ASPECTS OF

BIOCHEMISTRY

MS. VERNESSA BHAGWANDEEN

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
Vernessa Bhagwandeen
 Draw the chemical structure of ONE
water molecule. State the type of
bonding, bond angle and label the
atoms. [3]

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
 How does this type of bonding lead to the polarity of water? [2]

o The positive nucleus of the oxygen has a greater attraction or pull on the negative electrons
resulting in the electron cloud being greater on the oxygen atom side. [1]
o The oxygen becomes slightly more negative
o The hydrogen atoms therefore become slightly more positive due to the smaller electron cloud.

*recall: Polarity is defined as an uneven distribution of charge within a molecule. [1]

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 Cohesion and Adhesion

Excellent solvent for ionic and non-ionic substances

High specific heat capacity

Water is a molecule that is important to life due to a variety of properties. Table 1 is an incomplete table showing the link
between some properties of water and examples of its importance to life. Complete the table. [3]

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 – Water as a solvent: like dissolves like
Water is a molecule with
- Excellent solvent for polar substances; ionic (eg salts) & non- ionic (eg sugars) & gases
two positively charged - Free solute molecules are chemically more reactive in solution
hydrogen atoms and one - Hydrophobic interactions determine the 3D structure of many protein molecules, nucleic acids, cell membrane & other cell structures
negatively charged - acts as a transport medium eg blood, lymphatic & excretory systems, alimentary canal & xylem and phloem vessels.
oxygen atom, creating a
positive and negative – The freezing properties of water
polarity in the molecule. - Because density of ice < density of water, due to hexagonal pattern formed by water molecules in ice due to hydrogen bonding
Explain how the polarity - Ice forms at the surface of a body of water then at the bottom last, Ensures the continuation of aquatic life
of the molecule - Acts as an insulator for aquatic organisms which increases their survival

contributes to its - Colder water rises which allows for; maintenance of circulation in large bodies of water, nutrient cycling and colonization o f water at
greater depths.
biological role in EACH
of the following: [8] - The high specific heat capacity of water
- Water as a solvent
- A lot of the heat energy is used to break the H bonds which restrict the movement of the molecules. A large increase in heat
- The freezing properties energy results in a relatively small rise in temperature.
of water - Biochemical processes occur at a smaller temperature range hence there is a decrease in inhibition by extremes of
- The high specific heat temperature. Temperature stability is essential for enzyme activity and homeostasis.

capacity of water – The high surface tension of water

- The high surface
- Water has a higher surface tension than any other liquid, due to hydrogen bonds present.
tension of water
- Important in cells, movement of water in the xylem and settling or skating of small organisms on its surface. Water rises in a
continuous column.
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 June 2014 #4

o There is repulsion of forces between the unshared and shared electrons

which result in the hydrogen atoms being pushed towards each other.
o Hence the V- shaped structure of the molecule, 104.5˚ bond angle
between the two hydrogens. [1]
o The positive nucleus of the oxygen has a greater attraction or pull on
the negative electrons resulting in the electron cloud being greater on
the oxygen atom side. The oxygen becomes slightly more negative, and
the hydrogen becomes more positive. This enables attraction between
adjacent molecules forming hydrogen bonds. [2]
o Polarity of water molecules attracts other molecules or ions that have
charges. [1]
o Dissociation of solids occurs when the water molecules surround the
ions or polar groups and so the solute molecules separate from each
other, so dissolving occurs. [1]
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(i) Transport
– As a solvent substances readily dissolve in water hence can be transported across cell membranes, to cell via blood stream or plant
sap because water can flow.
– Waste products can be quickly removed in solution e.g. urine in less toxic form due to water flow.
(ii) Reactant
- Act as an environment for metabolic reactions e.g. enzymes in cytoplasm will only occur with materials in solution because
polarization makes it easy for molecules to react.
- Water molecules maybe directly involved in metabolic reactions for e.g. in photosynthesis, water is actually used in the light
reaction to form hydrogen and oxygen and other hydrolytic reactions.
(iii) Support - helps cells keep their shape and size
- In plants, when water enters the cell by osmosis, the water fills up the cell, making them turgid which supports non- woody plants.
- Shapes of proteins and nucleic acid and structure of biological membranes are consequences of their interaction with water.
(iv) Buffer
- Temperature control – high water content of cells give them insulation, protects them from rapid temperature changes due to high
specific heat capacity.
- Acts as a pH buffer against changes
(v) Gas Exchange – transport of oxygen in solution hence respiratory surface is moist (e.g. alveoli in mammals)
Vernessa Bhagwandeen
 1.2 Discuss that
macromolecules
are polymers made
up of their
individual
monomers and
formation and
breakage of bonds

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(a) Table 1 below is constructed to show the constituents and types of bonding in THREE
saccharides. Complete Table 1 below. [ 3]

Glucose and fructose 1, 2 – glycosidic bond

Alpha glucose 1,4- glycosidic bonds between monomers

1,6 – glycosidic bonds between chains
Beta glucose 1, 4- glycosidic bonds between monomers
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H bonds between parallel chains
 1.3 Explain the
relationship between the
structure and function of
glucose

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Draw the 2 ring forms of glucose.

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 ISOMERS OF GLUCOSE

Alpha Glucose (Forms Starch Beta Glucose (Forms Cellulose)

and Glycogen)
 1.4 Explain the
relationship between the
structure and function of
sucrose

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By means of a diagram, show the molecular structure of sucrose. Show the position of the oxygen and all
other groups, EXCEPT for the H.OH groups on the No. 2,3 and 4 carbons of glucose and the 1,3 and 4
carbons of fructose.

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SUCROSE
aka ‘cane sugar’
- Respiratory substrate
- Form in which most carbohydrates is
transported in plants
- Storage material in some plants e.g. onion
- Very soluble (can be moved efficiently in high
concentrations)
- Relatively unreactive chemically
 June 2016 #1

Condensation reaction
water

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
With reference to the molecular structure of sucrose, explain why sucrose has an advantage
over glucose as a transport sugar in plants. [3] June 2016

– Sucrose is non- reducing sugar* which makes it less reactive than glucose. [1]
• The aldehyde group of glucose is involved in a glycosidic bond with fructose, so
it is not free to act as a reducing agent.
- This lack of reactivity makes it ideal for transport in plants which occurs at a
slower rate than in animals. [1]
- It is an efficient energy storage molecule as it carries two monomers at once
whereas glucose only carries one (twice amount of energy carried) [1]

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
 1.5 Discuss how
the molecular
structure of
starch, glycogen
and cellulose
relate to their
functions in
living organisms.

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
 The diagrams in Figure 1 below show portions of two polysaccharides.
On EACH diagram, draw ALL the hydroxyl groups (-OH) on carbon number two of EVERY
monomer [ 2]
Circle the groups involved in hydrogen bonding between the two adjacent polysaccharide chains in
cellulose in Figure 1. [1]

Glycogen Cellulose

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June 2013

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 (iii) Amylose –
Structural Property – helical chains which are made
of alpha glucose units, the molecule is insoluble.
Function – Energy storage since a lot of residues can
be stored in a small space due to compact structure.
Hydrolysis occurs readily for release glucose for
energy.
Forms long- term energy storage.

Cellulose –
Structural property – long straight or linear chains
that run parallel to each other with beta glucose
units.

Function – has a structural role due to the formation

of micro- fibrils as the hydrogen bonds between
adjacent chains which adds to its high tensile
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strength.
Suggest TWO ways in which the structure of glycogen supports its functions. [2]

– Glycogen is highly branched, no unbranched chains present, this enables

thousands of glucose residues to be stored in a small space [a lot more than if it
were unbranched]. [1]
– Since the chains are shorter, it is easier for hydrolysis to occur as there are many
access points. This enables glucose to become readily available when needed.
[1]

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1.6 Describe the molecular
structure of a triglyceride
and its role as a source of
energy

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June 2012
#1 (c) Draw and label the structure of a triglyceride. [3]
State ONE feature of the triglyceride molecule that enables it to function as a better energy store than
carbohydrates. [1]

– (i) Glycerol, 3 fatty acids, ester bonds [1 mk each]

– (ii) – higher proportion of H (long hydrocarbon chain) [1]
– Much less oxygen (less than 6) compared to carbohydrates.
– Greater number of carbon atoms or CH bonds

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
June 2018
#1 Explain how TWO features of a polyunsaturated fat are related to its function in animal tissues. [2]

– (ii) Polyunsaturated fats: acts as an energy store.

1. Due to its length of fatty acid tails, the fat has a higher proportion of H and an
almost insignificant amount of Oxygen hence it can yield a lot of energy on
oxidation. [1]
2. No OH groups means lipids are unable to form Hydrogen bonds with water
hence remain insoluble (marine animals can survive in cold areas).
3. Higher bond energy in C double bond C than C single bond C, therefore when
the double bonds are broken, more energy is released. [1]

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
 1.7 Describe the structure
of phospholipids and their
role in membrane structure
and function

Vernessa Bhagwandeen
June 2015
#4 (a) (i) With the aid of an annotated diagram, describe the structure of phospholipids. [4]

– Drawing showing 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acid tails, 1 phosphate head and properly
labelled [2]
– Head : hydrophilic – phosphorus atom bonded to oxygen atom, electrically
charged, so is attracted to water. [1]
– Glycerol: connect phosphate group to fatty acid chains.
– Tails: hydrophobic chain – oily, uncharged, non- polar. Chains of carbon atoms
that are oily and are hydrophobic. [1]

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 1.8 Describe the
generalized structure of an
amino acid, and the
formation and breakage of
a peptide bond.

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June 2015
#4
– Correct description of general structure of an amino acid. [1]
– Peptide bond correctly labelled or described [1]
– Correct condensation reaction indicated showing how water is
lost. [2]
– How amino acids differ from each other.
– R groups are different as in glycine, proline, glutamic acid. [1]
– They maybe polar or neutral, acidic or basic, aromatic (ring) or
aliphatic (straight). [1]

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 1.9 Carry out
tests for
reducing, non-
reducing sugars,
starch, lipids,
proteins.

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 June 2013 #1

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– (a) (i) Biuret – proteins
– Benedict’s – reducing sugar
– Lugol’s Iodine – starch
– Grease spot – Lipids (fats)

(ii) Potato chips, pepperoni pizza, donuts

* pink is an indication of low concentration of peptide bonds.

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 – Cell structure and growth of the
cell:
– eggs, hamburger, pepperoni pizza,
donuts
– High levels of proteins for use in
making intrinsic and extrinsic
proteins, hormones, enzymes
– Lipids present in all except eggs, for
cell membrane formation

- Supply of energy :
- All foods except hamburger since it
did not contain neither sugar nor
starch (can be broken down into
sugar) which are used in aerobic
respiration to make energy.

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June 2017 #1

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 (i) The ripe banana will contain a higher
quantity of reducing sugar than the green
banana.

(ii) Green, half- ripe and ripe bananas all tested

positive for reducing sugars with the same colour
intensity but the height of the precipitation formed
was 0.8cm higher in the ripe than green bananas,
showing a greater quantity of reducing sugar. [1]

- The ripe bananas had more than 2 times the

reducing sugar than half- ripe bananas. [1]

- With the starch test, the intensity of the blue

colour decreased from green to ripe bananas
indicating lowered amounts of starch present. [1]

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 (iii) Banana is a natural source of
sugar, to get more energy
immediately , ripe bananas should
be eaten. [1]

- Green bananas will keep you full

longer due to its high starch
content. [1]

(iv) Control – to test if solutions or

chemicals are contaminated or not.
[1]

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1.10 Compare the different
levels of protein structures.

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 June 2014 #1

– Primary Structure – sequence of

amino acids in the polypeptide
chains held by peptide bonds. [1]

– Secondary structure – polypeptide

chains exhibit folding into alpha –
helix and beta pleated sheets
[1]
– which results from the formation
of H bonds. [1]
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 – Tertiary structure – the polypeptide
chains bend and fold extensively
forming a precise, compact “globular”
shape. [1]

– This is maintained by the interaction

of 4 types of bond; ionic, H,
disulphide bridges and hydrophobic
interactions. [1]
– Quaternary structure – the precise
arrangement of the 4 polypeptide
chains (2 alpha + 2 beta chains); held
together by mainly hydrophobic
bonds, ionic and H bonds. [1]
– At the center of each chain has a
prosthetic haem group containing
iron. [1]
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 1.11 Outline the
molecular
structure of
haemoglobin, as
an example of a
globular protein
and of collagen
as an example of
fibrous protein.

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 June 2014 #1

(b) Role of Haemoglobin

1. Haemoglobin functions to transport
oxygen.
2. An oxygen molecule can bind to each
haem group. [1]
3. Quaternary structure increases capacity
to carry oxygen.
4. Change of tertiary structure as first
oxygen binds which allows other haem
groups to take up oxygen more readily
(Co-operative binding) [1]
5. Globular structure has hydrophilic side
chains facing outwards, making the
molecule soluble in water. [1]
Vernessa Bhagwandeen
 June 2011
#4
– (i) Structure of Collagen:

– Primary structure- sequence (linear) of amino acids (approximately 1000) consisting largely of glycine and proline are
joined together by peptide bonds. Every 3rd amino acid is glycine.

– Secondary structure- helical left handed twisting of chain which is held together by hydrogen bonds.

– Tertiary structure- three dimensional conformation resulting in a fibrous protein.

– Quaternary structure – association of polypeptides triple helices. 3 triple helices forms tropocollagen which then
forms microfibrils which then align to form collagen fibres, stabilized by covalent bonds.

– (ii) Collagen’s rigidity and strength comes from H bonding within chains and within triple helical units. It is resistant to
stretching as the triple helices are linked by overlapping of ends. This enables its biological role in the formation of
tendons.
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Vernessa Bhagwandeen