CONTENTS

MODULE-1: Theory of Elasticity ................................................................................................... 1

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1

2. Theory of elasticity versus SOM .......................................................................................... 1

3. Assumptions of linear elasticity ............................................................................................ 2

4. Important definition .............................................................................................................. 2

Stress at a point .............................................................................................................. 2

Strain at a point .............................................................................................................. 3

5. Components of stress and strain at a point............................................................................ 4

6. Components of strain ............................................................................................................ 4

7. Constitutive relations ............................................................................................................ 6

8. Equilibrium of a differential element .................................................................................... 7

9. Equilibrium equations in polar co-ordinates: (two-dimensional state of stress)................. 10

10. General state of stress in three-dimension in cylindrical co-ordinate system ................. 12

11. Compatibility equations .................................................................................................. 12

Compatibility equations in terms of stress ............................................................... 15

12. Numerical examples ........................................................................................................ 16

13. Boundary conditions ....................................................................................................... 23

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 MODULE-1: THEORY OF ELASTICITY

1. Introduction
If the external forces producing deformation do not exceed a certain limit, the deformation
disappears with the removal of the forces. Thus the elastic behavior implies the absence of any
permanent deformation. Elasticity has been developed following the great achievement of Newton
in stating the laws of motion, although it has earlier roots. The need to understand and control the
fracture of solids seems to have been a first motivation. Leonardo da Vinci sketched in his
notebooks a possible test of the tensile strength of a wire. Galileo had investigated the breaking
loads of rods under tension and concluded that the load was independent of length and proportional
to the cross section area, this being the first step toward a concept of stress.
Every engineering material possesses a certain extent of elasticity. The common materials of
construction would remain elastic only for very small strains before exhibiting either plastic
straining or brittle failure. However, natural polymeric materials show elasticity over a wider range
(usually with time or rate effects thus they would more accurately be characterized as viscoelastic),
and the widespread use of natural rubber and similar materials motivated the development of finite
elasticity. While many roots of the subject were laid in the classical theory, especially in the work
of Green, Gabrio Piola, and Kirchhoff in the mid-1800's, the development of a viable theory with
forms of stress-strain relations for specific rubbery elastic materials, as well as an understanding
of the physical effects of the nonlinearity in simple problems such as torsion and bending, was
mainly the achievement of the British-born engineer and applied mathematician Ronald S. Rivlin
in the1940's and 1950's.

2. Theory of elasticity versus SOM

In SOM we make many assumptions to simplify the problem and to arrive at a closed form solution
Flexure formula:
M f E
= =
I y R

Assumptions:
Pure bending
Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending (slender member)

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But in undergraduate studies we use this formula for all types of problems. Even for the bending
of a cantilever beam where plane sections do not
remain plane.
Another example in which the assumption of
planarity is made is the torsion of a member.
This assumption is correct only for circular sections.
Any other section will warp as seen for the
rectangular section. To solve such problems TOE has to be used where the governing differential
equation will be solved satisfying boundary conditions without any simplifying assumptions.

3. Assumptions of linear elasticity

The Body is Continuous
Here the whole volume of the body is considered to be filled with continuous matter, without any
void.
The Body is Perfectly Elastic
The body is considered to wholly obey Hooke's law of elasticity, which shows the linear relations
between the stress components and strain components. Under this assumption, the elastic constants
will be independent of the magnitudes of stress and strain components.
The Body is Homogenous
In this case, the elastic properties are the same throughout the body. Thus, the elastic constants will
be independent of the location in the body. Under this assumption, one can analyse an elementary
volume isolated from the body and then apply the results of analysis to the entire body.
The Body is Isotropic
Here, the elastic properties in a body are the same in all directions. Hence, the elastic constants
will be independent of the orientation of coordinate axes.
The Displacements and Strains are Small
The displacement components of all points of the body during deformation are very small in
comparison with its original dimensions and the strain components and the rotations of all line
elements are much smaller than unity

4. Important definition

Stress at a point
A body under the action of external forces, undergoes distortion and the effect due to this system
of forces is transmitted throughout the body developing internal forces in it. To examine these
internal forces at a point O in (a), inside the body, consider a plane MN passing through the point

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O. If the plane is divided into a number of small areas, as in the (b), and the forces acting on each
of these are measured, it will be observed that these forces vary from one small area to the next.
On the small area ∆A at point O, a force ∆F will be acting as shown in the (b). From this the concept
of stress as the internal force per unit area can be understood.

Assuming that the material is continuous, the term "stress" at any point across a small area ∆A can
be defined by the limiting equation as below.
Δ𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚  
Δ𝐴→0 Δ𝐴

Where ∆F is the internal force on the area ∆A surrounding the given point. Stress is sometimes
referred to as force intensity.

Strain at a point
Refer to the following Figure where line AB of an axially loaded member has suffered deformation
to become A’B’. The length of AB is ∆x. As shown in Figure (b), points A and B have each been
displaced, i.e., at point A an amount u, and at point B an amount u+ ∆u. Point B has been displaced
by an amount ∆u in addition to
displacement of point A, and the length
∆x has been increased by ∆u. Now, normal
strain may be defined as
Δ𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚   =
Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
In view of the limiting process, the above
represents the strain at a point. Therefore
"Strain is a measure of relative change in
length, or change in shape".

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5. Components of stress and strain at a point
Let O be the point in a body shown in Figure (a). Passing through that point, infinitely many planes
may be drawn. As the resultant forces acting on these planes is the same, the stresses on these
planes are different because the areas and the inclinations of these planes are different. Therefore,
for a complete description of stress, we have to specify not only its magnitude, direction and sense
but also the surface on which it acts. For this reason, the stress is called a "Tensor".
Figure depicts three-orthogonal co-ordinate planes representing a parallel piped on which are nine
components of stress. Of these three are direct stresses and six are shear stresses. In tensor notation,
these can be expressed by the tensor tij, where i = x, y, z and j = x, y, z.
In matrix notation, it is often written as
𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = [𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ]
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑧

It is also written as

𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝑆 = [𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ]
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧

Therefore total 3 normal stress components and 6

shearing stress components are required to express the state of stress at a point.
By a simple consideration of the equilibrium of the element the
number of symbols for shearing stresses can be reduced to three.
If we take the moments of the forces acting on the element about
the x-axis,
𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

The two other equations can be obtained in the same manner,

these equations we find
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧

By this finally stress components required to express the state of stress at a point are reduced to six
(3 normal and 3 shearing stress components)

6. Components of strain
Strain may be classified into direct and shear strain.

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Figure (a), ( b), (c), ( d) represent one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional and
shear strains respectively. In case of two-dimensional strain, two normal or longitudinal strains are
given by

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
𝜀𝑥 = , 𝜀𝑦 =
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

+ve sign applies to elongation; -ve sign, to contraction.

Now, consider the change experienced by right angle 𝐷𝐴𝐵 in the Figure 3.2 (d). The total angular
change of angle 𝐷𝐴𝐵 between lines in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions, is defined as the shearing strain and
denoted by 𝛾𝑥𝑦 .
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
∴ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛼𝑥 + 𝛼𝑦 = +
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥

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The shear strain is positive when the right angle between two positive axes decreases otherwise the
shear strain is negative.

In case of a three-dimensional element, a prism with sides 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 as shown in Figure 3.2(c) the
following are the normal and shearing strains:

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
𝜀𝑥 = , 𝜀𝑦 = , 𝜀𝑧 =
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑢
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = + , 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = +
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧

The remaining components of shearing strain are similarly related:

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾𝑦𝑥 , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 𝛾𝑧𝑦 , 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = 𝛾𝑥𝑧

7. Constitutive relations
There is a unique relationship between stress and strain defined by Hooke's Law, which is
independent of time and loading history. The law assumes that all the strain changes resulting from
stress changes are instantaneous and the system is completely reversible and all the input energy
is recovered in unloading. In case of uniaxial loading, stress is related to strain as

𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 (1)

where 𝐸 is known as "Modulus of Elasticity". The above expression is applicable within the linear
elastic range and is called Hooke's Law.

In general, each strain is dependent on each stress. For example, the strain 𝜀𝑥 written as a function
of each stress is

𝜀𝑥 = 𝐶11 𝜎𝑥 + 𝐶12 𝜎𝑦 + 𝐶13 𝜎𝑧 + 𝐶14 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶15 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝐶16 𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝐶17 𝜏𝑥𝑧 + 𝐶18 𝜏𝑧𝑦 + 𝐶19 𝜏𝑦𝑥

Similarly, stresses can be expressed in terms of strains stating that at each point in a material, each
stress component is linearly related to all the strain components. This is known as "Generalised
Hook's Law".

For the most general case of three-dimensional state of stress, equation (1) can be written as

{𝜎𝑖𝑗 } = (𝐷𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 ){𝜀𝑘𝑙 }

Where (𝐷𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 ) = Elasticity matrix

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 {𝜎𝑖𝑗 } = Stress components
{𝜀𝑘𝑙 } = Strain components

Since both stress 𝜎𝑖𝑗 and strain 𝜀𝑖𝑗 are second-order tensors, it follows that 𝐷𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 is a fourth order
tensor, which consists of 34 = 81 material constants if symmetry is not assumed. Therefore in
matrix notation, the stress-strain relations would be

𝜎𝑥 𝐷11 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷14 𝐷15 𝐷16 𝐷17 𝐷18 𝐷19 𝜀𝑥

𝜎𝑦 𝐷21 𝐷22 𝐷23 𝐷24 𝐷25 𝐷26 𝐷27 𝐷28 𝐷29 𝜀𝑦
𝜎𝑧 𝐷31 𝐷32 𝐷33 𝐷34 𝐷35 𝐷36 𝐷37 𝐷38 𝐷39 𝜀𝑧
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐷41 𝐷42 𝐷43 𝐷44 𝐷45 𝐷46 𝐷47 𝐷48 𝐷49 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝐷51 𝐷52 𝐷53 𝐷54 𝐷55 𝐷56 𝐷57 𝐷58 𝐷59 𝛾𝑦𝑧
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝐷61 𝐷62 𝐷63 𝐷64 𝐷65 𝐷66 𝐷67 𝐷68 𝐷69 𝛾𝑧𝑥
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝐷71 𝐷72 𝐷73 𝐷74 𝐷75 𝐷76 𝐷77 𝐷78 𝐷79 𝛾𝑥𝑧
𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝐷81 𝐷82 𝐷83 𝐷84 𝐷85 𝐷86 𝐷87 𝐷88 𝐷89 𝛾𝑧𝑦
𝜏
{ 𝑦𝑥 } [𝐷91 𝐷92 𝐷93 𝐷94 𝐷95 𝐷96 𝐷97 𝐷98 𝛾
𝐷99 ] { 𝑦𝑥 }

Now, from 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑗𝑖 and 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑗𝑖 the number of 81 material constants is reduced to 36 under
symmetric conditions of 𝐷𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 = 𝐷𝑗𝑖𝑘𝑙 = 𝐷𝑖𝑗𝑙𝑘 = 𝐷𝑗𝑖𝑙𝑘

Therefore in matrix notation, the stress – strain relations can be

𝜎𝑥 𝐷11 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷14 𝐷15 𝐷16 𝜀𝑥
𝜎𝑦 𝐷21 𝐷22 𝐷23 𝐷24 𝐷25 𝐷26 𝜀𝑦
𝜎𝑧 𝐷31 𝐷32 𝐷33 𝐷34 𝐷35 𝐷36 𝜀𝑧
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐷41 𝐷42 𝐷43 𝐷44 𝐷45 𝐷46 𝛾𝑥𝑦
(2)
𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝐷51 𝐷52 𝐷53 𝐷54 𝐷55 𝐷56 𝛾𝑦𝑧
{𝜏𝑧𝑥 } [𝐷61 𝐷62 𝐷63 𝐷64 𝐷65 𝐷66 ] { 𝛾𝑧𝑥 }

Equation (2) indicates that 36 elastic constants are necessary for the most general form of
anisotropy (different elastic properties in all directions). It is generally accepted, however, that the
stiffness matrix 𝐷𝑖𝑗 is symmetric, in which case the number of independent elastic constants will
be reduced to 21 . This can be shown by assuming the existence of a strain energy function 𝑈.

8. Equilibrium of a differential element

When a body is in equilibrium, any isolated part of the body is acted upon by an equilibrium set of
forces. The small element with unit thickness shown in Figure (a) represents part
of a body and therefore must be in equilibrium if the entire body is to be in equilibrium. It is to be
noted that the components of stress generally vary from point to point in a stressed body. These
variations are governed by the conditions of equilibrium of statics. Fulfillment of these conditions
establishes certain relationships, known as the differential equations of equilibrium. These involve
the derivatives of the stress components.

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Assume that 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑥 are functions of X, Y but do not vary throughout the thickness (are
independent of ) and that the other stress components are zero.

Also assume that the X and Y components of the body forces per unit volume, 𝐹𝑥 and 𝐹𝑦 , are
independent of 𝑍, and that the 𝑍 component of the body force 𝐹𝑧 = 0. As the element is very small,
the stress components may be considered to be distributed uniformly over each face.
Now, taking moments of force about the lower left corner and equating to zero,

Δ𝑦 1 ∂𝜎𝑦 Δ𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥
−(𝜎𝑥 Δ𝑦) + (𝜏𝑥𝑦 Δ𝑦) − (𝜎𝑦 + Δ𝑦) Δ𝑥 + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 + Δ𝑦) Δ𝑥Δ𝑦
2 2 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑦
∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜎𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥 1
− (𝜏𝑥𝑦 + Δ𝑥) Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 + (𝜎𝑥 + Δ𝑥) Δ𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 Δ𝑥 − 𝜏𝑦𝑥 Δ𝑥 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 2 2 2
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥
(𝐹𝑥 Δ𝑦Δ𝑥) − (𝐹𝑦 Δ𝑥Δ𝑦) =0
2 2

Neglecting the higher terms involving Δ𝑥, and Δ𝑦 and simplifying, the above expression is reduced
to

𝜏𝑥𝑦 Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 Δ𝑥Δ𝑦

or 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥

In a like manner, it may be shown that

𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥

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Now, from the equilibrium of forces in 𝑥-direction, we obtain

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥
−𝜎𝑥 Δ𝑦 + (𝜎𝑥 + Δ𝑥) Δ𝑦 + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 + Δ𝑦) Δ𝑥 − 𝜏𝑦𝑥 Δ𝑥 + 𝐹𝑥 Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

Simplifying, we get

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥
+ + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
or + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

A similar expression is written to describe the equilibrium of 𝑦 forces. The 𝑥 and 𝑦 equations, yield
the following differential equations of equilibrium.

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
or + + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥

The differential equations of equilibrium for the case of three-dimensional stress may be
generalized from the above expressions as follows [Figure 2.11( b)].

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

+ + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧
∂𝜎𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

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9. Equilibrium equations in polar co-ordinates: (two-dimensional state of stress)

The polar coordinate system (𝑟, 𝜃) and the cartesian system (𝑥, 𝑦) are related by the following
expressions:

𝑥 = 𝑟cos 𝜃, 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑟sin 𝜃, 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
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Consider the state of stress on an infinitesimal element abcd of unit thickness described by the
polar coordinates as shown in the Figure 2.16. The body forces denoted by 𝐹𝑟 and 𝐹𝜃 are directed
along 𝑟 and 𝜃 directions respectively. Resolving the forces in the 𝑟-direction, we have for
equilibrium, Σ𝐹𝑟 = 0,

∂𝜎𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ∂𝜎𝜃
−𝜎𝑟 × 𝑟𝑑𝜃 + (𝜎𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 − 𝜎𝜃 𝑑𝑟sin + 𝐹𝑟 − (𝜎𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟
∂𝑟 2 ∂𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝑑𝜃
sin − 𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝑑𝑟cos + (𝜏𝑟𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟cos =0
2 2 ∂𝜃 2

Since 𝑑𝜃 is very small,

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
sin = and cos =1
2 2 2

Neglecting higher order terms and simplifying, we get

∂𝜎𝑟 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 + 𝜎𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 − 𝜎𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 + 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = 0
∂𝑟 ∂𝜃

on dividing throughout by 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟, we have

∂𝜎𝑟 1 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝜎𝑟 − 𝜎𝜃
+ + + 𝐹𝑟 = 0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 𝑟

Similarly resolving all the forces in the 𝜃 - direction at right angles to 𝑟 - direction, we have

𝑑𝜃 ∂𝜎𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃
−𝜎𝜃 𝑑𝑟cos + (𝜎𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟cos + 𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝑑𝑟sin + (𝜏𝑟𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝑟
2 ∂𝜃 2 2 ∂𝜃
𝑑𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃
sin − 𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃 + (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 (𝜏𝑟𝜃 + 𝑑𝑟) + 𝐹𝜃 = 0
2 ∂𝑟

On simplification, we get

∂𝜎𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃
( + 𝜏𝑟𝜃 + 𝜏𝑟𝜃 + 𝑟 ) 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟 = 0
∂𝜃 ∂𝑟

Dividing throughout by 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟, we get

1 ∂𝜎𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 2𝜏𝑟𝜃

⋅ + + + 𝐹𝜃 = 0
𝑟 ∂𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑟

In the absence of body forces, the equilibrium equations can be represented as:

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 ∂𝜎𝑟 1 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝜎𝑟 − 𝜎𝜃
+ + =0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 𝑟
1 ∂𝜎𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 2𝜏𝑟𝜃
+ + =0
𝑟 ∂𝜃 ∂𝑟 𝑟

10. General state of stress in three-dimension

in cylindrical co-ordinate system

In the absence of body forces, the equilibrium
equations for three-dimensional state are given by
∂𝜎𝑟 1 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑟 𝜎𝑟 − 𝜎𝜃
+ + +( )=0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 ∂𝑧 𝑟
∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 1 ∂𝜎𝜃 ∂𝜏𝜃𝑧 2𝜏𝑟𝜃
+ + + =0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 ∂𝑧 𝑟
∂𝜏𝑧𝑟 1 ∂𝜏𝜃𝑧 ∂𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑟
+ + + =0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 ∂𝑧 𝑟

11. Compatibility equations

Expressions of compatibility have both
mathematical and physical significance. From a
mathematical point of view, they assert that the displacements 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 are single valued and
continuous functions. Physically, this means that the body must be pieced together.

The kinematic relations given by strain-displacement equation connect six components of strain to
only three components of displacement. One cannot therefore arbitrarily specify all of the strains
as functions of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧. As the strains are not independent of one another, in what way they are
related? In two-dimensional strain, differentiation of 𝜀𝑥 twice with respect to 𝑦, 𝜀𝑦 twice with
respect to 𝑥, and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦 results in

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂3 𝑢 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂3 𝑣
= , =
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦
∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ∂3 𝑢 ∂3 𝑣
= +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦

Or

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
+ =
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
This is the condition of compatibility of the two dimensional problem, expressed in terms of strain.
The three-dimensional equations of compatibility are derived in a similar manner:

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Thus, in order to ensure a single-valued, continuous solution for the displacement components,
certain restrictions have to be imposed on the strain components. These resulting equations are
termed the compatibility equations.

Suppose if we consider a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 before straining a body [Figure 3.4(𝑎)] then the same
triangle may take up one of the two possible positions Figure ( b) and Figure (c)) after straining,
if an arbitrary strain field is specified. A gap or an overlapping may occur, unless the specified
strain field obeys the necessary compatibility conditions.

Fig. Strain in a body

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦 = ∂𝑦 𝜀𝑧 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = ∂𝑥 + ∂𝑦
∂𝑥 ∂𝑧

∂𝑤 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑤
𝛾𝑦𝑧 = + 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = +
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥

Differentiating E 𝜀𝑥 with respect to 𝑦 and 𝜀𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 twice, we get

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂3 𝑢
=
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 2
∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂3 𝑣
=
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 2

Adding above Equations , we get

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂3 𝑢 ∂3 𝑣
+ = +
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 2

Taking the derivative of 𝛾𝑥𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦 together, we get

∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ∂3 𝑣 ∂3 𝑢
= +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 2

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
From comparing above equations we get

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
+ =
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

Similarly, we can get

∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝜀𝑧 ∂2 𝛾𝑦𝑧
+ =
∂𝑧 2 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂2 𝜀𝑧 ∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝛾𝑧𝑥
+ 2 =
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧

Now, take the mixed derivative of 𝜀𝑥 with respect to 𝑧 and 𝑦,

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂3 𝑢
∴ =
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

And taking the partial derivative of 𝛾𝑥𝑦 with respect to 𝑧 and 𝑥, we get

∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ∂3 𝑢 ∂3 𝑣
= +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 2

Also taking the partial derivative of 𝛾𝑦𝑧 with respect to 𝑥 twice, we get

∂2 𝛾𝑦𝑧 ∂3 𝑤 ∂3 𝑣
= +
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑧

And take the derivative of 𝛾𝑧𝑥 with respect to 𝑦 and 𝑥

∂2 𝛾
𝑧𝑥 ∂3 𝑢 ∂3 𝑤
Thus, ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 = ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 + ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦

𝑥𝑧 ∂2 𝛾 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑦𝑧
Now, adding ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 , ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 and subtracting , we get
∂𝑥 2

∂2 𝛾𝑦𝑧 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑧 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 ∂3 𝑢

−( 2 ) + + =
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

∂2 𝜀
𝑥 ∂3 𝑢
By using ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 = ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧, we get

2 ∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂ ∂𝛾𝑦𝑧 ∂𝛾𝑥𝑧 ∂𝛾𝑥𝑦

= [− + + ]
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Similarly, we can get

2 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂ ∂𝛾𝑧𝑥 ∂𝛾𝑦𝑥 ∂𝛾𝑦𝑧

= [− + + ]
∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
2 ∂2 𝜀𝑧 ∂ ∂𝛾𝑥𝑦 ∂𝛾𝑦𝑧 ∂𝛾𝑧𝑥
= [− + + ]
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

Thus the following are the six compatibility equations for a three dimensional system.

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
+ =
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂ 𝜀𝑦 ∂ 𝜀𝑧 ∂2 𝛾𝑦𝑧
2 2
+ =
∂𝑧 2 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂2 𝜀𝑧 ∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝛾𝑧𝑥
+ 2 =
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
2 ∂𝛾𝑦𝑧 ∂𝛾𝑥𝑧 ∂𝛾𝑥𝑦
2 ∂ 𝜀𝑥 ∂
= (− + + )
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
2 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂ ∂𝛾𝑦𝑧 ∂𝛾𝑧𝑥 ∂𝛾𝑥𝑦
= ( − + )
∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
2 ∂2 𝜀𝑧 ∂ ∂𝛾𝑦𝑧 ∂𝛾𝑧𝑥 ∂𝛾𝑥𝑦
= ( + − )
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Compatibility equations in terms of stress

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ +𝑋 =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ +𝑌 =0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥

differentiating the first of Eqs. with respect to 𝑥 and the second with respect to 𝑦 and adding them,
we find

∂2 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂2 𝜎𝑥 ∂2 𝜎𝑦
2 =− −
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦 2

By compatibility equations

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
+ =
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

Substituting the following equations in above equations

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 1 1
𝜖𝑥 = (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜈𝜎𝑦 ), 𝜖𝑦 = (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜈𝜎𝑥 )
𝐸 𝐸
1 2(1 + 𝜈)
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝐺 𝐸

∂2 ∂2 ∂2 𝜏𝑥𝑦
(𝜎 − 𝜈𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜈𝜎 ) = 2(1 + 𝜈)
∂𝑦 2 𝑥 𝑦
∂𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑥
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
Substituting 𝜖𝑥 = ∂𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 = ∂𝑦 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = ∂𝑦 + ∂𝑥 in above euation

∂2 ∂2
( 2 + 2 ) (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

Proceeding in the same manner with the general equations of equilibrium (18) we find

∂2 ∂2 ∂𝑋 ∂𝑌
( 2 + 2 ) (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) = −(1 + 𝜈) ( + )
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

12. Numerical examples

The state of stress in 2 -dimensional are as given below. Obtain the equation for shear stress
in the absence of body force 𝝈𝒙 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝝁(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 ), 𝝈𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝝁(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 ).
∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥
Ans. + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

∂𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝝁. 2𝑥 + =0
∂𝑦

Integrating above equation wrt y

𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝝁. 2𝑥 + 𝐶1 (a)

∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥

∂𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝝁. 2𝑦 + =
∂x
Integrating above equation wrt y

𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝝁. 2𝑦 + 𝐶2 (b)

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
State of stress at a point in a body is given by 𝝈𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟐𝟎, 𝝈𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 𝒛 + 𝒚𝟐 , 𝝈𝒛 = 𝒚𝒛𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎,
𝝉𝒙𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚, 𝝉𝒚𝒛 = 𝒚𝒛, 𝝉𝒙𝒛 = 𝒙𝒛. Determine the body force distribution at the point (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑)
so that the stress are in equilibrium.
∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧
Ans. + + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

2𝑥𝑦 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + x + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
2.1.2 + 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐 + 1 + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐹𝑥 =-8
∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧
2𝑦 + 6y + y + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2.2 + 6.2 + 2 + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐹𝑦 = −18
∂𝜎𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
𝟐𝒚𝐳 + 𝒛 + 𝒛 + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟑 + 𝟑 + 𝟑 + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
𝐹𝑧 = −18
F = −8iˆ − 18 ˆj − 18kˆ
The stress components at a point in a body are given by
𝝈𝐫 = 𝟑𝐫𝜽𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐𝐫 𝝉𝒓𝜽 = 𝟎
𝝈𝜽 = 𝟓𝐫𝜽𝐳 + 𝟑𝜽 𝝉𝜽𝒛 = 𝝉𝐫𝐳 = 𝟑𝐫𝜽𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐𝐫𝜽
𝝈𝐳 = 𝐫 𝟐 𝜽 + 𝜽𝟐 𝐳
Determine the body force at the point (𝟏, −𝟏, 𝟐).
Ans.
∂𝜎𝑟 1 ∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑟 𝜎𝑟 − 𝜎𝜃
+ + +( ) + T𝑟 = 0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 ∂𝑧 𝑟

𝟑𝐫𝜽𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐𝐫 − (𝟓𝐫𝜽𝐳 + 𝟑𝜽)

𝟑𝜽𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐 + 0 + 𝟑𝐫𝜽𝟐 + ( ) + T𝑟 = 0
𝑟

𝜽𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐫𝜽𝟐 + 𝟑𝜽𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐 − 𝟓𝜽𝐳 − 𝟑𝜽/𝒓) + T𝑟 = 0

𝟑(−𝟏)𝟐 . 𝟐 + 𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟏. (−𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟑(−𝟏)𝟐 . 𝟏 + 𝟐 − 𝟓(−𝟏). 𝟏 − 𝟑(−𝟏)/𝟏 + T𝑟 = 0

T𝑟 = −32

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
∂𝜏𝑟𝜃 1 ∂𝜎𝜃 ∂𝜏𝜃𝑧 2𝜏𝑟𝜃
+ + + =0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 ∂𝑧 𝑟

1
𝟎 + (𝟓𝐫𝐳 + 𝟑) + 𝟑𝐫𝜽𝟐 + 𝟎 + 0 + F𝜽 = 0
𝑟

1
(𝟓. 𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟑) + 𝟑. 𝟏. (−𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟎 + 0 + F𝜽 = 0
1

F𝜽 = −16

∂𝜏𝑧𝑟 1 ∂𝜏𝜃𝑧 ∂𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑟

+ + + +F𝑧 = 0
∂𝑟 𝑟 ∂𝜃 ∂𝑧 𝑟

𝟐
1 𝟐
𝟑𝐫𝜽𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐𝐫𝜽
𝟑𝜽 𝐳 + 𝟐𝜽 + (𝟑𝐫. 𝟐. 𝜽𝐳 + 𝟐𝐫) + 0 + 𝜽 + +F𝑧 = 0
𝑟 𝑟

𝟐
1 𝟐
𝟑. 𝟏. (−𝟏)𝟐 . 𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟏. (−𝟏)
𝟑. 𝟏 . 𝟐 + 𝟐(−𝟏) + (𝟑. 𝟏. 𝟐. (−𝟏). 𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟏) + 0 + (−𝟏) + +F𝑧
1 1
=0

F𝑧 = 1

F = −32i − 16 j + 1k

For what values of 𝑨 and 𝑩 with the following stress distribution represents in the
equilibrium state, the body force = 𝟎, 𝝈𝐱 = 𝟐𝟐𝐱 𝟐 𝐲, 𝝉𝐱𝐲 = −𝐁𝐱𝐲 𝟐 , 𝝈𝐲 = 𝐀𝐲 𝟑 .
∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
22.2. 𝑥𝑦 − 𝟐𝐁𝐱𝐲 + 0 = 0
44𝑦 − 𝟐𝐁𝐲 = 0
∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥
𝟑𝐀𝐲 𝟐 − 𝐁𝐲 𝟐 + 0 = 0

A=44/3, B=44
The displacement components in a strained body as follows: 𝐮 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝐱𝐲 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝐲 𝟐 , 𝐯 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝐳 𝟑 𝐲, 𝐰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝐱𝐲 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝐳 𝟐 . Determine the strain matrix at the point
(𝟑, 𝟐, −𝟓).
Ans.

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 ∂𝑢
𝜀𝑥 = = 0.01𝑦
∂𝑥
∂𝑣
𝜀𝑦 = = 0.01𝑧 3
∂𝑦
∂𝑤
𝜀𝑧 = = 0.1𝑧
∂𝑧
Solution: ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + = 0.04𝑥 + 0.01𝑥 + 0.04𝑦
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
∂𝑤 ∂𝑣
𝛾𝑦𝑧 = + = 0.02𝑥𝑦 + 0.03𝑧 2 𝑦
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑤
𝛾𝑧𝑥 = + = 0 + 0.01𝑦 2
∂𝑧 ∂𝑥

At point 𝑃(3,2, −5), the strain components are

𝜀𝑥 = 0.02, 𝜀𝑦 = −1.25, 𝜀𝑧 = −0.5

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0.23, 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 1.62, 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = 0.04

Now, the strain tensor is given by

1 1
𝜀𝑥 𝛾 𝛾
2 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥𝑧
1 1
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝛾 𝜀𝑦 𝛾
2 𝑦𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧
1 1
[ 2 𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝛾
2 𝑧𝑦
𝜀𝑧 ]

∴ Strain matrix becomes

0.02 0.115 0.02

𝜀𝑖𝑗 = [0.115 −1.25 0.81 ]
0.02 0.81 −0.50

At a point in a body the stress field is given by 𝝈𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟑 + 𝒚𝟐 , 𝝈𝒚 = 𝟑𝟎𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝝈𝒛 =

𝟑𝟎𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝟎𝒛𝟑 , 𝝉𝒙𝒚 = 𝒛, 𝝉𝒚𝒛 = 𝒙𝟑 , 𝝉𝒛𝒙 = 𝒚𝟑 . Determine whether these stress components are in
equilibrium or not. If not determine suitable body force vector required at this point. Such
that the stress field is in equilibrium.
The component of a strain at a point in a body are as follows: 𝝐𝐱 = 𝐂𝐥 𝐳(𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 ); 𝝐𝐲 =
𝐱 𝟐 𝐳; 𝜸𝐱𝐲 = 𝟐𝐂𝟐 𝐱𝐲𝐳. where 𝑪𝟏 and 𝑪𝟐 are constants. Check whether the strain field is
compatible one.
Ans. For the compatibility condition of the strain field, the system of strains must satisfy the
compatibility equations

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 ∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
i.e., + =
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

Now, using the given strain field,

∂𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂𝛾𝑥𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦

= 2𝑐1 𝑦𝑧, = 2𝑐1 𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑧, = 2𝑧 = 2𝑐2 𝑦𝑧, = 2𝑐2 𝑧 ∴ + =
∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2

∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2𝑐1 𝑧 + 2𝑧 = 2𝑧(1 + 𝑐1 ) and = 2𝑐2 𝑧
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

∂2 𝜀𝑥 ∂2 𝜀𝑦 ∂2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
Since + ≠ , the strain field is not compatible.
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

The components of the body force requires to ensure equilibrium and 𝝈𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛 +
𝟐𝒙, 𝝈𝒚 = 𝟓𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝟑𝒚, 𝝈𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒛, 𝝉𝒙𝒚 = 𝟎, 𝝉𝒙𝒛 = 𝝉𝒚𝒛 = 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚. Determine the
body forces at point (𝟏, −𝟏, 𝟐)
Ans. The equations of equilibrium are given by

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂𝜎𝑧
+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Differentiating the stress components with respective axes, we get

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

= 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2, = 0, = 3𝑥𝑦 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Substituting in (a), 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2 + 0 + 3𝑥𝑦 2

At point (1, −1,2), we get 3 × 1 × 2 + 2 + 3 × 1 × 1 = 11 which is not equal to zero

Similarly,

∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
= 5𝑥𝑧 + 3, = 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

∴ (ii) becomes 0 + 5𝑥𝑧 + 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2

At point (1, −1,2), we get 5 × 1 × 2 + 3 + 3 × 1 × 1 = 16 which is not equal to zero

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
 ∂𝜎𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧
And = 𝑦2, = 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥, = 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2𝑦
∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥

Therefore (iii) becomes 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2

At the point (1, −1,2), we get 3 × 1 × 2 + 2 × (−1) + 6 × 1 × (−1) × 2 + 2 × 1 + (−1)2 =

−5 which is not equal to zero.

Hence the given stress components does not satisfy the equilibrium equations.

Recalling (a), (b) and (c) with body forces, the equations can be modified as below.

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

+ + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂𝜎𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Where 𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 and 𝐹𝑧 are the body forces.

Substituting the values in (d), (e) and (f), we get body forces so that the stress components become
under equilibrium.

Therefore,

3 × 1 × 2 + 2 + 3 × 1 × 1 + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = −11

Also, 5 × 1 × 2 + 3 + 3 × 1 × 1 + 𝐹𝑦 = 0

∴ 𝐹𝑦 = −16
and 3 × 1 × 2 + 2 × (−1) + 6 × 1 × (−1) × 2 + 2 × 1 + (−1)2 + 𝐹𝑧 = 0 ∴ 𝐹𝑧 = 5

The body force vector is given by

𝐹⃗ = −11𝑖ˆ − 16𝑗ˆ + 5𝑘ˆ

A state of stress at a point is characterized by component. 𝝈𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 𝝈𝐲 =

𝟖. 𝟗𝟔 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 , 𝝈𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟒 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 , 𝝉𝐱𝐲 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟔, 𝝉𝐲𝐳 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟕, 𝝉𝐳𝐱 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐 . Determine
principal stress and direction cosines.

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
b. The stress components at a point in a body are given by 𝝈𝐱 = 𝟑𝐱𝐲 𝟐 𝐳 + 𝟐𝐱; 𝐙𝐱𝐲 = 𝟎; 𝝈𝒚 =
𝟓𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝟑𝒚, 𝒁𝒚𝒛 = 𝒁𝒙𝒛 = 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚, 𝝈𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒛
Determine whether those components of stress satisfy the equilibrium equations or not at the
point (𝟏, −𝟏, 𝟐). If not then determine the suitable body force vector required at this point so
that these stress components are in equilibrium with the external force. (10 Marks)

ans. The equations of equilibrium are given by

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂𝜎𝑧
+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Differentiating the stress components with respective axes, we get

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

= 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2, = 0, = 3𝑥𝑦 2
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Substituting in (a), 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2 + 0 + 3𝑥𝑦 2

At point (1, −1,2), we get 3 × 1 × 2 + 2 + 3 × 1 × 1 = 11 which is not equal to zero

Similarly,

∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
= 5𝑥𝑧 + 3, = 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 0
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

∴ (ii) becomes 0 + 5𝑥𝑧 + 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2

At point (1, −1,2), we get 5 × 1 × 2 + 3 + 3 × 1 × 1 = 16 which is not equal to zero

∂𝜎𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

And = 𝑦2, = 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥, = 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2𝑦
∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥

Therefore (iii) becomes 3𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2

At the point (1, −1,2), we get 3 × 1 × 2 + 2 × (−1) + 6 × 1 × (−1) × 2 + 2 × 1 + (−1)2 =

−5 which is not equal to zero.

Hence the given stress components does not satisfy the equilibrium equations.

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Recalling (a), (b) and (c) with body forces, the equations can be modified as below.

∂𝜎𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧

+ + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂𝜎𝑦 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂𝜎𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Where 𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 and 𝐹𝑧 are the body forces.

Substituting the values in (d), (e) and (f), we get body forces so that the stress components become
under equilibrium.

Therefore,

3 × 1 × 2 + 2 + 3 × 1 × 1 + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = −11

Also, 5 × 1 × 2 + 3 + 3 × 1 × 1 + 𝐹𝑦 = 0

∴ 𝐹𝑦 = −16

and 3 × 1 × 2 + 2 × (−1) + 6 × 1 × (−1) × 2 + 2 × 1 + (−1)2 + 𝐹𝑧 = 0 ∴ 𝐹𝑧 = 5

The body force vector is given by

𝐹⃗ = −11𝑖ˆ − 16𝑗ˆ + 5𝑘ˆ

13. Boundary conditions

The boundary conditions are specified in terms of surface forces on certain boundaries of a body
to solve problems in continuum mechanics. When the stress components vary over the volume of
the body, they must be in equilibrium with the externally applied forces on the boundary of the
body. Thus the external forces may be regarded as a continuation of internal stress distribution.
Consider a two dimensional body as shown in the Figure

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
Take a small triangular prism 𝐴𝐵𝐶, so that the side BC coincides with the boundary of the plate.
At a point 𝑃 on the boundary, the outward normal is n. Let 𝑋‾ and 𝑌‾ be the components of the
surface forces per unit area at this point of boundary. 𝑋‾ and 𝑌‾ must be a continuation of the stresses
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 at the boundary.

𝑇𝑥 = 𝑋‾ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑚
𝑇𝑦 = 𝑌‾ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑙 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚

in which 𝑙 and 𝑚 are the direction cosines of the normal 𝑛 to the boundary.
For a particular case of a rectangular plate, the co-ordinate axes are usually taken parallel to the
sides of the plate and the boundary conditions (equation a) can be simplified. For example, if the
boundary of the plate is parallel to 𝑥-axis, at point 𝑃1 , then the boundary conditions become

𝑋‾ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝑌‾ = 𝜎𝑦

Further, if the boundary of the plate is parallel to y-axis, at point 𝑃2 , then the boundary conditions
become

𝑋‾ = 𝜎𝑥 and 𝑌‾ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦

It is seen from the above that at the boundary, the stress components become equal to the
components of surface forces per unit area of the boundary.

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Dr. Naveenkumar D T
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Dr. Naveenkumar D T