equipment
• Consequences:
– overheating of all cables and equipment
– loss of efficiency in electric machines
– errors in measures when using average reading meters
– tripping of thermal protections.

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 Voltage Fluctuations
• Definition:
– Oscillation of voltage value, amplitude modulated by a signal
with frequency of 0 to 30 Hz.
• Causes:
– Frequent start/stop of electric motors
– oscillating loads
• Consequences
– flickering of lighting and screens

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 Noise
• Definition:
– Superimposing of high frequency signals on the waveform of the
power-system frequency.
• Causes:
– Electromagnetic interferences provoked by microwaves, television
diffusion
– Radiation due to welding machines
– Improper grounding
• Consequences:
– Disturbances on sensitive electronic equipment
– data processing errors.

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 Voltage Imbalance
• A voltage variation in a three-phase
system in which the three voltage
magnitudes or the phase-angle
differences between them are not
equal.

• Causes:
– Large single-phase loads
– Incorrect distribution of loads by
the three phases of the system.

• Consequences:
– The most affected loads are three
phase induction machines.
– Increase in the losses.

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 PQ Solutions
• POWER CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
1. Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors (TVSS)
2. Filters
3. Isolation Transformers
4. Voltage Regulators
5. Dynamic Voltage Restorer
6. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
7. Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)
8. Static Var Compensator(SVC)
9. Thyristor based static switch

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 References
• Aníbal T. de Almeida (2003). A Presentation on ‘Power
Quality Problems and New Solutions’ in International
Conference on Renewable Power and Power Quality ’03 Vigo,
University of Coimbra (April 9 – 11).
• Mandela Gain (2012). ‘Power Quality Problems and solutions:
An Overview’ in International Journal of Science and Research,
Vol. 3(10)

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