Homeostasis

The ability of an organism to control its internal environment e.g. core

temperature, blood sugar level and pH of blood!
Negative feedback
An increase or a decrease is detected, a response is triggered, the level of
the substance is brought back to normal.
Positive feedback
Process which results in a substance departing from its normal level
becoming further from the normal.

The Endocrine system

Hormones are chemicals produced by the endocrine system to carry
information around the body
Endocrine glands have no ducts but pour their secretions directly into the
blood.
Hormones may be protein or steroids/lipid
Most endocrine glands secrete hormones in small amounts
Hormones mat be effective for a long time
Hormones have target organs bearing specific receptor sites on their
membrane.

Control on the oestrous cycle

Menstrual Cycle
This is the human equivalent
Day 0-5 menstruating outer layer of endometrium removal
Day 6-14 development of the Graafian follicle
Day 14, ovulation (release of secondary oocyte)
Day 15-28 development of endometrium and formation of corpus luteum

Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle continues until menopause. It is controlled by four
hormones; Follicle stimulating Hormone oestrogen, luteinising hormone
Progesterone (FLOP)
Oestrogen and progesterone are made in the ovary
FSH and LH released from the anterior pituitary gland (at the base of the
brain)

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

Stimulates the development of a follicle containing the secondary oocyte
into a graafian follicle. Stimulates oestrogen production from the follicle

Oestrogen
Started the repair of the endometrium following menstruation. Also
stimulates luteinising hormones.

Luteinising Hormone
This brings about ovulation i.e. the release of the secondary oocyte and
corpus luteum formation. It also stimulates progesterone production from
the corpus luteum
Progesterone
Thickens the endometrium and causes secretion of mucus from its cells.
Also progesterone inhibits FSH.

Those high levels of progesterone inhibit FSH whole level drops

The other hormone levels then drop in turn
Without LH to stimulate it the corpus luteum degenerates
The small amounts progesterone can no longer maintain the
endometrium which sloughs off-mensuration
The low level of progesterone remover FSH inhibits and the cycle
begins again

Regulation of Blood glucose level

Normal level of blood glucose are 90mg/100cm cubed blood maintained to
ensure a constant supply of glucose for respiration.
An increase will lower the water potential of the blood leading to
dehydration of the adjacent cells.
A decrease will lead to inadequate ATP productions from respiration
Pancreas as a receptor
The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas detect a change in the blood
glucose level and respond by secreting the hormones insulin from its beta
cells or glucagon from its alpha cells to re-establish normal values.
Storage of glucose
It is stored as glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle. The molecule is
compact and insoluble in water therefore has no osmotic effect.

Hormone control of blood glucose level

Raised blood glucose level
Occurs after eating carbohydrate, glucose is absorbed into the blood. If
glucose is above the normal value, it is detected by Beta cells of the islets
of Langerhans which secrete insulin.
Insulin, a protein hormone, travels in the blood and binds to receptor sire
on the surface membrane of all cells but especially liver and skeletal
muscle cells.
Insulin:

Increase the permeability of cells to glucose by opening glucose

channels in the membrane
Increase the number of these carrier in the membrane
It activates enzymes to stimulate the reaction of glucose to
glycogen (glycogenesis)
It may also activate enzyme to convert glucose into fat

Therefore:

Cell respiration increase to produce more ATP

Increases glucagon in liver and muscles

Increases fat stores

Thereby removing glucose from the blood.

Hyperglycaemia
The water potential of the blood is lowered causing the movement of the
water from the cells into the blood by osmosis.
This-dehydrates the cells

Increase blood pressure

When the glucose reserves of glycogen have been used up the body
responds by metabolising stored fat than proteins. The products produce
toxins

Lowered blood glucose levels

Below normal levels of blood glucose are detected by Alpha cells of the
islets of Langerhans in the pancreas which then produce the protein
hormone Glucagon and secrete it into the blood. Only liver and muscle
cells have receptors on their plasma that bind to glucagon:

It activates an enzyme to catalyse the conversion of glycogen into

glucose (glycogenesis)
Glucagon also stimulates enzymes to convert amino acids to
glucose

The raising of the blood glucose level causes the alpha cells to reduce the
secretion of glucagon. This is negative feedback.
The action of glucagon is antagonistic to that of insulin. The two are
mutually exclusive when on is working the other is not. This allows very
sensitive control of blood glucose levels about a set point.

Adrenaline and blood glucose levels

Adrenalins is produced when the body is stressed. It :

Activates an enzyme to catalyses the conversion of glycogen to

glucose
Inactivates the enzyme converting glucose to glycogen

Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1
Normally occurs early in the life and may be due to an autoimmune
response whereby the bodys own immune system attacks its own beta
cells of the pancreas. It develops quickly over a few weeks
Insufficient insulin is produced. Blood sugar levels become high and stay
high, but body cells do not receive enough glucose. Proteins and fats are
broken down.
Symptoms: weight loss and weakness. Glucose is excreted in the urine.
The person is thirsty. Possible lack of consciousness.
Treatment:
Insulin injections 2-4 times a day but the dose must be accurate as if the
does is too high hyperglycaemia results. Insulin cannot be taken orally
as the protein hormone would be digested
Type 2
Occurs in older people especially overweight. Usually produce lots of
insulin but liver and muscle dont respond to it.
Treatment:
Exercise and diet to lose weight, may be supplemented by insulin
injections. Drugs to stimulate insulin production may also be taken.

Second messenger model of hormone action (protein

hormone)
Insulin, glucagon and Adrenaline are all protein hormones

The protein hormone combines with the receptor site on the target
cell membrane to form an hormone-receptor complex

This process release Adenyl Cyclase which catalyses the

conversion of ATP to Cyclic AMP, with the release of a great deal of
energy.
A specific enzyme which does the job dictated by the protein
hormone is the activated.

Thermoregulation
There are 3 ways that the body gains or loses heat:

Conduction- the heat is passed to particle, mostly in solids

Convections- heat is carried on particles of gas or liquid as a
current
Radiation- energy transfer as electromagnetic waves.

Control of Body Temperature in Endotherms

This is by the hypothalamus

The hypothalamus has thermo receptors to monitor the temperature
of Blood passing through it-core body temperature
Receptors in the Skin send sensory impulses too.
Any change in core temperature will cause the hypothalamus to
bring about changes which conserve heat or lose heat

Heat Loss
Vasodilation
Hypothalamus send impulses to the skin arterioles, there muscle relaxes
and the dilate to fill blood and supple more to the surface capillaries
This gives:
1) A shorter diffusion distances for heat to reach the skin surface
2) More heat at the skin surface

Heat is rapidly Conducted through the short distance to the skin surface
where it is Radiated away from the body.

Sweating
More sweat secreted onto skin surface. Body heat is used to evaporate
water
Pilorelaxtion
Impulses cause the hair erector muscle to relax. Less air is trapped
this reducing the insulating effect of body hair.
Long term heat exposure
Body accumulates by reducing the hormone thyroxin, to decrease the
metabolic rate.
Behavioural mechanism
Many animals are nocturnal avoiding the hot part of the day. Human seek
shade, a breeze and rest to have less muscle activity, less muscle
respiration and therefore less heat produced.

Heat Gains
Vasoconstriction
In cold conditions the superficial arterioles contract, so reducing the
quantity of blood reaching the skin surface in its capillaries. This way little
heat is lost be radiation from the skin surface
Sweating
Decreased rate of sweating
Shivering
Involuntary contraction which produces metabolic heat through the
extra respiration needed for energy
Insulation
It is an effective means of reducing heat loss from the body e.g. a
jumper adds a extr layer of air and other behavioural responses.
Metabolic Rate

Increased metabolic rate by making more of the hormones adrenalin

and thyroxine.
Piloconstriction
Impulses along the sympathetic nervous system from the hypothalamus
and cause the hair erector muscle to contract. Ait is trapped, warming
up and reduces the thermal gradient between the body and the
external environment.

Protein Synthesis
The expression of a gene (DNA in a nucleus) involves the production of
protein (on ribosomes or in a cytoplasm)
RNA-ribonucleic acid
Ribonucleic acid mononucleotide is made of 3 main parts:
1) Ribose sugar
2) Nitrogen base; guanine cytosine, adiene and uracil
3) Phosphate
It is a single chain that is shorter then DNA
Types of RNA
There are three types, messenger RNA, transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA
1) Messenger RNA- a single strand, synthesised in the nucleus then
leaving t direct protein synthesis
2) Transfer RNA- a single strand folded into a clover leaf shape. It
carries the amino acid needed for protein synthesis.
3) Ribosonal RNA ( what ribosomes are made of)

Genetic Code
This is the sequence of bases carrying genetic information. The RNA base
works in triplets to make sufficient codes to stand for 20 amino acids.

As there are 4 different bases; this means there are 64 3 letter codes to
stand for 20 amino acids so:

Some amino acids have more than on triplet- Degenerate

A gene is a sequence of nucleotides, so they must never overlap.

Gene Mutation
Any change in the DNA quantity or structure is called a Mutation.
A mutation in a body cell is not passed on to the next generation.
However, a mutation in a gamete is.
A gene mutation is a change in one or more nucleotide bases. (Downs
syndrome, an extra chromosome. 21 is a chromosome mutation.
A sequence of DNA codons is transcribed onto mRNA then translated into
a sequence of amino acids.
Therefore a change in a DNA base could cause a change in the amino acid
sequence.

Base Substitutions
Nonsense mutation.
If a base is changed (e.g. GTC ATC) instead of coding for glutamine we
code for Full stop.
A short non-functional protein is produced.
Mis-sense mutation.
If a base is changed (e.g. GTC GTG) instead of coding for glutamine we
code for histidine and this will affect the 3D tertiary structure formed by
hydrogen ions and disulphide bonds.
Silent mutation
Ia base is changed (e.g. GTC GTT) we still code for glutamine which has
more than one codon (a consequence of the degenerate code) so there is
no effect.
Base Deletions

If a single base is deleted, as bases are read in threes (codons) there will
be a frame shift. The gene is now read in the wrong 3 base groups and
the amino acid sequence will probably be totally different.
Causes of mutations
They happen spontaneously and randomly during mitosis or meiosis, with
a set frequency (mutation rate) they are permanent
They are assisted by external influences called mutagens (e.g. high
energy radiation, certain chemicals) which increase the mutation rate.
Cancer and uncontrolled cell division
The rate of cell division is controlled by 2 genes:
Photo-oncogenes which speed up cell division
Tumour suppresser genes which inhibit cell division
A proto-oncogene stimulates cell division by:
1) Producing growth factors at appropriate times.
2) Producing the correct no. of receptors on the cell membrane with which
the growth factors bind.
3) The binding stimulates the production of relay proteins within the cell.
4) The binding of relay proteins to DNA opens up the gene for cell division.
Mutation of a proto-oncogene into an oncogene

1) Growth factore made in excessive amounts

2) Abnormal receptors produced which are permanently activated
They need no growth factors
Tumour suppressor genes.
These counter the effect of an oncogene and maintain normal rates of cell
division ie prevent tumour formation.
If a tumour suppressor gene mutates it is inactivated.
The mutant cells formed are often incapable of sustaining themselves and they
die but survivors can clone themselves, forming tumours.

Regulation of gene action.

A gene is opened by a transcriptional factor in the cytoplasm.

The transcriptional factor has a binding site white binds at the start of the
genes position on the DNA.

When it leaves the cytoplasm and enters the nucleus, the transcriptional
factor binds to the dna and the double helix opens.

mRNA is transcribed

mRNA is translated on the ribosome in the cytoplasm

when the gene is off the transcriptional factor binding site to the DNA is
blocked by an inhibitor.

The role of oestrogen in gene regulation.

-Oestrogen is lipid soluble and diffuses through the phospholipid bilayer
(membrane)
-The transcriptional factor has a receptor molecule attached.
-the oestrogen binds to the complementary shaped site on the receptor
-The receptor changes shape, causing the transcriptional factor to release its
inhibitor from the DNA binding site.
-The transcriptional factor can enter the nucleus and bind to DNA.
-The gene is stimulated to open.
SiRNA (Small interfering RNA)
This is involved in a process tha can cut up mRNA thereby preventing translation.
So even if an open geen is transcribed, it can be prevented from having an
effect.
NB
(an enzyme cuts up double stranded RNA into SiRNA pieces. One strand
combines with an enzyme that can cut up the mRNA)
DNA technology
Genetic engineering
This is the way genes are altered or transferred from one organism to another
organism.
The new altered genetic material is called recombinant DNA
Producing DNA fragments
In some diseases individuals cannot make chemicals for themselves e.g. insulin
(a protein normally produced from its gene by transcription and then translation).
Instead of using other animals as a source (immunelogical rejection, expensive,
microbial contamination) if the human gene can be isolated, cloned, and
transferred to a microorganism, the microbe can make the pure insulin for you.
Restriction endonuclease
-enzymes extracted from microbes
-they cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences called recognition sites
enzyme 1 makes a blunt end
GTTAAC
CAATTG

Enzyme 2 makes a staggered cut, leaving two complimentary ends which

are called sticky ends
AAGCTT
T TCGAA

Hind III recognises the 6 base pairs (bp) sequence

Once the cut has been made, if the 4 unpaired bases on each end are read from
left to right they are the opposite of each other i.e they are palindromic.
Plasmids
A plasmid is a small loop of DNA inside the bacterial (prokaryote) cell in addition
to the bacterial chromosome.
It can be removed, cut open, have an etra gene put in, and sewn back up again.
In this way it is used as a vector (carry extra gene into the host cell).
Performing genetic engineering
-remove the plasmid from a bacterial cell.
-cut it open using a specific restriction endonuclease (e.g. Hind III) to form sticky
ends This will occur at the recognition site.
-cut out the required gene (e.g. for human insulin) from human DNA using the
same restriction endonuclease. (the required gene will then have
complementary bases making its sticky ends compared with the plasmid)
- Add the required gene to the opened plasmid.
- The complementary bases will form a weak link with hydrogen bonds.
-Use the enzyme DNA ligase to permanentl bond the gene and the plasmid. It
will bond the sugar-phosphate back bones (phospholipidiester bonds formed by
condensation reactions)
-Temperature shock the bacterium and bombard it with Ca++, this will transform
the bacterium and allow it to take up the recombinant plasmid.
Reverse transcriptase to make a gene
-mRna for human insulin is extracted from a cell, islets of Langerhans.
-Treated with reverse transcriptase to produce a single strand of DNA. DNA
nucleotides have to be supplied.
-Treated with DNA polymerase to form a double helix of DNA (synthetic gene)
again DNA nucleotides have to be supplied.
-The ends of the synthetic gene are cut, producing sticky ends using restriction
endonuclease.
-The same restriction endonuclease is used to open the plasmid as was used to
cut the synthetic gene.
-DNA ligase is used to incorporate the gene into the plasmid (forms
phosphodiester bonds).
Marker Genes
Antibiotic resistance markers
To check if a bacterial call has received the plasmid containing the new gene a
gene for resistance to an antibiotic e.g. tetracycline can be spliced alongside it. If
the cells are grown on a medium containing tetracycline, only the ones with the
antibiotic resistance gene will grow (they also have the new gene).
Flourescent markers
A certain species of jellyfish has the gene to produce a green fluorescent
pigment. This gene can be engineered out of the jellyfish and incorporated into a
bacterial plasmid; it will be obvious that the bacterium has taken up the plasmid
because the bacterium will fluoresce green. If a useful gene (e.g. human insulin)
is spliced in alongside you can quickly separate any that have not taken up the
plasmid.

Enzyme markers
When the lactase is secreted it will change the colour of a particular indicator
blue.
If a required gene is spliced within the lactase gene and the plasmid bearing
them is successfully taken up by a bacterium, it will not be able to make lactase
and the medium will stay colourless.
Untransformed bacteria with the original entire lactase gene would still produce
the lactase and turn the medium blue.
The polymerase-chain reaction
Detective work may rely on minute quantities of DNA (blood, sperm, skin cell)
used as evidence. PCR allows a way of copying fragments of DNA many times
thereby increasing the quantity of DNA that can be analysed.
1) A piece of DNA is targeted
2) Primers are made. These are short lengths of single stranded DNA (20-30
nucleotides) artificially synthesised to be complementary to one end of
each of the two original DNA strands.
3) Buffer is added and the DNA is heated to 95 degrees for 20s to separate
the strands in the target DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds.
4) The primers are added and the solution allowed to cool to 55degrees so
that hydrogen bonds can form between the DNA and the complementary
primers.
a. The primersi. Provide the starting point for the DNA polymerase as it can
only build up from an existing sequence
ii. Prevent the two separated strands from rejoining.
5) DNA nucleotides (deoxyribose sugar, phosphate and base) and DNA
polymerase are added. The enzyme is extracted from heat tolerant
bacteria living in thermal springs ie. It is a thermostable enzyme.
The solution is heated to 72 degrees for 30s. This is the optimum
temperature for the enzyme and it allows two new strands of DNA to form
alongside the originals.
6) The process is repeated (every 2 minutes).
In vitro (PCR) an In Vivo (Mitosis) cloning
In Vitro
In Vitro is very rapid
In Vitro does not require living cells (complex culturing)
In Vivo
In Vivo is useful to transform another organism (plasmid used as a vector to
deliver the gene)
In Vivo has almost no risk of contamination as restriction endonucleases are so
specific (rogue DNA unlikely to have the sticky ends to enter the plasmid).
In Vivo is accurate. Mutations very rare, but PCR sometimes copies incorrectly.
In Vivo is precise (cuts out specific genes with no extra DNA).
In Vivo transformed bacteria can be grown on to make many gene products.

Electrophoresis

The radioactive DNA (*DNA) fragments have an equal negative charge.

A voltage is applied across agar gel. The smaller fragments are attracted
to the anode fastest as they have less mass.
After a set period of time the fragments have become separated by mass.
X-ray film is placed over the gel for several hours and the radioactivity
exposes the film showing where it is on the gel. A pattern of bands
develop.

Gene Probes
Produced as follows:
Make a piece of DNA with the complementary base sequence to the gene.
Label it radioactivity

The DNA to be tested s digested by a restriction endonuclease into smaller

pieces.
Pieces separated by gel electrophoresis into different sizes (=charge diff
mass)
Alkali added makes test DNA single stranded
Test single stranded DNA transferred to a membrane
Gene probe added to membrane and left to bind complementary
sequence.
If the gene probe washed away it has not bound to DNA on membrane
no gene.
If *gene probe has bound there will be fogging on photographic film.

Genetic fingerprinting
Non-coding DNA is used (introns). Introns contain repetitive DNA called
sequences. The number and length of the core sequences vary uniquely with
individuals. Identical twins (identical genotype) have identical introns.

All the DNA is extracted from blood, sperm, root hair cells etc.
Its quantity can e magnified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Restriction endonucleases are used to cut the DNA (at specific points
called recognition sites determined by the base sequence) close to the
core sequence.
DNA segments are separated by gel electrophoresis.
The gel is immersed in alkali to make the DNA single stranded.
The gel is covered with a nylon membrane and a piece of absorbent paper.
The DNA is drawn up onto the membrane by capillary action and fixed in
position by UV light.
Radioactive gene probes (with a complementary base sequence to the
core sequences) are added different probes for different core sequences.
The probe will bind to the sections being looked for I they are present, if
they are not the gene probe will wash away (it has not bonded)

X-ray film is placed over the membrane. The remaining DNA will develop a
pattern of bonds, each one corresponding to the position of the DNA
fragments.

Interpreting results
If there seems to be a match, a machine auto-scans the fingerprint, and
calculates the odds of someone else having the same print.

DNA sequencing

Modify the 4 bases A, G, T, & C so that they cannot attach to the next base
in the sequence terminator nucleotides.
Put identical single strands (clones) of the DNA to be tested in each of 4
test tubes.
Add the nucleotides A G T & C
AAdd a small quantity of A terminator to test tube 1, and G T & C
terminators to test tubes 2 3 & 4
Add a *primer to start DNA synthesis
DNA polymerase is also added to catalyse the DNA synthesis.
The normal A competes with A* in test tube 1, randomly- so different sized
fragments form all ending in A.
All the *lengths of DNA are collected.

Restriction Mapping
A piece of DNA is cut with a series of known restriction endonucleases. Each
enzyme will make the cut at its own recognition site.
For a piece of DNA that has only one recognition site for each enzyme, each will
make only one cut.
If they are used in pairs, the cut lengths will differ depending on the pairing
chosen each time.
Uses
For 2 similar DNA where one DNA sequences is known; the degree of overlap can
be determined, meaning that only some of the DNA sample has unknown base
sequence far less work.

Ideal exam answers

tRNA has an anticodon of complementary bases;

tRNA caries a specific amino acid; Amino acids joined by peptide bonds by
condensation reaction;
Plasmid = Small; circular piece of DNA; in prokaryote; that carries resistance
genes;

RNA polymerase; ataches to start of gene; H0bonds break one DNA strand is
used as template; it has complementary base pairings; the DNA base sequence
is copied into mRNA; introns are removed;
Oestrogen inhibits production of FSH; so preventing follicle development;
therefore ovulation;
Negative feedback = process that returned a certain level back to normal e.g.
returning body temp back to normal when cold or hot.
Totipotency & Cell specialisation
All cells contain the same genes, meaning that every cell can produce everything
that the body makes potentially.
-Some genes are permanently switched on e.g. for enzymes involved in
respiration.
-some genes are permanently switched off, e.g. insulin production gene in
the heart muscle cell.
Zygote Cells
A fertilized egg (zygote) and the first few cells produced from it have the ability
to develop into any type of cell in the body.
They are called totipotent cells.
Later these cells differentiate and become specialised for different functions.
(e.g. muscle clells to contract, bone cells for strength) ie the genes coding for
proteins to make the specialisation are switched on, extraneous genes are turned
off.
Turning off genes
There are two main ways of doing this.
-Preventing transcription and hence the production of mRNA.
-Breaking down the mRNA before its genetic code is translated.
can specialised cells ever develop into a different type of cell?
-Xylem, red blod cells have no nuclei no they have lost their DNA and
have no genes at all.
-Mature specialised cell lost their totipotency.
- Adult mammals have a few totipotent cells ie undifferentiated cells
capable of dividing e.g. skin, inner lining of small intestine, bone marrow. Bone
marrow cells make blood cells. Also embryonic stem cells.
-Under certain conditions stem cells can deveop into other types of cells.
They can be used to treat some disorders e.g. sickle cell anaemia.
Plants
Mature plants have many totipotent ells. E.g. a carrot root cell on nutrient
medium with appropriate hormones added it will form small carrot plants. This is
In vitro culturing and the new plant is a clone of the original plant.

The nervous system

Stimulus & response

Both plants and animals respond to a stimulus in order to increase survival

changes.
Taxes (animals
A simple response whose direction is determined by the direction of the stimulus
e.g. positive phototaxis (move towards lights), negative geotaxis (move away
from gravity)
Some bacteria move towards specific chemicals-positive chemotaxis
Kinesis (animals)
A response where the organism moves neither towards nor away from the
stimulus but moves randomly faster as the intensity of the stimulus increases.
E.g. if a woodlouse finds itself in too dry an area, this activity increases the
likelihood of finding moisture if they do their movements slow and there are
fewer changes in direction.
Tropisms (plants)
A growth movement in response to a directional stumulus
Shoots Positively phototropic
Roots Positivel geotropic and negatively phototropic and positively
hydrotropic

Plant Growth Factors

IAA (INDOLELACETIC ACID)
A shoot grows towards light as follows:
-cells in shoot tip make IAA
- it diffuses down the shoot evenly.
- on the light side of the shot the light destroys the IAA
- The concentration on the shaded side is higher.
- the IAA here (darkside) causes these cells to elongate more than those in
the light.
- The shaded site grows larger cells.
Roots
Increased IAA = decreased growth

The Nervous System

The nerve impulse
In neurones an influx of Na+ across the neurone membrane causes it to create an
impulse or action potential.
The Resting Potential
-neurones have a charge across theirh membranes. This is called the resting
potential.
-The inside of the neurone is negative with respect to the outside. It is said to be
polarised.

-This charge different is a result of the distribution of four ions, K +, Na+, Cl-, and
COO- (protein).
-The protein is made inside cells and cant easily escape.
-Th ecell membrane contains sodium pumps using ATP energy for their active
transport. 3x Na+out of the cell, only 2K+ in. This creates a more negative charge
inside the cell.
-K+ concentration inside the cell and associate with protein (COO -) to try to
maintain electrochemical neutrality.
-Cl- accompanies Na+ ion gates within the membrane which provides a route
whereby K can escape along its diffusion greadient as they are not completely
closed. Relatievly few K+ escape however because they are still attracted to
overall negative charge inside the cell (also Na + gates but they are completely
closed.)
-This means slight positive charge is set up outside the cell membrane making
the inside more negative with respect to the ouside i.e. we have resting
potential, charge different of -70mV.
Na+ gate
COO-

K+ gate
3xNa
+

2xK
+

The action potential

Cl+

Na+ pump

-Depolarisation takes place. This is when the charge acros the membrane is
reversed to give a positive charge inside the cell.
- The proteins making the ion channels change shape and open or close
depending upon the voltage across the membrane (voltage gated channels)
-The energy of the stimulus causes sodium ion channels to open and massive
amounts of sodium ions diffuse in along their concentration gradient such that
the positive charge they carry first neutralised the negatively charged interior
then reverses it ie depolarises it.
-Once a few sodium ions (Na+) gates have opened, and Na+ started to diffuse in,
many more Na+ gates open to positive feed back.
-When some Na+ have entered a generator potential has been produced.
Eventually so many Na+ have entered, and the interio is so positive with respect
to outside that the threshold value has ben passed and an action potential is
formed.
-The action potential is at around +40mV.
-Cl- is left behind with its negative charge thus making a potential difference
between the inside and outside of the cell which is the reverse of the resting
potential.

Na+ huge
amounts

COO-

K
+

ClAction Potential ^
Repolarisation
-Na+ gates close now.
- K+ gates open and there is a diffusion out of K + along its diffusion and electrical
gradient, from the interior of the neurone. This causes more K + gates to open
and a massive outward diffusion of K+ so that the cell interior is once again
negative.
-The is a temporary K+ over shoot which causes the membrane potential to
become slightly more negative in the cell then at resting potential. This is called
Hyperpolarisation.
-K+ gates close now. Na+ pumps which exchange sodium for K+ will re-establish
the normal Na and K distributions once more. This is the resting potential.
NB
-For a short time after an action potential a further action potential cannot be
generated. The Na+ and K+ channels have to reshape themselves. This is called
the refractory period.
Repolarisation
K+ Huge
Amount

3xNa+
2xK+