Chapter 2: Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basic Definitions
2.3 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
2 4 Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra
2.4
2.5 Boolean Functions
2 6 Canonical and Standard Forms
2.6
2.7 Other Logic Operations
2 8 Di
2.8 Digital
it l L
Logic
i GGates
t
2.9 Integrated Circuits

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 Basic Definitions
• Mathematical methods that simplify binary logics or circuits rely primarily on
Boolean algebra.
•B
Boolean
l algebra:
l b a sett off elements,
l t a sett off operators,
t andd a number
b off unprovedd
axioms or postulates.
• A set of elements is any
y collection of objects,
j , usuallyy havingg a common property.
p p y
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} indicates that set A has the elements of 1, 2, 3, and 4.
• A binary operator defined on a set S of elements is a rule that assigns, to each
pair of elements from S,
S a unique element from S.
S
• The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic structures are
as follows:
1.Closure. A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of
elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique
element of S.
S
2.Associative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative
whenever (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, z,  S
3.Commutative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative
whenever x * y = y * x for all x, y  S NCNU_2013_DD_2_2
4.Identity element. A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a
binary operation * on S if there exists an element e  S with the property that
e * x = x * e = x for every x  S
Example: The element 0 is an identity element with respect to the binary
operator + on the set of integers I = {c, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,c}, since x + 0 = 0
f any x  I
+ x = x for
The set of natural numbers, N, has no identity element, since 0 is excluded
from the set.
5.Inverse. A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary operator
* is said to have an inverse whenever, for every x  S, there exists an element
y  S such that x * y = e
Example: In the set of integers, I, and the operator +, with e = 0, the inverse of
an element a is (-a), since a + (-a) = 0.
66.Distributive
Di t ib ti law.
l If * and
d • are ttwo binary
bi operators
t on a sett S,
S * is
i said
id to
t be
b
distributive over • whenever x * (y • z) = (x * y) • (x * z)

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 Field
• A field is an example of an algebraic structure.
• The field of real numbers is the basis for arithmetic and ordinary algebra.
– The binary operator + defines addition.
– The additive identity is 0.
– The additive
additi e in
inverse
erse defines ssubtraction.
btraction
– The binary operator • defines multiplication.
– The multiplicative identity is 1.
– For a ≠ 0, the multiplicative inverse of a = 1/a defines division (i.e., a •1/a = 1).
– The only distributive law applicable is that of • over +:
a • (b + c) = (a • b) + (a • c)

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 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
• 1854: George Boole developed an algebraic system now called Boolean algebra.
• 1904: E. V. Huntington formulated a set of postulates that formally define the
Boolean algebra
• 1938: C. E. Shannon introduced a two-valued Boolean algebra called switching
algebra that represented the properties of bistable electrical switching circuits

• Two binary operators, + and •, (Huntington) postulates:

1 (a) The structure is closed with respect to the operator +.
1. +
(b) The structure is closed with respect to the operator •.
2. (a) The element 0 is an identity element with respect to +; that is, x + 0 = 0 + x = x.
(b) The element 1 is an identity element with respect to •; that is,
is x • 1 = 1 • x = x.
x
3. (a) The structure is commutative with respect to +; that is, x + y = y + x.
(b) The structure is commutative with respect to • ; that is, x • y = y • x.
4. (a) The operator • is distributive over +; that is, x • (y + z) = (x • y) + (x • z).
(b) The operator + is distributive over •; that is, x + (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z).
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 5. For every element x  B, there exists an element x  B (called the complement of x)
such that (a) x + x = 1 and (b) x • x = 0.
6. x y  B such that x ≠ y.
6 There exist at least two elements x, y

• Comparing Boolean algebra with arithmetic and ordinary algebra

1. Huntington postulates do not include the associative law. However, this law holds for
Boolean algebra and can be derived (for both operators) from the other postulates.
2 The distributive law of + over • (i.e.,
2. (i e x + (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z) ) is valid for Boolean
algebra, but not for ordinary algebra.
3. Boolean algebra does not have additive or multiplicative inverses; therefore, there are
no subtraction or division operations.
operations
4. Postulate 5 defines an operator called the complement that is not available in ordinary
algebra.
5. Ordinary algebra deals with the real numbers, which constitute an infinite set of
elements. Boolean algebra deals with the as yet undefined set of elements, B, but in the
two­valued Boolean algebra defined next (and of interest in our subsequent use of that
algebra), B is defined as a set with only two elements, 0 and 1.

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 Two-valued Boolean Algebra
• B = {0,1}
• The rules of operations
AND OR NOT
x y xy x y x+y x x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
• Closure: the result of each operation is either 1 or 0 and 1, 0  B.
• Identity elements: 0 for + and 1 for ‧
• The commutative laws are obvious from the symmetry of the binary operator
tables.
tables

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• Distributive laws:
– x‧(y + z) = (x‧y) + (x‧z)
– x+ (y‧z) = (x+y)‧(x+z)

y‧z
y z x+(y‧z)
x+(y z) x+y x+z (x+y)‧(x+z)
(x+y) (x+z)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

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• Complement
– x+x'=1: 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
– x‧x'=0: 0‧0'=0‧1=0; 1‧1'=1‧0=0
• Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1
• We have
ha e just
j st established a two­valued
t o al ed Boolean algebra:
– a set of two elements
– + : OR operation; ‧ : AND operation
– a complement operator: NOT operation
– Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra
– also called “switching algebra” by engineers

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 Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra
• Duality
– the binary operators are interchanged; AND  OR
– the identity elements are interchanged; 1  0

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• Theorem 1(a): x+x = x
x+x = (x+x) •1 by postulate: 2(b)
= (x+x)
( ) ((x+x')) 5(a)
( )
= x+xx' 4(b)
= xx+00 5(b)
=x 2(a)
• Theorem 1(b): x • x = x
x•x=xx+0 by postulate: 2(a)
= xx + xx' 5(b)
= x (x + xx')) 4(a)
=x•1 5(a)
=x 2(b)

• Theorem 1(b) is the dual of theorem 1(a)

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• Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1
x + 1 = 1 • (x + 1) by postulate: 2(b)
= (x + x')(x + 1) 5(a)
= x + x' • 1 4(b)
= x + x'' 2(b)
=1 5(a)
• Theorem 2(b): x • 0 = 0 by duality
• Theorem 3: (x')' = x
– Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1 and x • x' = 0
– The complement of x' is x is also (x')'

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• Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
x + xy = x • 1 + xy by postulate: 2(b)
= x (1 +y) 4(a)
=x•1 2(a)
=x 2(b)
• Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality
• By means of truth table

x y xy x + xy
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

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DeMorgan's Theorems
– (x+y)' = x' y‘
x y x+yy ((x+y)
y) x y
y xy
y
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
– (x y)' = x' + y'

x y xy ((xy)
) x y x+y
+ 
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
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 Operator Precedence
• The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions is
1. parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4 OR
4.
• Examples
– x yy' + z
– (x y + z)'

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 Boolean Functions
• A Boolean function is an algebraic expression consists of
– binary variables
– binary operators OR and AND
– unary operator NOT
– parentheses
• A Boolean function expresses the logical relationship between binary variables
and is evaluated by determining the binary value of the expression for all possible
values of the variables.
• Examples
– F1= x + y z’’  F1 = 1 if x = 1 or if y = 0 and
d z = 1,
1 others
h F1 = 0.
0
– F2 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y’ 
F2 = 1 if (x = 0,
0 y = 0,
0 z = 1) or (x = 0,
0 y = 1,
1 z = 1) or (x = 1,
1 y = 0),
0)
others F2 = 0.
What are the others?

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 Truth Table
• Boolean function can be represented in a truth table.
• Truth table has 2n rows where n is the number of variables in the function.
• The binary combinations for the truth table are obtained from the binary numbers
by counting from 0 through 2n - 1.

Implementation of F1 with logic gates

F1= x + y z’

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 Equivalent Logics
F2 = x’y’z
y + x’yzy + xy’
y
• Boolean function can be = x’z(y’ + y) + xy’
represented in truth table = x’z + xy’
only in one way
way.
• In algebraic form, it can be
expressed in a variety of
ways, all of which have
equivalent logic.
• Using Boolean algebra, it is
possible to obtain a simpler
expression for the same
function with less number
of gates and inputs to the
gate.
• Designers work on reducing
the complexity and number
of g
gates to significantly
g y
reduce the circuit cost.
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 Algebraic Manipulation
• To minimize Boolean expressions
– literal: a complemented or un-complemented variable (an input to a gate)
– term: an implementation with a gate
– The minimization of the number of literals and the number of terms => a
circuit with less equipment

F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’  3 terms, 8 literals

= xx’z(y’
z(y + y) + xy
xy’
= x’z + xy’  2 terms, 4 literals

• Functions of up to five variables can be simplified by the map method described

in the next chapter.
• For complex Boolean functions and many different outputs,
outputs designers of digital
circuits use computer minimization programs that are capable of producing
optimal circuits with millions of logic gates.

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Minimization of Boolean Function

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 Complement of a Function
• F’ is obtained from an interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value of F
• The complement of a function may be derived using DeMorgan's theorem.
• Three-variable DeMorgan's theorem:
(A + B + C)’ = (A + X)’ let B + C = X
= A’X’ b DeMorgan's
by
= A’(B + C)’ X= B+C
=A
A’(B’C’)
(B C ) by DeMorgan
DeMorgan'ss
= A’B’C’ associative
• Generalized form
– (A + B + C + ... + F)’ = A’B’C’ ... F’
– (ABC ... F)’ = A’ + B’ + C’+ ... + F’

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EXAMPLE 2.2

EXAMPLE 2.3
23

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 Minterms and Maxterms
• A minterm (standard product): an AND term consists of all literals in their
normal form or in their complement form
• For example,
example two binary variables x and y,
y has 4 minterms
– xy, xy', x'y, x'y‘
• n variables can be combined to form 2n minterms (mj, j = 0 ~ 2n-1)
1)
• A maxterm (standard sum): an OR term; 2n maxterms (Mj, j = 0 ~ 2n-1)
• Each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding minterm, and vice versa.

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 Canonical Form: Sum of Minterms
• An Boolean function can be expressed by
– a truth table
– sum of minterms  f = Σ mj
– product of maxterms  f = Π Mj
– f1 = x'y'z
' ' + xy'z
' ‘ + xyz = m1 + m4 +m
+ 7
– f2 = x'yz + xy'z + xyz‘ + xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7

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 Canonical Form: Product of Maxterms
• The complement of a Boolean function
– the minterms that produce a 0
– f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6 = x'y'z‘ + x'yz‘ + x'yz + xy'z + xyz'
– f1 = (f1’)’ = (x + y + z)(x + y‘ + z) (x + y‘ + z') (x‘ + y + z')(x‘ + y‘ + z)
– = M0 M2 M3 M5 M6
– f2 = (x + y + z)(x + y + z’)(x + y’ + z)(x’ + y + z)
= M0 M1 M2 M4
• Canonical form: any Boolean function expressed as a sum of minterms or a
product of maxterms

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 Minterm Expansion
• EXAMPLE 2.4: Express the Boolean function F=A+B’C as a sum of minterms.
– F = A + B'C = A (B + B') + B'C = AB + AB' + B'C
– = AB(C + C') + AB'(C + C') + (A + A')B'C
– = ABC + ABC‘ + AB'C + AB'C‘ + A'B'C
– = A'B'C + AB'C' + AB'C + ABC‘ + ABC
– = m1 + m4 +m5 + m6 + m7
– F(A,B,C) = Σ (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
– or, built the truth table first

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 Maxterm Expansion
EXAMPLE 2.5: Express the Boolean function F = xy + x’z as a product of
maxterms.
– F = xy + xx'zz = (xy + xx')) (xy + z) = (x + xx')(y
)(y + xx')(x
)(x + z)(y + z)
– = (x’ + y)(x + z)(y + z)

– x‘ + y = x' + y + zz‘ = (x‘ + y + z)(x‘ + y + z')

– x + z = x + z + yy’ = (x + y + z)(x + y’ +z)
– y + z = y + z + xx
xx’ = (x + y + z)(x
z)(x’ + y +z)

– F = (x + y + z)(x + y‘ + z)(x‘ + y + z)(x‘ + y + z') = M0 M2 M4 M5

– F(x,y,z) = Π (0,2,4,5)

– check
h k thi
this result
lt with
ith truth
t th table
t bl

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 Canonical Form Conversion
• Conversion between Canonical Forms
– F(A,B,C) = (1,4,5,6,7)  F’(A,B,C) = (0,2,3) = m0 + m1 + m2
– By DeMorgan's theorem
F = (m0 + m1 + m2)’ = m’0 • m’2 • m’3
= M0 M2 M3 = Π(0, 2, 3)
– mj' = Mj
• sum of minterms  product of maxterms
– interchange the symbols  and  and list those numbers missing from the
original
i i l form
f
•  of 1's   of 0's

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 Conversion Example
• F = xy + xz
• F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 6, 7)
• F(x, y, z) =  (0, 2, 4, 5)

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 Standard Forms
• Canonical forms are baseline expression and seldom used, they are not minimum
• Two standard forms are used usually
– sum of products F1 = y' + xy + x'yz'
– product of sums F2 = x(y‘ + z)(x‘ + y + z’)

• This circuit configuration is referred to as a two­level implementation.

• In general, a two­level implementation is preferred because it produces the least
amount of delay through the gates when the signal propagates from the inputs to
the output. However, the number of inputs to a given gate might not be practical.
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Nonstandard Forms

• F3 = AB + C(D + E)
= AB + C(D + E) = AB + CD + CE

• Which kind of gate will have the least delay (high switching speed)?
• The delay through a gate is largely dependent on the circuit design and
technology, as well as manufacturing process used. (taught in VLSI design)
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 Other Logic Operations
• 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables
n
• 22 functions for n binary variables (each row may either be 0 or 1)
2
• 16 (22 )functions of two binary variables

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Digital Logic Gates of Two Inputs

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Digital Logic Gates of Two Inputs

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 Extension to Multiple Inputs
• A gate can be extended to multiple inputs
– if its binary operation is commutative and associative
• AND and OR are commutative and associative
– commutative: x + y = y + x , xy = yx
– associative:
associati e: (x
( + y)) + z = x + ((y + z)) = x + y + z , (x
( y)z
) = x(y
( z)) = x y z

x x
y F
F y
z z

x x
F
y F y
z z

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 Multiple-input NOR/NAND
• NAND and NOR are commutative but not associative => they are not extendable
(x ↓ y) ↓ z = [(x + y)’ + z]’ = (x + y) z’ = xz’ + yz’
x ↓ (y ↓ z) = [x + (y + z)’]’ = x’(y + z) = x’y + x’z

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 Multiple-input NOR/NAND
• Multiple-input NOR = a complement of OR gate (x ↓ y ↓ z) = (x + y + z)’
• Multiple-input NAND = a complement of AND (x ↑ y ↑ z) = (x y z)’
• The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products
• The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums

DeMorgan’s theorems are useful here. NCNU_2013_DD_2_38

 Multiple-input XOR/XNOR
• The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and associative
• Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon (this is not true anymore!)
• XOR(XNOR) is an odd(even) function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables
have an odd(even) number of 1's

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 Positive and Negative Logic
• Two signal values (High/Low) <=> two logic values (1/0)
– positive logic: H = 1; L = 0
– negative logic: H = 0; L = 1
• Positive logic is commonly used.

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 Digital Logic Families
• Digital circuit technology:
– TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)
– ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high power consumption)
– MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high density)
– CMOS: complementary
complementar MOS (lo
(low power)
po er)
• CMOS technology now dominates the main stream of IC design, it will be taught
in Introduction to VLSI Design course.

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 Some Important Parameters of Logic Families
• Fan­out specifies the number of standard loads that the output of a typical gate
can drive without impairing its normal operation. A standard load is usually
defined as the amount of current needed by an input of another similar gate in the
same family.
• Fan­in is the number of inputs available in a gate.
• Power dissipation is the power consumed by the gate that must be available
from the power supply.
• Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for a signal to propagate
from input to output. For example, if the input of an inverter switches from 0 to 1,
the output will switch from 1 to 0, but after a time determined by the propagation
d l off the
delay h device.
d i The Th operating
i speedd is i inversely
i l proportional
i l to the
h
propagation delay.
• Noise margin
g is the maximum external noise voltage g added to an input
p signal
g
that does not cause an undesirable change in the circuit output.

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 Homework #2

• 2.2 (e) (f)

• 2.4 (d) (e)

• 2.9 (c)

• 2.11 (b)

• 2.14 (b) (c)

• 2.22
2 22 (b)

• 2.28

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