SOKOTO STATE UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO

DIVISION OF GENERAL STUDIES

COURSE : GST 111: COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH I

SEMESTER : FIRST
SESSION : 2019/2020
GROUPS : A–E
LECTURE NOTE

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 COURSE OUTLINE

Module One: The Basics of English Communication

Module Two: English Sentence Construction
Module Three: Punctuation in English
Module Four: English Letter writing
Module Five: English Comprehension
Module Six: English Language Skills
Module Seven: Collection and Organization of Materials and Logical Presentation
PREAMBLE
This course is aimed at helping new undergraduate students acquire the right skills that will enable them
communicate effectively as university students both in writing and speech. This is the offered in the first
semester with a continuation in the second semester, each with its own separate continuous assessment and
examination. Remember this old children’s rhyme about the eight parts of speech of English grammar:

Every name is called a noun,

As field and fountain, street and town.
In place of noun the pronoun stands,
As he and she can clap their hands.
The adjective describes a thing,
As magic wand or bridal ring.
Most verbs mean action, something done,
To read and write, to jump and run.
How things are done the adverbs tell,
As quickly, slowly, badly, well.
The preposition shows relation,
As in the street or at the station.
Conjunctions join, in many ways,
Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase.
The interjection cries out, “Heed!
An exclamation point must
follow me!”
MODULE THE BASICS OF ENGLISH COMMUNICATION
ONE

Your ability to communicate effectively as a university student using good or fluent English
requires you to first and foremost know about how to talk about yourself. Self-expression is the
beginning of a successful communication. To introduce yourself, here are some useful tips you
can employ:
Begin with: name > family > birthday > city > status > future/hope/ambition
Example:
My name is …………………. (Yusuf)
I was born to the family of … (Mr and Mrs Yakub)
On the …………………… (25th of February, 1999)
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 At……...………………... (Mabera area of Sokoto)
I’m ………………………. (a student (of Sokoto State University))
I …………………………. (want/hope to become an entrepreneur)

Here are some other single expressions to introduce yourself:

My name is............................................ I’m…………………………..........................
Nice to meet you; I’m………………… Pleased to meet you; I’m...........................
Let me introduce myself; I’m................ I'd like to introduce myself; I’m.................

Apart from knowing how to introduce yourself, you also need to know how to introduce friends
or classmate to others. Some tips to use are:
Begin with: greeting>introducing your friend’s name>your relationship>Purpose of being
around
Example:
Hello guys!
I want you to meet Zainab.
she is my secondary school mate.
she is a student here too in Biology Department.

Here are some other expressions to help you while introducing your friends to others:
-Hussaini, please meet Tahir. -Anas, have you met Ishaq?
-I'd like you to meet Maimunat. -I'd like to introduce you to Kabir.
-Mus’ab, this is Babangida. Babangida this is Mus’ab.
Some useful responses when someone introduce themselves to you:
-Nice to meet you. -I am pleased to meet you.
-Happy to meet you. -How do you do?
After knowing how to introduce yourself and others, below is an illustration of timing and forms
of greeting in English:
Time Greeting
Morning (12:00am – 11:59am) Formal: Good morning
Informal: Morning
Afternoon (12:00pm – 4:59pm) Formal: Good afternoon
Informal: Afternoon
Evening (5:00pm – 11:59pm) Formal: Good evening
Informal: Evening
‘Good night’ is never used as a form of greeting but as a farewell for the day.
Apart from greetings based on time, there are also neutral ones as follows:
Greeting: Hello! (Formal) Response: hi!
Greeting: Hi! (Informal) Response: Hi! What’s up!

Apart from knowing how to introduce yourself, how to introduce others as well the different forms
of greeting as part of the requirement to engage in communication using English medium, you also

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need to know how to start as sustain a good conversation. The structure of every conversation is
divided into three. These are:
i.Opening
ii.Main Discussion
iii.Termination/Closure
i.Opening: the first stage in conversation is the opening stage. Here, some of the things required
are;
Greeting Good morning! Good Morning Sister
Asking Questions How do you do? How are you doing?
Making Commendations You got a really nice watch! I really like your course!
Making condemnations Who gave you this fake ID card?
When you meet someone for the first time and would like to engage the person in a
conversation, the first thing to do is to open up with a greeting. This is followed by some
questions that ask about the person’s well-being, work, family etc. Some people will not open
up for conversation after just greeting and some question exchanges. You need to make some
pleasant comments about somethings concerning them such as clothes, jewelries, dress etc. At
times people who could not buy into pleasant comments will respond to unpleasant ones such
as condemning their work, dress etc. but this should not be employed unless when or where
necessary.
ii. Main Discussion: here you have to be able to sustain the conversation you opened. At this step,
your aim should be to make the conversation as long as possible. Here are some tips:
a. Pose questions that elicit responses longer than one or two words. What you ask may
depend to some degree on your level of familiarity with the person you’re talking to —
something to keep in mind while reading the following examples:
"What was the best part of your weekend?" beats “Did you have a good weekend?”
“What are your experiences living in this area?” beats “How long have you lived around
here?”
“Tell me about your wife and your family” beats “Are you married?”
b. Re-word their answers into new questions. Good conversationalists listen to others when
they speak and ask the right questions when the opportunity arises. To that end, you can
keep this conversation rolling not by changing the subject or asking a new follow-up
question. Rather, do so by rewording their answer into a new question, even if you know
that you’re not really saying anything new.
Example:
Speaker A: I am a student.
Speaker B: wow! What kind of student? Secondary or tertiary?
c.Pass on control of the conversation. You should position the other person as the primary
talker in the conversation and yourself as the listener. The wider benefit of this positioning is
fairly simple: That person will more likely recall the conversation as an enjoyable one if they
did more of the talking.

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 Example:
Other speaker: I’m a footballer
You: Wow! I like football! How can I become a footballer too?
(Allow the other speaker much chance to do the talking even if you’re not interested in his
topic)
iii. Termination/ Closure: every conversation must have a closure or termination. There must be
indication that the discussion is coming to an end. At this stage, one has to make good use of proper
indicators such as:
Well, I guess it is time I take my leave!
I think I have to be going now!
I’m afraid this is where we have to call it a day!
Thank you for your hospitality, I got to be going!
I really enjoy meeting you, I’m afraid this is where I have to leave! etc.

MODULE ENGLISH SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

TWO
A sentence is a meaningful unit of grammar consisting a single word or a group of words that
expresses a complete thought, feeling, or idea. A sentence contains a subject and a predicate
containing a finite verb. Your ability to form short and simple sentences is the beginning of your
progress as a writer. The subject is the performer of an action while the predicate is the information
about the subject. Consider the following examples:

Subject Predicate
The boy is my younger brother
Hashim is an intelligent student
I like oranges
The students are sweeping their new classroom
Attah and Zainab are friends
My new school bag has been stolen yesterday

Similarly, apart from the traditional structure of a sentence into subject and predicate above, a
sentence contains elements that make up its structure or form. These elements are as follows:
i. Subject (S)
ii. Verb (V)
iii. Object (O)
iv. Complement (C)
v. Adverbial (A)

The Subject is the part of a sentence or utterance, usually a noun (boy), noun phrase (the boy), or
equivalent i.e. pronoun (I), that the rest of the sentence asserts something about and that agrees
with the verb.

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The Verb is a word indicating action (read) or state (is). It is a word used to show that an action is
taking place (is reading) or to indicate the existence of a state or condition, or the part of speech to
which such a word belongs.

The Object is a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase denoting somebody or something that is acted on
by a verb or affected by the action of a verb. The object can also be governed by a preposition (in
the garage, on the table, at him).

The Compliment is a noun or noun phrase describing or giving additional information either about
the subject or object of the sentence. The word Chairman in the sentence ‘they elected Mubarak
chairman’ functions as the compliment of the noun (object) Mubarak.

The Adverbial is an adverb, a phrase or clause that functions as an adverb which modifies a verb,
an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, e.g. "happily,” or "very frankly.
Study the following examples:
i. He showed her the neckless today. (SVOOA)
ii. We came first in the competition. (SVCA)
iii. He called the driver with the red scarp yesterday. (SVOCA)
iv. They showed us the way to the garden. (SVOOA)
v. She could not write her name on the sheet. (SVOA)
vi. The new students like their department very much (SVOA)
vii. Tijjani put sugar in the tea yesterday. (SVOAA)
viii. Today is my first day at the university. (SVCA)
ix. Jelani is the new captain from today. (SVCA)
x. They washed all the plates after the dinner. (SVOA)
Sentences can be classified based on their function and structure.
There are about five (5) types of sentences according to their function. These are as follows:
i. Declarative/Statement sentences: these are sentences that state or explain an action
or state of affairs. Examples:
I am a 100 level student of Sokoto State University.
We went to Kaduna last week.
The hostel is very beautiful.
ii. Interrogative/Question sentences: these are sentences that seek answers or
information. Examples:
Are a 100 level student of Sokoto State University.
Where do you have GST 111 lecture?
What happened at the dinner?
iii. Imperative/Command sentences: these are sentences that give order to carry out or
perform an action. Most command sentences have a hidden subject. Examples:
(You) get out of this room.
(All of you) submit your scripts.

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 (Halima) don’t sit there.
iv. Request sentences: these are sentences that politely seek permission or order an
action to be carried out by someone. Request sentences are different from command, in
that they are said politely and can either be accepted or rejected by the addressee.
Examples:
May I open your new drawer and see?
Can I go and ease myself Sir?
Please will you help close that window?
v. Exclamatory sentences: these are sentences that express the feeling or state of the
mind of the speaker. Most exclamatory sentences end with an exclamatory mark. They can
also be in form of single words or group of words. Examples:
Yes!
What a goal!
What a beautiful house!
Similarly, four (4) types of sentences are recognized according to their structure. These are as
follows:
i. Simple sentence: this is a sentence which has only a main clause (comprising a
subject and a (finite) verb) and can stand alone to make a complete sense or sentence.
Examples:
I love my mother. The boy is intelligent.
The game has started. Our goods have arrived
Muhammad won the final. Abuja is the capital of Nigeria
ii. Complex sentence: this is a sentence which has one main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. Examples:
We arrived here when you were sleeping. They all love me when I was rich.
They saw you where there is a new bookshop. I will seize it if I see it with you.
She told him what he scored in the test. Keep it where you can find it.
iii. Compound sentence: this is a sentence which has two main clauses joined together
by a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are seven in number known as
fanboys (for, and nor, but, or, yet & so). Examples:
She failed the test for it was not easy. The gate was opened and we entered.
I can’t hear you nor will I understand you. They came back but I didn’t see them.
(You) sit down or (you) go out. The match was tough yet we won it.
Mubarak came with his friends, so, we welcomed them.
iv. Compound complex sentence: this is a sentence which has two main clauses and
one or more subordinate clauses. Examples:
When we arrived, the gate was opened and we entered.
We came and we saw you where you were building a shop.
We did not ask them, yet they told us what she scored in the test.

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With these examples, one can go ahead to be using sentences as many as possible depending on
the situation requiring them to do so. A learner should be able to move beyond making simple
sentences to complex one to demonstrate their ability to construct sentences in English.

MODULE PUNCTUATION IN ENGLISH

THREE
Punctuation refers to the use of standard marks to clarify meaning in writing. The marks are called
punctuation marks and are used to help convey the emphases and breathing pauses natural to
speech, to indicate sentence structure, and to enhance readability. Punctuation varies from
language to language and preferences for specific marks vary from writer to writer, but, within any
given text, consistency is stylistically favoured. The contemporary trend is toward a minimum of
punctuation, with clarity as the main criterion for use. The most common punctuation marks of
modern English usage are as follows.
A. End Punctuation Marks
i. Period/ Full Stop (.) Most sentences end with a period, which signals a strong pause.
Examples:
This is our university.
We are proud to be students of Sokoto State University.
The mark is also used in decimals and after abbreviations that do not contain
apostrophes. Examples: 1000.00 and e.g., i.e. P.T.O. etc.
ii. Question mark (?)
With the exception of requests worded as queries, direct questions end with question
marks. E.g. what concerns you?
Requests sometimes close with periods instead. E.g. May I sit down please. In the
body of a sentence, a question mark between parentheses suggests doubt. E.g. if I can
remember (?), your name is Samira.
iii. Exclamation Mark
This mark ends a sentence expressing a strong feeling, surprise, or incredulity.
Examples: What a delicious meat! You did what! Etc.
iv. Ellipsis (…)
This mark stands for one or more omitted words; when the omission occurs at the end
of a sentence, the ellipsis appears together with a period. Example: Ninety-nine days
for the thief…one day for the owner.
B. Middle Punctuation Marks
v. Comma (,): the comma, a versatile and often misused punctuation mark, indicates a
light pause and is chiefly utilized to separate a structural unit of a sentence. E.g. when
I finished, you were gone. Commas appear most frequently to set off principal clauses,
parenthetical material closely related to the main thought, direct quotations, forms of
direct address, coordinate adjectives, and words or numbers that would otherwise be
confusing. Current usage favours the insertion of a comma only where a pause is
intended.

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 vi. Semi Colon (;)
This mark represents a pause weaker than a period but stronger than a comma. It is
used chiefly between principal clauses and between components of a series, when the
components are lengthy or already contain commas. E.g. Yesterday, we went home;
packed all our things, and returned to hostel.
vii. Colon (:)
The colon most often stands between an introductory statement and an immediate
amplification. It also follows the salutation of a formal letter and divides hours from
minutes in statements of time. E.g. I am Salim: the new captain of your team.
viii. Hyphen (-)
Hyphens join many compound nouns, e.g. class-room, head-office etc., all compound
adjectives, and, when they are spelled out, the elements of two-digit numbers and
fractions.
ix. Apostrophe ( ’)
An apostrophe followed by the letter ‘s’ at the end of a noun signifies possessive case.
E.g. Shafiu’s shop. The mark followed by an ‘s’ also pluralizes letters of the alphabet,
figures, and words discussed as words. E.g. A’s B’s etc., 0’s and 10’s etc. Within
contracted words, apostrophes replace the eliminated letters. E.g. don’t, won’t etc.
x. Quotation Marks (“ ”)
Direct quotations are preceded and followed by these marks. E.g. “I am retired” said
the old man. Slang and special-sense words and titles of short written works, such as
poems, short stories, and songs, are also often set off by quotation marks.
xi. Parentheses ( ( ) )
These marks enclose matter of secondary importance. E.g. The captain (of the home
team) played the final very well.
xii. Dash (—)
This mark usually stresses the materials that follow it. Dashes also emphasize
parenthetical thoughts and convey sudden interruptions in thought. E.g. Yekini — the
bull, missed the match.
xiii. Brackets ( [ ] )
Primarily used to enclose interpolated materials, brackets also set off parenthetical
matter within passages already enclosed by parentheses. Examples:
They know [the truth] about the matter.
My commitment [to the team] has not changed. Etc.

MODULE LETTER WRITING

FOUR

A letter is a piece of writing sent to other people containing certain information. Our grandparents
and great-grandparents wrote letters all the time: to their friends and families, to the bank manager,
to express condolences, to complain, to invite someone to visit, to accept an invitation and to thank

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people for hospitality or gifts. Nowadays, we don’t need to write letters very often and it’s become
a dying art. Emails, Facebook, Twitter and instant messaging mean that we can stay in touch all
the time. There are still, however, times when writing a letter is appropriate, and it’s good to know
when, and how to write one.

Knowing how to write a letter is a fundamental skill you'll use in business, school, and personal
relationships to communicate information, goodwill, or just affection.
Generally, there are two kinds of letter:

i. Formal (written for formal communication with leaders, elders etc.)

ii. Informal (written for personal communication with friends, parents, relatives
etc.)

Here's a basic guide on how to put your thoughts to paper in the correct format.

S/N FORMAT FORMAL INFORMAL

LETTER LETTER
1. Writer’s address & date Present Present
2. Receiver’s address Present ×
3. Salutation Present Present
4. Title/subject/heading Present ×
5. Body (introduction + main body + Present Present
conclusion)
6, Complementary close Present Present

The Structure of a formal letter

Writer’s Address: A letter usually begins with the writer’s address. As a writer, you must know
how to go about writing your address. We have two types of writer’s address, personal/private and
public address. Depending on the kind of letter you are writing whether formal or informal, you
may choose to make either of the two as exemplified below:

Personal/private address Public address

12, Wurno Road, Department of English Language and Linguistics,
Gawon Nama Area, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences,
Sokoto, Sokoto State University,
Sokoto State. Sokoto.
March 22, 2020. 22nd March 2020.

Here are some hints about writer’s address:

-It is written in toggle form. (I.e. each letter begins with a capital letter and continued with small
one (except for prepositions, conjunctions and articles)). DO NOT write it all in capital or all in
small letters.
-It is written either as personal or official depending on the situation

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-It is written hierarchically. (I.e. starting with the smaller location to bigger ones. E.g. Nagarta
College, before Sokoto, and then Sokoto State etc.
-It can be private or public.
-The date can be American (MM DD,YYYY) or British (DD MM YYYY)

The Receiver’s address: The receiver is the person to whom the letter is written. Only formal
letters have this type of address. Here are some hints on how to write the receiver’s address:

-It is written on the right hand side of the paper immediately below the writer’s address
-Each word begins with a capital letter (except prepositions and conjunctions e.g.: of, in, and,
with etc.
-It contains NO date and usually begins with “The….” Etc…
Consider the examples below:

Example 1: Example 2:

The Examinations Officer, The Executive Chairman

Department of English Language, Sokoto North Local Government
Sokoto State University, Sokoto State.
Sokoto.
NOTE: if you use comma (,) for the first line, you have to maintain the trend in all the lines, with
the last line taking a full stop (.) (See example 1). If you decide not to use comma, only the last
line then will take full stop (as in example 2). Some recipients such as Governor, President, Sultan
and Emirs etc., are given special title like Your Excellency, Your Eminence, Your Royal Highness
etc., before addressing them as ‘The Governor’ or ‘The Sultan’.

The Salutation:

This is a very simple part of the letter. It goes like this:

Formal:
Dear Sir, or Dear Madam, or Dear Sir/Madam (No need for name)
Informal
Parents: Dear father, or Dear mother, (Dear dad, or Dear mum) (No name)
Relatives: Dear uncle Hashim, or Dear Hashim, (Name is optional)
Friends: Dear Ishaq or Dear Maryam (Name MUST be mentioned)

The Title
The next item is the title which is present only in a formal letter. It is the summary of the letter.
Here are some of the examples:

1. APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT AS A CASHIER

2. Request for a Two-Day Permission to Visit Home
3. Complaint for Omission of Result
4. SEEKING SPONSORSHIP TO ATTEND A FOUR-DAY WORKSHOP
Etc.

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Note: if written all in capital letters like in examples 1 and 4, there is NO underlining. If written
with initial capital letter for each word (with the exception of prepositions and conjunction), then
the title has to be underlined as in examples 2 and 3.

The Body

The next part is the body of the letter. It contains the introduction, the main body and the
conclusion. Whether formal or informal, the introduction begins with a sentence not a question as
so many learners do. Example:

Formal: I write to kindly (repeat the title but in detail) apply for employment as a cashier in
your reputable organization. Or, I write to kindly request for a two-day permission
to go home, so as to attend wedding of my younger sister.

Informal: I am very happy to write this letter to you. How are you and your studies? I hope
you are doing fine......…

The Main Body

This is where the reason for writing the letter is stated both for formal and informal letter. It begins
with a new paragraph and is usually two or paragraphs long. Words such as however, similarly,
moreover, additionally etc., can be used to join one paragraph and the next.

The Conclusion
This is the final part of the letter. Words such as in conclusion, finally, lastly, etc., are used to
introduce the concluding paragraph. One common mistake students make is the use of
*conclusively.

The Complementary Close

This written at the bottom of the letter on the left hand side (for formal) or on the right hand side
(for informal letter). Below are some examples:

Formal Informal
Yours faithfully Yours sincerely
(Signature) M. Mahmud (nickname/abbreviation is
allowed)
(Full name of the writer)

Other examples for informal letter can be ‘Yours son’ (when writing to parents), Yours
friend/lovely/affectionately (when writing to a friend).

The General Structure of a Formal Letter

A formal letter has a standard structure, which is shown in the format below:

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 Your full address
Date of the letter
Name of the position of the person to whom you are writing
Their full postal address

Dear [Sir or Madam or Sir/Madam],

The subject/title/heading of the letter

The text of the letter (introduction + main body + conclusion)

Yours [faithfully or sincerely,]

[Sign in this space]
[Your full name] ([your title: Mr, Mrs, Ms])
MODULE OUTLINES AND PARAGRAPH
FIVE

Outlining refers to the appropriate arrangement of main points, sub points and minor points when
writing an essay. Often when preparing to write an essay, the major points match the key ideas
that would be in the topic sentences for the paragraphs of the essay. The first Roman numeral
would be for the introductory paragraph, the next for the first body paragraph, the third for the
second body paragraph, with the total number of Roman numerals equal to the number of
paragraphs in the essay.
The following shows how outline format is set up and used:

I. Main point follows a Roman numeral.

A. Minor points follow behind capital letters.
B. Each minor point must refer to or be a part of the major point above.
1. If there are sub points below the minor point, use Arabic numeral
2. Notice that each line is indented according its importance
3. Each sub point must be related to or a part of the minor point it follows.
a. If there are points below sub points, they use lower case letters.
b. They are indented below the sub point and are related to the minor point
C. The next minor point below the major point.
II. Next major point follows Roman numeral II
A. Minor point
B. Minor point
1. Sub point
2. Sub point

This same format and pattern continues until the outline is complete. Outlines can be used as a
guide for oral presentation or for other kinds of reporting. The first Roman numeral would be for

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 the introductory paragraph, the next for the first body paragraph, the third for the second body
paragraph, with the total number of Roman numerals equal to the number of paragraphs in the
essay.

PARAGRAPH

A Paragraph refers to a distinct section of a piece of writing, usually dealing with a single theme
and indicated by a new line, indentation, or numbering. Paragraphs are self-contained units of a
discourse in writing dealing with a particular point or idea. A paragraph consists one or
more sentences.
Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. A paragraph is a subdivision of a written
composition that consists of one or more sentences, deals with one point or gives the
words of one speaker, and begins on a new usually indented line . Many students define
paragraphs in terms of length: a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences, a paragraph is half
a page long, etc.

In reality, though, the unity and coherence of ideas among sentences is what constitutes a
paragraph, a paragraph is defined as “a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit”
(Lunsford and Connors 116). Length and appearance do not determine whether a section in a paper
is a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph
can be just one sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences that
support one main idea. We will refer to this as the “controlling idea,” or “the topic sentence”
because it controls what happens in the rest of the paragraph.

There are many different ways to organize a paragraph. The organization you choose will depend
on the controlling idea of the paragraph. Below are a few possibilities for organization, with
links to brief examples:
 Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.
 Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or
feels like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.
 Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence—first,
second, third
 Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic
 Illustration: Give examples and explain how those examples prove your point.

Paragraph Structure
Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure – introduction, body and conclusion. Each
part plays a role in communicating meaning to the reader.
Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other
sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a
transition.

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Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis,
examples and other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarises the connections between the information discussed in
the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

Some useful Transitions

To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second,
etc.)
furthermore, in addition, moreover, next, etc.
To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to
Illustrate, etc.
To compare: similarly, likewise, in the same manner etc.
To contrast: although, but, however, in contrast, on the contrary, on
the
other hand, yet, in spite of, meanwhile, etc.
To summarise or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the
whole
etc.
To show time: afterward, as soon as, at last, before, during, formerly,
immediately, since, shortly, subsequently, when, while,
thereafter, until, etc.
To show place or direction: above, below, elsewhere, nearby, opposite, beyond, close,
etc.
To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this
reason, hence, if, therefore, thus, etc.
MODULE READING COMPREHENSION
SIX

Reading is an activity characterized by the translation of symbols, or letters, into words and
sentences that have meaning to the reader. The ultimate goal of reading is to be able to understand
written material, to evaluate it, and to use it for one's needs. Reading comprehension thus, is the
ability to read text, process it and understand its meaning. An individual's ability to comprehend
text is influenced by their traits and skills, one of which is the ability to make inferences. If word
recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words,
which interferes with their ability to comprehend what is read. There are a number of approaches
to improve reading comprehension, including improving one's vocabulary and reading strategies.

TYPES OF COMPREHENSION
To really understand the different levels of reading comprehension, let's take a familiar text and
see how different types of questions probe different understandings of the same story.

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The fairy tale Cinderella tells the story of a young girl, whose evil stepmother won't let her go to
the ball. Cinderella’s fairy godmother, however, magically whisks her off for the night and
Cinderella eventually marries her Prince Charming.
Lexical Comprehension: refers to the understanding of key vocabulary words in a text.

Essays for average levelled readers are written in a way that too many big words are not used on
the same page. In addition, if an unfamiliar word is used, it is generally explained within the same
sentence or with a definition box in the margin. Also, words with multiple meanings may make it
difficult for a less experienced reader to truly understand what is meant. If the word "enchanted"
was used in the story, ask the child to define it for you.

Remember, definitions can begin as a series of examples, where the child identifies a common
element between them. Also, sometimes it's better to introduce a new vocabulary word before you
read.

Literal Comprehension: Answers the questions Who, What, when, and where with information
found directly in the text.
Who was the girl who lost the glass slipper?
What happened when the clock struck twelve?
Interpretive Comprehension: Answers the questions What if, Why, and How by inferring
information from the text.
How did the pumpkin turn into a carriage?
What would have happened if Cinderella hadn't lost her slipper?

Applied Comprehension: Answers opinion questions or questions that have the reader relate the
new information to background knowledge.
Do you think Cinderella was wrong for going to the ball after her stepmother told her she couldn't?
Affective Comprehension: Understanding the social and emotional aspects of a text.

If a child does not grasp why certain characters in a story may respond in a certain manner, they
may get lost in the words and the plot.
How did Cinderella feel when she went to live at the castle?

While most children will answer "happy" or "excited" to this question, some children will say
"sad", revealing a deeper appreciation for interpersonal and family dynamics than you may have
expected.
SAMPLE PASSAGE. Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow:

HARD MOTIVATION

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Once upon a time, there was once a guy who was very much in love with a girl. This romantic guy
folded 1,000 pieces of paper cranes as a gift to his girl. Although, at that time he was just a small
executive in his company, his future doesn't seem too bright, they were very happy together. Until
one day, his girl told him she was going to Paris and will never come back. She also told him that
she cannot visualize any future for the both of them, so let each goes their own ways there and
then... heartbroken, the guy agreed. When he regained his confidence, he worked hard day and
night, slogging his body and mind just to make something out of himself. Finally, with all these
hard work and with the help of friends, this guy had set up his own company... "You never fail
until you stop trying." he always told himself. "I must make it in life!" One rainy day, while this
guy was driving, he saw an elderly couple sharing an umbrella in the rain walking to some
destination. Even with the umbrella, they were still drenched. It didn't take him long to realize
those were his ex-girlfriend's parents. With a heart in getting back at them, he drove slowly beside
the couple, wanting them to spot him in his luxury sedan. He wanted them to know that he wasn't
the same anymore; he had his own company, car, condo, etc. He had made it in life! Before the
guy can realize, the couple was walking towards a cemetery, and he got out of his car and followed
them...and he saw a photograph of his ex-girlfriend smiling sweetly as ever at him from her
tombstone... and he saw his precious paper cranes in a bottle placed beside her tomb. Her parents
saw him. He walked over and asked them why this had happened. They explained, she did not
leave for France at all. She was stricken ill with cancer. In her heart, she had believed that he will
make it someday, but she did not want her illness to be his obstacle ... Therefore, she had chosen
to leave him. She had wanted her parents to put his paper cranes beside her, because, if the day
comes when fate brings him to her again he can take some of those back with him. The guy just
wept ...the worst way to miss someone is to be sitting right beside them but knowing you can't
have them and will never see them again.
The End."

A tragic story that perhaps happens only in the movies. At the end of the day, money is money but
love is divine. In our quest for our material wealth, take time to make time for our loved ones.
There will be a time when we have only memories to cling to. Let us take this weekend to show
our "love" to all those that are close to us.
Exercise: Discuss the answers of the questions below.

i. How strong do you think the friendship of the boy and the girl is? And why?
ii. What comes to your mind first after reading about the decision of the girl to
move on to Paris?
iii. If it were you being the boy what will your response be after the girl’s decision?
iv. Was the girl right in making the decision? Or is there a better way?
v. How will you feel after seeing the tomb of the girl, and after knowing the reason
for her initial decision to leave you?
vi. Find words or phrases that will replace the following words as they are used in
the passage:
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 i. Visualize ii. Slogging iii. Destination iv. Drenched v.
cemetery

MODULE LANGUAGE SKILLS

SEVEN

Languages are generally taught and assessed in terms of ‘four skills’: listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. Listening and reading are known as ‘receptive’ skills while speaking and writing are
known as ‘productive’ skills. You'll need to master these skills whether you're learning English or
not.

LISTENING AND READING

Listening to and reading content in the language you are learning is a great way to develop your
vocabulary and comprehension. It is important to make your listening and reading actively rather
than passively absorbing the content. Reading is an activity characterized by the translation of
symbols, or letters, into words and sentences that have meaning to the individual. The ultimate
goal of reading is to be able to understand written material, to evaluate it, and to use it for one's
needs. You need to read as many books as possible. The more you read, the well infromed you
become.

SPEAKING
Developing your speaking skills will involve gaining fluency in spoken interactions with others,
as well as practicing your pronunciation. Use your new language skills as often as you can to speak
to people – other students from your language class, native speakers you might meet around town
or language partners in online exchanges. To practice pronunciation try reading aloud or repeating
after a recorded text, trying to reproduce the pronunciation and intonation of the original. Make a
recording of yourself and listen back to try to identify your own strengths and weaknesses as a
speaker.

WRITING
Writing in another language can seem a daunting task, but is a critical skill, especially if you plan
to use it for school purposes. As in your first language, your writing will be improved by becoming
a critical reader - try to think actively about how texts are structured and what kinds of phrases or
vocabulary are used for different purposes (e.g. introducing a topic, describing, comparing and
contrasting, writing conclusions). When writing in a foreign language, always try to think and
write directly in that language. Do not translate from a first draft. It is best not to use a dictionary
too much in the early stages of writing. Using words in your first language is fine if it helps you
get a draft written more quickly. You shouldn’t expect to write everything correctly the first time,
but write and re-write as much as necessary. Finally, try to get constructive feedback from others
(your teacher, fellow students, and native speakers) on how you can improve.

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 MODULE COLLECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF MATERIALS AND
EIGHT LOGICAL PRESENTATION

A good way to approach an essay is to envision it as a Five Part project. An essay is made up of
the Introduction, Three main points (the body), and the Conclusion. So it looks like this:

1. Introduction
2. Point One
3. Point Two
4. Point Three
5. Conclusion
Of course depending on the length and breadth of your paper you may have more than three main
points. However, by using this structure it will make envisioning your paper easier.

Introduction
An Introduction should answer three questions
1. What am I talking about in this paper?

By answering this question, you let the reader know what the subject of the paper is. For example,
if your paper were about a particular book, your answer to this question would give the title, author,
and any other necessary information.
2. How am I going to talk about it?

This is where you let the reader know how your paper is organized. Here you very briefly introduce
your main points or the evidence that will prove your point.
3. What am I going to prove in this paper?

This is the dreaded THESIS STATEMENT. The thesis is usually the last sentence in the first
paragraph and it clearly states the argument or point you are making in your paper.

Body
The Body consists of everything between your intro and conclusion and it is where you discuss
your three main points. A good starting place is to envision that each point is a separate
paragraph (or in a long paper each point might be a section). In each paragraph you:
· Introduce your point
· Explain your point
· Give supporting evidence (this is where quotes go!)
· Explain how the point and evidence relate to your thesis

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The whole point of each paragraph is to relate your point to your thesis, but it helps to spell it out
clearly in at least one sentence of the paragraph.

Conclusion
Basically, the conclusion restates the introduction. So just reiterate questions 1, 2, and 3. It is
also helpful to trace your argument as you made it within the essay. A good way to do this
is to create a proof that might look something like this:
POINT ONE + POINT TWO + POINT THREE=THESIS
OR
POINT ONE leads to POINT TWO which leads to POINT THREE therefore THESIS is true!
So, when planning your essay consider this format:

I. Introduction
Subject
Main Points
Thesis
II. Point One
Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
III. Point Two
A. Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
IV. Point Three
Intro and explanation of point
Evidence
How point relates to thesis
V. Conclusion
Restate subject
Summarize Main Points
Restate Thesis
(B and C can be combined into the proof)
Organization in a paper is important not only because it makes the paper easier to write, it also
guides the reader through the paper. A clearly organized paper will better hold the reader's interest
and convince them that your thesis is valid!

Bibliography
Best, B.W (1993) The Students’ Companion. International Edition. UK Longman Group

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