Soil Mechanics
Soil Mechanics
Soil Mechanics
Structure
1.1
Introduction
Objectives
1.2
Basic Concepts
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.3
1.4
Deformation of Bars
1.4.1 Bars of Uniform Section
1.4.2 Bars of Varying Cross Section
1.4.3 Bars of Uniform Strength
1.5
Composite Bars
1.5.1 Modular Ratio
1.5.2 Equivalent Area of a Composite Section
1.5.3 Stresses in Composite Bars and Load Carrying Capacity of Composite Bars
1.6
1.7
1.8
Summary
1.9
Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The concepts of Strength of Material course involve finding various types of
stresses in structural members (composing a structure, a machine, or any
equipment) due to the action of external forces (loads) that it is supported to
resist. For any design problem, analysis of internal effects, i.e. force, stress, strain
and deformation etc. is a essential intermediate step. In fact, it is very first step
towards studying the behaviour of material under the influence of external loads.
In this unit, we will study the concepts of stress and strain which are of utmost
importance for understanding the behaviour of materials. The unit includes
Strength of Materials
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
When you have clearly learnt these concepts, you will be able to use your
knowledge to understand the behaviour of solids under simple loadings and will
be able to design such members. You will also be able to verify whether such
members are safe under the loads they are subjected to. In addition, you will also
be able to find the load carrying capacity of members whose geometric and elastic
properties are known.
Look at the common swing shown in Figure 1.1, which you would have enjoyed
playing with during your earlier days. When a child sits on the swing we may not
perceive any appreciable deformations. But if the iron bars be replaced by
bamboo sticks and the iron chain be replaced by rubber strings, we can observe
considerable deformations as shown in Figure 1.2. We may then conclusively say
that whenever forces are applied on solids, deformations are introduced in them.
All solids are deformable solids; hence, the subject which once was called
Mechanics of Deformable Solids is now simply called Mechanics of Solids.
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
You may wonder as to why we should have the term rigid solid at all, if in reality,
there are no such solids. It has been already mentioned that the term rigid solid is
only a conceptual idealization. There are a few important uses for such
idealization. Consider the analysis of forces in the members of some of the plane
trusses. You were given the geometry of a structure (which in its totality may be
considered as a solid of complex geometry), on which some forces have been
presented to act. While analyzing these structures (solids) for finding out the
member forces, the forces in the members have been resolved into their horizontal
and vertical components, assuming that the member orientations have not
changed due to the application of external forces. In reality, the orientations of
most of the members change, as the structure deforms under the loads. However,
these deformations and hence, the resulting changes in member orientations are
so small that the error in computed member forces are negligibly small. You may
think that even these errors may be eliminated by taking into account the
deformations too. But an attempt to do so will reveal the complexity of the
calculations involved. The corrections thus effected are called secondary effects
and may be neglected in most of the cases. In the analysis of other types of
Strength of Materials
structures also when the overall equilibrium is considered the entire structure or
any part under consideration may be treated as a rigid solid.
In many cases, known as determinate problems, the analysis of forces within a
solid can be calculated treating it as rigid.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.3
Now, to keep the element 1 in static equilibrium, element 2 should exert a force
R (= P) on element 1. At the same time, element 1 exerts a force P on element 2
so that equilibrium exists at the point or surface of contact. The element 2 is again
pulled by the equilibrant R exerted by element 3. Thus equilibrium exists at each
and every point or surface of contact and each of the elements are kept in
equilibrium.
The force P (or R) shown in the figures is only the resultant of forces applied over
some area (small or even full). On any area the force may not be distributed
uniformly. However, we may consider an infinitesimally small area A over
which a small part of the total force P may be considered to be uniformly acting.
8
dP
P
may be called as pressure (suctional or
= or rather Lt
0
dA
A
compressive) at the point. Considering a small element having the area dA on one
of its faces as shown in Figure 1.4, we realize that this pressure is accompanied
by the equilibrium pressure on the opposite face of the element.
Figure 1.4
(ii)
1 2
,
...
L1 L2
Strength of Materials
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
We may also observe that both tensile stresses and compressive stresses act
normal to the surface on which they act. For this reason, they are both classified
as normal stresses. However, there are many instances of load applications when
the stresses are induced in directions other than that of the normal to the surface.
10
A few such cases are shown in Figure 1.6. A small element is shown enlarged in
scale. Beside the element the coordinate system is also given. The plane BEFC is
normal to the x axis and is, hence, defined as x plane. Similarly, the planes DCFG
and ABCD are defined as y and z planes respectively.
You may also observe that the stress on x plane is normal (tensile), stress on y
plane is inclined and that on z plane is parallel to the plane itself. The stresses that
are acting parallel to the plane on which they are applied are called shear
stresses. On further consideration we may resolve the stress on the y plane into
components parallel and normal to the surface. Hence, on any plane, there may be
normal stresses, shear stresses or both. Further, while the direction of normal to a
plane is uniquely defined, there are infinitely large numbers of directions in
which shear stresses may be applied on a plane.
Whatever may be the direction of shear stress, it can be further resolved into
components in two mutually perpendicular directions, and having done this, you
would have completely defined the stresses acting on a plane. Defining such
states of stress on all the planes will furnish the complete state of stress on the
small element (or at a point).
Let us now consider a few examples of solids in which shear stresses are induced.
Figure 1.7 shows how two steel plates are connected together by a riveted joint.
When the connected plates are pulled, the pull from plate A is transmitted to plate
B through the rivet. The rivet may be considered to consist of two parts. Part C of
the rivet carries the force P from plate A by diametric compression or bearing,
while part D of the rivet transmits the load P to plate B by bearing. The transfer
of force from part C to its counterpart D takes place at the common interface
namely its cross sectional area at middle length. On this area, the force P is
applied parallel and hence, the rivet is in shear.
Again consider two wooden blocks connected together by some glue and also
connected to a rigid base similarly, as shown in Figure 1.8. If a horizontal force P
is applied on the x plane of the block A at the top, this force is transmitted to the
base through a horizontal surface which is the common interface between the
base and the block D. As the force is parallel to the surface on which it is acting,
it is shear force and the stress induced by it also should be shear stress. On further
scrutiny, you will find that the transmission of force from one block to another in
the assembly is only as shear force and not only on interfaces between two
adjacent blocks, but on any horizontal.
(a)
Figure 1.7
11
Strength of Materials
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
and
Fy = 0
Figure 1.9
xy = yx.
That is xy is always accompanied by yx and this pair of shear stresses are called
complementary shear stresses.
When a piece of carrot is cut into two pieces, the force exerted by the knife acts
on surface parallel to the force and hence the carrot is sheared into two. Likewise,
you may think over the various cases of load applications in our day-to-day life
and identify the cases in which shear stresses are involved.
A mild steel rod of known diameter and length of about 400 mm to 500 mm
is firmly gripped in a universal testing machine and a deformeter is fixed on
the rod over a measured gauge of 150 mm to 200 mm. The rod is subjected
to axial tensile load. The load at any instant is indicated by the load dial of
the UTM while the elongation of the bar over the gauge length is measured
through the deformeter.
13
Strength of Materials
The load is gradually applied on the bar in suitable increments and the
corresponding elongations of the bar are measured at each stage. The test is
carried out until the specimen ultimately fails by rupture. The load values at
each stage are divided by the cross sectional area of the bar to get the stress
values and the corresponding elongations of the bar divided by the gauge
length given the strain values. A graph is drawn relating stress and
corresponding strain. A typical stress-strain curve for mild steel is shown in
Figure 1.10.
14
Figure 1.11
From the results of such a study the following observations may be made.
(i)
When the loading is done within the proportional limit of the solid,
the strain (deformation) caused is fully recovered when the stress is
removed. (If the load is partially removed, a proportional amount of
strain gets relieved.)
(ii)
When the solid is loaded beyond yield limit and then unloaded; only a
part of the strain is relieved and a considerable part of strain still
persist thus effecting permanent changes in the geometry of the solid.
The strain remaining unrelieved is known as permanent set.
If the numerator is yield point stress, a factor of safety is 2 usually allowed and if
it is ultimate stress, factor of safety may be 3 or more.
All materials do not behave as mild steel. The stress-strain curves of a few
materials are given in Figure 1.12. Irrespective of the variety of shapes seen in
these curves, one can identify in each of them a segment where the curve may be
considered linear. This limit is taken as the elastic limit for the material.
15
Strength of Materials
The overall behaviour of the material and its complete stress-strain relationship is
discussed here only in order to caution the designer to keep the stress level well
within the elastic limit. Hence, for practical purposes the stress-strain relationship
is taken as linear and during the rest of this course you will not be dealing with
nonlinearity of material behaviour. Hence, for a designer, stress is always
proportional to the strain and the proportionality constant is defined as Elastic
Modulus.
Thus,
or
. . . (1.1)
. . . (1.2)
Eq. (1.2) indicates that the Elastic Modulus of a material may be calculated by
measuring the slope of the stress-strain curve (within the elastic limit). The fact
that Eq. (1.1) holds good within elastic limit which has already been taught to you
as Hookes Law, which we may restate as follows :
Within elastic limit the strain produced in a solid is always proportional to the
stress applied.
16
Poissons Ratio, =
Lateral Strain
Longitudinal Strain
While applying tensile force on a rod we found that the deformations produced
involved change of volume of the solid as well as its shape. Such deformations
may be found in many other cases of loading. Deformations involving change of
volume and shape are more common. However, we may identify two special
cases of deformations, dilatation and distortion.
Dilatation is defined as change in volume (bulk) of the solid without change of
shape. If normal stress components of equal magnitude and same nature (all
tensile or all compressive) are applied on all the three mutually perpendicular
planes of a solid element as shown in Figure 1.13, the solid will undergo only
volume change without any change in shape. Such a state of stress (as may be
obtained in the case of solid subjected to hydrostatic pressure) is called
volumetric stress and the change of volume produced per unit volume of the solid
is called the volumetric stress. The ratio between volumetric stress and
volumetric strain is defined as Bulk Modulus.
Thus,
Bulk Modulus, K =
Volumetric Stress
Volumetric Strain
. . . (1.3)
in which
Volumetric strain =
Change of Volume
Original Volume
. . . (1.4)
The state of stress, with equal values of stress components in all the direction is
also known as spherical state of stress.
The state of deformation involving change of shape without any change of
volume is defined as Distortion. Though distortion may be introduced in many
ways let us consider a simple case. When shear stresses are applied on a solid as
shown in Figure (1.14), we find that angular deformations are introduced. The
angular strain or change in angle produced is called shear strain denoted by
(Greek gamma) and its magnitude is expressed in radians. The ratio of the applied
shear stress and the shear strain produced by it is defined as Rigidity Modulus or
Shear Modulus of the material, i.e.
17
Strength of Materials
Rigidity Modulus, G =
Shear Stress ()
Shear Strain ( )
. . . (1.5)
We have so far defined four elastic constants, namely, Youngs Modulus, (E),
Poissons Ratio (), Bulk Modulus (K), and Shear Modulus (G). Later on we shall
learn that these four are not independent constants, but are related to each other.
We can show that there are only two independent elastic constants and the other
two are dependent on them.
Figure 1.15
Stress in the solids is in the longitudinal direction and its magnitude may be
calculated as
=
Load P
=
Area A
If the Youngs Modulus of the material, E, is known, the strain induced may be
calculated as
=
P
=
E AE
As strain is only deformation per unit length, the total elongation of the bar is
calculated as
= . L =
Thus,
18
Elongation =
PL
AE
P
L
AE
. . . (1.6)
You may please note that the strain, , calculated here is in the longitudinal
direction and is accompanied by strains in the lateral directions also whose
magnitude is given by . Let us now consider a few numerical examples.
Example 1.1
If the bar shown in Figure 1.15 is 2 m long with rectangular cross section of
300 mm deep and 400 mm wide, calculate the change in volume of the solid
due to a longitudinal compressive force of 720 kN/mm, if the elastic
constants E and for the material are known as 120 kN/mm2 and 0.2
respectively.
Solution
720 1000
P
= 0.00005
=
AE
120000 120 10 3
(Note that all the values have to be converted to consistent units; here, it is
N for forces and mm for length.)
dV = l (1 + 1) b (1 + 2) d (1 + 3) l . b . d
dV = l bd (1 + 1) (1 + 2) (1 + 3) l bd
= l bd (1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 + 1 2 3) l bd
= l bd (1 + 2 + 3 + 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 + 1 2 3)
Neglecting the second order products,
dV = V (1 + 2 + 3)
. . . (1.7)
Now let us calculate the change in volume of the given solid using Eq.
(1.7).
Change in volume, dV = V (1 + 2 + 3)
19
Strength of Materials
= 3600 mm
Though there is a small error, the approximation is quite satisfactory. (As an
exercise you may calculate the percentage error in the value.) If you are very
particular about accuracy, you use the following formulation:
dV = V (1 + 2 + 3 + 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 + 1 2 3)
SAQ 1
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.16
= i =
PL
P1L1
PL
+ 2 2 + ... i i + ...
A1E1 A2 E2
Ai Ei
750 300
200 2 60
4
750 400
135 2 60
4
750 200
750 500
+
100 2 60
60 2 60
4
4
750 300
400 200 500
+
+ 2 +
= 2.14865 mm
2
2
2
200
135
60
100
60
4
In the bar, shown in Figure 1.16, the axial pull is applied at the ends and hence
the axial force in all the members is same. In the bar, shown in Figure 1.17(a), the
external forces are applied at intermediate sections also. In such cases, the axial
force in each member should be evaluated first, before any deformation
calculations. This can be accomplished by considering equilibrium of each of the
sections where external loads are applied. Though no external load has been
prescribed at the LHS end, the support reaction has to be calculated and taken as
the external load. Equilibrium analysis can be easily carried out by treating each
segment as a free body as shown in Figure 1.17(b).
For example, consider the equilibrium of the segment 4 in Figure 1.17(b). At the
RHS end of the member a point load of 60 kN is applied. Hence, for the member
to be in equilibrium a force of 60 kN should be applied at the RHS end of the
member. Hence, the member is subjected to a tensile force of 60 kN which is
represented by the internal arrows in accordance with the sign conventions you
have already learnt. Member 3 is pulled with a tensile force of 60 kN exerted by
member 4 and in addition the external force of 80 kN also pulls the member in the
same direction, resulting in the member carrying a total tensile force of 140 kN.
Proceeding thus, the axial forces in all the members can be calculated. To
simplify the graphical representation we may show the member forces along with
external forces as shown in Figure 1.17(c).
Now let us calculate the total elongation of the bar, taking the elastic modulus, E,
as 200 kN/mm.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.17
(c)
Figure 1.17
21
Strength of Materials
= i =
Pi Li
Ai Ei
Pi Li
, if we recognize that Li is sufficiently small and Ai
Ai Ei
may be taken as uniform over the length of the small segment. That is, the
expression
Pi Li
now becomes
Ai Ei
Pi Li
.
Ai Ei
Figure 1.18
Figure 1.19
H0
Pdx
2
D2 x
E
4 H
The integral in above equation may be evaluated for solids having stepped as well
as continuous variation in cross section. Stepped bars require no special treatment
except that the equilibrium and deformations of each segment may be analysed
separately and added wherever necessary. Even a prismatic segment of the bar
may have to be considered as two or more members, if external loads are applied
at interior points of the segment.
22
SAQ 2
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.22
110 1000
= 137.5 N/mm
800
2 =
50 1000
= 250 N/mm
200
23
Strength of Materials
3 =
120 1000
= 200 N/mm
600
4 =
30 1000
= 200 N/mm
150
The results show that the bar should be made of a material with permissible stress
not less than 250 N/mm. Such a material (should be specially manufactured, if
required) is wasted in segments where the stress induced is much less. For
instance, in segment 1, the stress induced is only 137.5 N/mm. If we reduce the
cross sectional area of segment 1, 3 and 4 to 440 mm, 480 mm and 120 mm
respectively, the stress in all segments will be uniformly 250 N/mm2, the bar
would be safe and we would have effected considerably economy of material.
Such a bar is called a bar of uniform strength. A designer will strive to achieve a
bar of uniform strength, whenever possible. However, due to other constraints
and variations in loadings, it may not always be possible to provide a bar of
uniform strength. Thus, the concept of bar of uniform strength is a design ideal
aiming to effect maximum saving in the material.
Figure 1.23
24
The basic requirement in such a case is that all the three components of the bar
should undergo the same amount of deformation while carrying the load.
Otherwise, the bar which shortens the least alone will be in contact with the load
which is physically impossible, since a component which looses its contact will
not be carrying any load and hence there can be no shortening of that component
which contradicts the assumption that it shortens more. Hence, it is logically
necessary that all the three bars should undergo the same amount of deformation.
This condition is called the compatibility condition or condition of consistent
deformation. Satisfaction of this condition is the basis on which the problem of
composite bars is analysed.
Let the total axial force applied on the composite member P be shared by the
different members as P1, P2 and P3. If the deformations produced are 1, 2 and 3,
then we get,
1 =
P1L1
A1E1
2 =
P2 L2
A2 E2
3 =
P3 L3
A3 E3
. . . (1.8)
Let the elastic modulii of the materials be redefined as E1, m2 E1 and m3 E1, where
m2 =
E2
E1
and
m3 =
E3
E1
= 2 2 = 3 3
E1 A1 m2 E1 A2 m3 E1 A3
. . . (1.9)
. . . (1.10)
P1
m2 A2 and
A1
P1
m3 A3
A1
. . . (1.11)
or
P1 +
or
P1 1 +
P1 =
m2 A2 m3 A3
=P
+
A1
A1
P
m2 A2 m3 A3
1 +
+
A1
A1
. . . (1.12)
After calculating P1 using Eq. (1.12), the loads shared by other members P2 and
P3 may be calculated using the Eq. (1.11).
25
Strength of Materials
In the process of the above solution, we have introduced two terms, namely, m2
and m3 whose values are the ratios
E
E2
and 3 respectively. These ratios are the
E1
E1
ratios of Elastic modulii of two different materials and, hence, are called
Modular Ratios.
Let us now solve the problem of load sharing in the composite member shown in
Figure 1.23.
Here, we have
P = 60 kN
L = 400 mm
A1 =
50 = 1963.5 mm
4
A2 =
A3 =
Elastic modulii for the materials, namely aluminium, copper and steel may be
taken as 80 kN/mm, 120 kN/mm and 200 kN/mm respectively.
m1=
E2 120
=
= 1.5
E1 80
m2 =
E3 200
=
= 2.5
E1 80
60
4398.23
4948
+ 2.5
1 + 1.5
1963.5
1963.5
= 5.6285 kN
Now, using Eq. (1.11),
P2 =
5.62852
1.5 4398.23 = 18.912 kN
1963.5
P3 =
5.62852
2.5 4948 = 35.4595 kN
1963.5
or
26
PA1
[ A1 + m2 A2 + m3 A3 + ...]
P1
P
=
A1 [ A1 + m2 A2 + m3 A3 + ...]
. . . (1.13)
P1
is the stress induced in material 1 and hence,
A1
P
[ A1 + m2 A2 + m3 A3 + ...]
. . . (1.14)
The denominator in Eq. (1.14) has Area unit and is called the equivalent area of
the composite bar, as if composite bar entirely made of material 1 alone. In other
words, if the composite bar in Figure 1.23 is entirely made of aluminum, then the
equivalent area is given as
Aeq = A1 + m2 A2 + m3 A3
= 1963.5 + (1.5 4398.23) + (2.5 4948)
= 20930.86 mm
That is, the composite bar, shown in Figure 1.23, is equivalent to an aluminium
bar of cross sectional area 20930.86 mm, in resisting axial forces. (An
aluminium bar of 163.25 mm diameter will give this area.)
One of the practical examples of composite bars is the R.C.C. column, a typical
cross section of which is shown in Figure 1.24. Here, a 400 mm 400 mm square
cross section of a R.C.C. column is reinforced with 8 numbers of 32 mm diameter
mild steel bars. Taking the Elastic modulii of steel and concrete as Es and Ec and
the modular ratio, m =
ES
as 18, let us find the loads shared by steel and concrete
EC
32 = 6434 mm
4
m = 18
600
153566 = 342.046 kN
269378
600
18 6434 = 257.954 kN
269378
Figure 1.24
27
Strength of Materials
SAQ 3
(a)
Show that the composite bar in Figure 1.23 is equivalent to a steel bar
of cross sectional area 8372.344 mm.
(b)
what will be the total load that a composite bar can carry, and
(ii)
For this purpose, we should know the strength of each material and also we
should be able to calculate the stresses induced in the various components of a
composite bar.
We have already learnt the compatibility condition that the axial deformations
undergone by all the components of a composite bar should be equal.
As the lengths of components are also equal, the strain in each component should
also be equal. Taking the strain of the composite bar as , stress in any component
may be expressed as
i = Ei
or
or
Since,
i =
. . . (1.15)
Ei
E1
E1
= mi E1
E1 = 1, then we can write
i = mi 1
. . . (1.16)
Eq. (1.16) expresses the relationship that the stress induced in any component of a
composite bar should be proportional to its elastic modulus or modular ratio. For
example, in the R.C.C. column shown in Figure 1.24, the stress in steel, s, will be
18 times the stress in concrete. You could have seen this by yourself, if you had
divided the load shared by each member by its area of cross section. Use of
Eq. (1.16) saves some computational effort.
We can get stress in concrete =
28
342.046 1000
= 2.227355 N/mm.
153566
Thus,
= 40.0924 N/mm.
In order to calculate the load carrying capacity, we need to know the strength
(allowable stress) of all the components. For example, let the allowable stress in
concrete be 4 N/mm and the allowable stress in steel be 120 N/mm. There is
another restriction, you can notice, that even though the strength of steel is
120 N/mm, we cannot stress it to the full, because if we stress steel to its full
strength, i.e. 120 N/mm, then concrete will be stressed to 6.667 N/mm, i.e.
120/18, which is not permissible. Hence, the maximum stress that may be induced
in steel is only 72 N/mm, i.e. 4 18.
Now, we can calculate the maximum load the column can support or the load
carrying capacity of the column as follows :
P = s As + c Ac
= 72 6434 + 4 153566
= 1077512 N or 1077.512 kN.
Another type of problem that a designer faces is to decide the amount of steel
required if the column is to support a magnitude of load. For instance, if the
column is required to carry an axial load of 960 kN, let us calculate the steel
requirement.
Maximum stress in steel = 72 N/mm
Maximum stress in concrete = 4 N/mm
Let the area of steel be As.
Area of concrete = 160000 As.
As =
(960000 640000)
72 4
= 4706 mm
This may be provided suitably (say, 8 nos of 28 mm dia bars, which will be a
little more than sufficient).
SAQ 4
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
AS
where A + AS + AC. Take
A
Strength of Materials
(e)
L 1
L T
where, L is the change in length over a total length L when the temperature is
changed by T. Thus,
L = L T
Table 2.1
Material
30
, Coefficient of Linear
Thermal Expansion (k)
11.7 10 6
12 10 6
11.7 10 6
23 10 6
18.9 10 6
18 10 6
28.8 10 6
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.25
Let us increase the temperature of the bar by T. If the bar were free to
expand, it would have increased to a length L + L as in Figure 1.25 (b).
However, this increase in length, L, is completely restrained. Hence, the
restraining force, P, will be equivalent to a force which would have
produced the same change in length. Following these arguments
L = L T =
PL
or P = AE T
AE
L
= T
L
P
. Since the force P is compressive, the stress
A
Now, let us assume that one of the supports of the bar in Figure 1.25 (a) can
move by a distance L (L < L) while the bar is expanding. In this case,
the bar is free to expand by an amount L but is restrained in expanding
31
Strength of Materials
Strain =
(L L) AE (L T L) AE
=
L
L
(L T L)
L
= T
L
L
Example 1.2
(b)
= 12 10 6 K 1
(a)
(b)
Thermal Stress, 2 = T
L
E
L
10
= 12 10 6 100 4 2 105
10
SAQ 5
Two parallel walls 6 m apart are stayed together by a steel rod 20 mm
diameter, passing through metal plates and nuts at each end. The nuts are
32
(b)
Figure 1.26
If the bar were free to expand, it would have extended by a length L given
by
L = L1 1 T + L2 2 T
= (L1 1 + L2 2) T
Hence,
1 =
TE1E2 A2 ( L11 + L2 2 )
, and
( A1E1L2 + A2 E2 L1 )
2 =
TE1E2 A1 ( L11 + L2 2 )
( A1E1L2 + A2 E2 L1 )
Herein, we have assumed that the two parts of the bar are made of two
different materials. Instead, if the entire bar is of a single material of
Youngs Modulus E and coefficient of linear expansion ,
E1 = E2 = E and 1 = 2 =
33
Strength of Materials
1 =
TEA2 L
and
A1L2 + A2 L1
2 =
TEA1L
and
A1L2 + A2 L1
Let us now consider the case of a stepped bar as in Figure 1.26, but which is
free to extend by an amount L (L < L) but restrained thereafter. In this
case, during the free expansion of L the bar remains unstressed but
thereafter develops the stresses 1 and 2 whose values will now be
different than those of fully restrained stepped bar above.
From the above two expressions, the thermal stresses 1 and 2 can now be
written as
1 =
E1E2 A2 [T ( L11 + L2 2 ) L]
( A1E1L2 + A2 E2 L1 )
2 =
EA2 [TL L]
, and
A1L2 + A2 L1
2 =
EA1[TL L]
A1L2 + A2 L1
Example 1.3
A stepped bar made of aluminum is held between two supports. The bar is
900 mm in length at 38C, 600 mm of which is having a diameter of 50 mm,
while the rest is of 25 mm diameter. Determine the thermal stress in the bar
at a temperature of 21C, if
(a)
(b)
Given
Solution
Thus,
A1 =
Also,
(25) 2
Therefore, A1 =
mm2
4
34
and
T = 38 21 = 17C
(25) 2
4
300 +
600
= 14.72 N/mm2
2 = 1
A1
(50) 2
= 14.72
= 58.88 N/mm2
2
A2
(25)
1 =
EA2 [L L]
=
A1L2 + A2 L1
(25) 2
4
300 +
600
4
4
= 10.61 N/mm2
2 = 10.61
(50) 2
= 42.44 N/mm2
(25) 2
SAQ 6
A bi-metallic rod of length 450 mm is mounted horizontally between rigid
abutments. The rod has a uniform circular cross-section and is made up of a
150 mm length of steel and a 300 mm length of copper coaxial with each
other. If the rod is initially stress-free, determine the stress in the rod caused
by a temperature rise of 100 K.
Given
35
Strength of Materials
Figure 1.27
If the bar were not restrained but free to expand it would have extended by
an amount L, given by
L = L T
Due to the restraint, a compressive force P would have developed in the bar
whose effect is to produce a contraction equal to L. Under this force, a
cross-section at a distance x from the larger end would have developed a
stress, x, equal to
x =
P
, where Ax is the area of that cross-section.
Ax
P
==
Ax
4P
d1 (d1 d 2 )
L
x
4 PL
=
Ed1 d 2
E
Ed1 d 2 T
4
Ed1 T
d2
where x is measured from the end with diameter d1 which is the larger end.
36
The maximum stress, max, in the bar occurs at the smaller end with
diameter d2.
Let us consider the bar of Figure 1.27, but now let it be free to extend by an
amount L(L < L) . By following similar arguments as in the previous
section, now the compressive load P developed in the bar will be given by
Ed1 d 2 (L L)
4L
Ed1 d 2 ( L T L)
=
4L
Ed1 d 2 ( L T L)
x =
(d d 2 ) 2
x
L d1 1
L
P=
and hence,
max =
Ed1 ( L T L)
Ld 2
Example 1.4
A circular bar rigidly fixed at both ends is 1 m long and tapers uniformly
from 20 cm diameter at one end to 10 cm diameter at the other end. Find the
maximum stress in the bar, if its temperature is raised through 50oC.
E = 2 105 N/mm2 and = 12 106 K1.
Solution
Here,
d1 = 20 cm = 200 mm
d2 = 10 cm = 100 mm
L = 1 m = 1000 mm
L = 50C
max =
= 240 N/mm2.
SAQ 7
A straight bar has a circular cross-section, the radius of which varies
linearly from 30 mm diameter at one end A to 15 mm at the other end B.
The bar is 1 m long and is fixed rigidly at A, but longitudinal movement is
possible at B against a spring which opposes movement with a constant
stiffness of
20 kN/mm. Initially, there is no longitudinal stress in the bar. The
temperature of the bar then falls by 100 K. Determine the change in the bar
length if E = 69 GN/m2, and = 23 106 K1.
37
Strength of Materials
(a)
(b)
If the individual bars were free to expand (or contract) due to temperature
changes, they would do so to different amounts (for the same change in
temperature), as shown in Figure 1.28(c) and Figure 1.28(d), due to the difference
in the coefficients of linear expansion of the two materials.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Figure 1.28
38
However, since the two materials are rigidly joined as a compound bar and
subjected to the same temperature rise, each material will attempt to expand to its
free length position but each will be affected by the movement of the other. The
higher coefficient of expansion material will try to pull the lower expansion
material to its free length, but will be held back by the latter to its own free length
position. In practice, a compromise will be reached with both extending to a
common position in between the individual free length positions. This, in effect,
is equivalent to a contraction in bar 2 from its free length position and an
expansion of bar 1 from its free position. Thus, the higher coefficient of
Let the stresses in bars 1 and 2 be 1 and 2 due to the temperature change. Then
the above rule can be written as
1L 2 L
+
= ( 2 1 ) L T
E1
E2
Since there are no external forces acting on the compound bar, for equilibrium,
the compressive force in bar 2 should be equal to the tensile force in bar 1. This
means that
1 A1 = 2 A2
and
1 =
A2 E1E2 ( 2 1 ) T
,
A1E1 + A2 E2
2 =
A1 E1E2 ( 2 1 ) T
A1E1 + A2 E2
( A1E11 + A2 E2 2 ) L T
A1E1 + A2 E2
Example 1.5
Let the stress in aluminium bar be a and that in each brass bar be b. Then
for equilibrium
Force in brass = Force in aluminium
b 50 12 2 = a 12 50
or
2 b = a
L + b L = L( a b ) T
Ea
Eb
39
Strength of Materials
2b
or
70 10
b
100 109
or
and
Example 1.6
Figure 1.29
Solution
Let the free thermal expansions of steel and brass be s and b and be the
common expansion. Then
s = (175) (12 106) (100) = 0.21 mm
b = (150) (22 106) (100) = 0.3 mm
If the initial stresses in steel and brass due to 5 kN load are s1 and b1, then
s1 = +
5 10 3 4
= + 44.21 N/mm2
(12) 2
(Tensile)
b1 = +
5 10 3 4
= 18.95 N/mm2
2
2
(31 25 )
(Compressive)
40
s2
(12) 2
(312 25 2 )
+ b 2
=0
4
4
or
3 s2 + b 2 = 0
( b )
s
and b =
175
150
and
s2 =
210
2
( s ) 103 N/mm
175
b 2 =
105
2
( b ) 103 N/mm
150
210
105
( 0.21) 10 3 + 7
( 0.30) 10 3 = 0
175
150
Hence, = 0.262 mm
Thus,
s2 =
210
(0.262 0.21) 10 3 = + 62.26 N/mm2
175
(Tensile)
b2 =
105
(0.262 0.3) 10 3 = 26.28 N/mm2
150
(Compressive)
(Tensile)
b = b1 + b2 = 45.23 N/mm2
(Compressive)
SAQ 8
(a)
A steel rod of cross-sectional area 600 mm2 and a coaxial copper tube
of cross-sectional area 1000 mm2 are firmly attached at their ends to
form a compound bar. Determine the stress in the steel and in copper
when the temperature of the bar is raised by 80C and an axial tensile
force of 60 kN is applied.
For steel, E = 200 GNm2 and = 11 106 K1
For copper, E = 100 GNm2 and = 16.5 106 K1
(b)
(c)
A rigid slab weighing 600 kN is placed upon two bronze rods and one
steel rod each of 60 cm2 cross-sectional area at a temperature of 15C.
41
The bronze rods are 25 cm while the steel rod is 30 cm long. Before
the slab was placed, the top of all the three rods are level. Find the
temperature, at which the stress in the steel rod will be zero.
Strength of Materials
Similarly,
y z
E
E
E
x = y = z = 0
x =
0
(1 2)
E
y =
(1 2) and z = 0 (1 2)
E
E
From Eq. (1.7), we can express the change in volume of the solid as
dV = V (x + y + z )
Volumetric strain, v =
dV
= x + y + z
V
Bulk Modulus,
K=
Volumetric stress
Volumetric strain
0
= 0
3 x
x + y + z
=
42
. . . (1.17)
0
3 (1 2)
E
. . . (1.18)
K=
E
3 (1 2)
. . . (1.19)
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.30
2
=
4
= cos 2
= cos
2
=0
4
= sin 2 =
= cos 2 = 0
or shear strain
Rigidity Modulus
G=
G=
2 (1 )
E
Shear stress
=
2
Shear strain
(1 )
E
E
2(1 )
. . . (1.20)
43
Strength of Materials
stress and strain and implied (without stating) that the ratio holds good for all
x y z
=
.
=
x y z
directions, i.e.
Materials for which this is true are called isotropic materials and throughout this
course you will be learning only about isotropic solids.
When any two of the elastic constants are known, the other two may be calculated
using Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20). Let us have an example.
Example 1.7
E
= 50 GPa
2(1 + )
120
E
=
= 1.2
2G 2 50
Bulk Modulus, K =
=
E
3(1 2V )
120
3(1 2 0.2)
= 66.667 GPa.
SAQ 9
(a)
(b)
(c)
44
3KE
.
9K E
1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt the concepts of stress, strain, elastic modulus and the
basic concepts in application to analysis of stresses and deformation in simple
solids. Any designer of engineering systems has to have a clear perception of how
forces are resisted by solids and the effects produced in solids so as to enable him
to produce designs with safety and stability. The study of these aspects will
require learning further new concepts and methods, understanding of which will
require the knowledge you acquired in this unit. This unit is, therefore, like the
first step in a full flight of stairs climbing which will provide you with a powerful
tool of engineering.
(a)
(b)
SAQ 2
(a)
(b)
SAQ 3
(b)
SAQ 4
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
P = 640 (1 + 17
(e)
AS
) kN
A
SAQ 5
(a)
9.192 N/mm2,
(b)
158.7 N/mm2
45
Strength of Materials
SAQ 6
201.6 MPa
SAQ 7
1.26 mm
SAQ 8
(a)
(b)
s = 123.15 N/mm2
(c)
188.6C
c = 41.05 N/mm2
SAQ 9
46