EVOLUTION

EVOLUTION
BIG-BANG THEORY
 BIG-BANG THEORY

❖ According to this theory, the universe originated about 20 billion

years ago due to a thermonuclear explosion of a dense entity.
❖ This thermonuclear explosion is called Big-bang.
❖ About 4.5 billion years ago, the origin of the solar system took
place by the gaseous clouds formed due to this explosion.
❖ These gaseous clouds collapsed and converted into flat disc-like
structure made up of atoms and small particles due to their own
gravitational pull.
 THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION

❖ The greatest supporter of this theory was father

Suarez.
❖ According to the Bible, life and everything was
created by God in 6 days.
❖ According to Hindu mythology, the world was
created by God Brahma. According to it, life has not
changed ever since its origin.
❖ Special creation theory lacks scientific evidence
so it is not accepted.
 COSMIC PANSPERMIA THEORY

❖ This theory was proposed

by Arrhenius.
❖ According to this theory,
organisms existed
throughout the Universe
and their spores could
freely travel through
space from one star to the
other.
 THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION (ABIOGENESIS)

❖ This hypothesis was supported by ancient Greek philosophers.

❖ According to this theory, life was originated from non-living
things spontaneously.
❖ They believed that the mud of the Nile river could give rise to
frogs, snakes, crocodiles.
❖ Abiogenesis was strongly supported by Von Helmont. He
claimed formation of mice in 21 days, if a sweat soaked dirty
shirt is kept in wheat barn.
THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION (ABIOGENESIS)
 THEORY OF BIOGENESIS

❖ According to this theory, new organisms can originate on earth

only from preexisting life.
❖ This theory rejected the theory of spontaneous generation but
cannot explain origin of life.
❖ To prove biogenesis and to disprove abiogenesis, experiments were
performed by the following scientists–
➢ Francesco Redi's Experiment (Italian 1668)
➢ Lazzaro Spallanzani (Italian 1767)
➢ Louis Pasteur (French 1862)
 Louis Pasteur's Experiment
❖ Pasteur is popular for germ theory of diseases or Germ theory and he
disproved abiogenesis.
❖ He prepared sterilized syrup of sugar and yeast by boiling them in
flasks.
❖ He took two flasks, one of broken neck and another of curved neck
(swan neck flask).
❖ No life appeared in swan neck flask because germ laden dust
particles in the air were trapped by the curved neck which serves as
filter while in the broken neck flask colonies of micro-organism were
developed.
Louis Pasteur's Experiment
 OPARIN & HALDANE HYPOTHESIS

❖ Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first

form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living
organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation
of life was preceded by chemical evolution, i.e., formation of
diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents.
❖ The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic
storms, reducing atmosphere containing CH4 , NH3 , etc.
 Chemical evolution
1st organic molecule- CH4 Polymerisation of simple
was formed. Molecular aggregate
molecules into complex. clustered to form cell
like structures called
With further cooling
Simple biomolecules
Protobionts.
water vapours condensed
(rainfall). like amino acids,
sugars.

Primitive oceans with Unsaturated

molecules in it was Hydrocarbons.
formed.

Energy for reaction came from- Saturated

Lightning, UV rays, Cosmic rays. Hydrocarbons
UREY & MILLER EXPERIMENT
UREY & MILLER EXPERIMENT
 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

❏ There are many types of evidence which support the

process of organic evolution
❏ Palaeontological
❏ Comparative anatomy and morphology
❏ Physiological & biochemistry
❏ Biogeographical distribution
❏ Embryological
 Palaeontological evidences

❏ The study of fossils is known as palaeontology.

❏ Birbal Sahni is famous for Indian palaeontology.
❏ Two branches of palaeontology are
❏ Palaeobotany : Study of plant fossils
❏ Palaeozoology : Study of animal fossils
❏ "Impression of past organism found in rocks is
called fossils."
 FOSSILS
❏ Charles Darwin was the first to show that fossils provide direct
evidence for organic evolution because it deals with the actual
organisms which lived in the past.
❏ Age of fossils is determined by dating the rocks in which fossil
occurs.
❏ The method of determining the age of rocks or of the fossils are
– carbon dating method or radioactive dating method.
 Palaeontology - Direct evidence

❏ The study of fossils indicates that the present day

animals are different from past animals.
❏ The fossils of upper strata of sedimentary rocks
are more advanced than the fossils of lower
strata.
❏ The fossils of upper strata are closer to the
present day animals.
❏ Thus the study of fossils (palaeontology)
provides direct evidence in favour of organic
 ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY

❏ Different animals and plants show dissimilarities in their

structure but in some characters they show similarity.
❏ These similarities provide one of the most concluding evidence
of organic evolution.
❏ Similarities are of two types :
❏ Homology
❏ Analogy.
 Homologous organs

● Examples of Homologous organs are

○ Forelimbs of mammals

● In their forelimbs, similar bones are present

like - humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals and phalanges.
 Homologous organs

● Examples of Homologous organs are

○ Forelimbs of mammals
 Homologous organs

● Legs of invertebrates
 EXAMPLES

❏ Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita (modification

of axillary bud)
❏ Wings of sparrow and pectoral fins of fish
❏ Hind limb of mammals
❏ Potato & ginger
❏ Radish & carrot
❏ Pectoral fins of fish and flipper of Seal.
❏ Flipper of Penguin (bird) and Dolphin (mammal).
EXAMPLES
 Homologous organs

Hence, in these animals, the same structure developed along

different directions due to adaptations to different needs. This
is divergent evolution and these structures are homologous.
 ANALOGY

❏ It is similarity in organs
based on similar function.
❏ Organs which have
different origin and
dissimilar fundamental
structure but have similar
functions are called
analogous organs.
 EXAMPLES OF ANALOGY

❏ Wings of bat & birds are analogous to wings of insects.

❏ Pelvic fins of fish, flipper of seal.
❏ Sting of bee and scorpion.
❏ Hands of man and trunk of elephants.
❏ Potato and sweet potato.
❏ Eyes of octopus and eyes of mammals (different in their retinal
position).
❏ Dog fish and whale.
 ANALOGY

Hence, analogous structures are a result of convergent

evolution - different structures evolving for the same
function and hence having similarity.
 EVIDENCES FROM EMBRYOLOGY
❏ Ernst Haeckel explained it in detail based
upon the observation of certain features
during embryonic stage common to all
vertebrates that are absent in adult.
❏ For example, the embryos of all
vertebrates including human develop a
row of vestigial gill slit just behind the
head but it is a functional organ only in
fish and not found in any other adult
vertebrates.
 EVIDENCES FROM EMBRYOLOGY
❏ Evidences for embryology are
based on the comparative study
of the embryos of various animals.
❏ According to Baer embryos never
pass through the adult stages of
other animals
❏ In embryo stage, general
characters appear first then
specialised characters appear.
 THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

❏ Four main theories to

explain theories of
evolution are-
❏ Lamarckism
❏ Darwinism
❏ Mutation theory
❏ Modern concept of
evolution (synthetic
theory)
 THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Darwinian Theory of Mutation

Theory of Lamarck
Evolution Theory of de Vries

✓ Theory of ✓ Theory of Natural ✓ Theory of

inheritance of Selection Mutation
acquired
characters
 LAMARCKISM

❏ Use and disuse of organs : If an organ is

constantly used, it would be better
developed whereas disuse of an organ
results in its degeneration.
❏ Inheritance of acquired character : During
the lifetime of an organism, new characters
develop due to internal vital forces, effect of
environment, new needs and use and disuse
of organs.
EXAMPLES IN SUPPORT OF LAMARCKISM
 DARWINISM

❏ "Darwinism" or "The theory of Natural Selection"

was proposed jointly by Charles Darwin and A.R.
Wallace.
❏ This theory was explained by Darwin in his book
'On the origin of Species by means of Natural
Selection' (1859).
❏ It is possible that the work of Thomas Malthus on
populations influenced Darwin.
 DARWINISM

❏ During his journey Darwin went to Galapagos Islands. There he

observed an amazing diversity of creatures.
❏ Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches
amazed him. He realised that there were many varieties of finches
in the same island.
❏ All the varieties, he conjectured, evolved on the island itself.
 ADAPTIVE RADIATION
❏ From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with
altered beaks arose, enabling them to become insectivorous and
vegetarian finches.
❏ This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical
area starting from a point and literally radiating to other areas of
geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
❏ Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of this
phenomenon.
DARWIN’S FINCHES
MARSUPIAL RADIATION
 DARWINISM
Wallace presented a chart to explain the main points
of the theory of Darwin
 MAIN FEATURES OF DARWINISM

❏ Struggle for existence

❏ Every individual competes with
others of the same and other
species for basic necessities like
space, shelter and food, it is
called struggle for existence
and it continues for the whole
life from the zygote stage to its
natural death.
 MAIN FEATURES OF DARWINISM

❏ Variations and heredity

❏ Except the identical twins, no two individuals are similar and their
requirements are also not same. It means there are differences
among the individuals. These differences are called variations. Due
to variations, some individuals would be better adjusted towards
the surroundings than the others.
❏ According to Darwin, the variations are continuous and those
which are helpful in the adaptation of an organism towards its
surroundings would be passed on to the next generation, while
the others will disappear.
 MAIN FEATURES OF DARWINISM

❏ Survival of the fittest:

❏ The original idea of survival of the fittest was proposed by Herbert Spencer.
❏ According to Darwin, most suitable and fit individuals are successful in
the struggle for existence. The individuals with most favourable
adaptations are able to lead most successful life and are able to win over
their mating partners. Darwin called it sexual selection.
❏ In the struggle for existence, only those members survive which possess
useful variations (means nature selects fit individuals).
❏ This was called as natural selection.
 MAIN FEATURES OF DARWINISM

❏ Origin of new species

❏ Darwin explained that variations appearing
due to environmental changes are
transmitted to the next generation.
❏ So offsprings become different from
ancestors.
❏ In next generation, process of natural
selection repeats, so after many generations,
a new species is formed.
 MUTATION THEORY

❏ The mutation theory was put forward in 1901 by

Hugo de Vries. He worked on a plant called
evening Primrose.
❏ He believed that it is mutation which causes
evolution and not the minor variations (heritable)
that Darwin talked about
❏ Mutations are discontinuous variations called
sports by Darwin and saltatory variation by
Bateson.
MUTATION THEORY
 SALTATION

❏ According to de Vries, saltation means

single step large mutations arising
suddenly in a population causing
evolution
❏ This mechanism works out to be a faster
alternative to the Darwinian concept of a Ancon Sheep is a short legged

gradual process of small random variations variety which appeared

suddenly due to single step
being acted on by natural selection.
large mutation.
 Features of mutation theory

❏ It forms the raw material for mutation.

❏ It appears suddenly and produces effect immediately.
❏ Mutations are markedly different from the parents and there
are no intermediate stages between the two.
❏ Mutations can appear in all directions (Random and
directionless)
❏ All mutations have a genetic basis and are therefore,
inheritable.
❏ A single mutation may produce a new species.
 SYNTHETIC THEORY

❏ According to synthetic theory, there are five

basic factors involved in the process of
organic evolution. These are :
❏ Gene mutations
❏ Changes in the chromosome structure
and number
❏ Genetic recombinations
❏ Natural selection
❏ Reproductive isolation.
 GENETIC VARIATION

❏ Genetic variations are heritable variations

and form the raw material of evolution.
❏ Causes of genetic variation are environmental
factors and genetic factors (migration, non-
random mating, genetic drift, mutation, gene
recombination and hybridization).
❏ The removal of alleles from one population or
addition of alleles into another population is
called gene flow or gene migration.
 Genetic drift

❏ The theory of genetic drift was developed by

Sewell Wright in 1930.
❏ It is the elimination or addition of the genes of
certain characters when some animals in a
population migrate or die or immigrate.
❏ It changes the gene frequency of the remaining
population.
❏ Genetic drift operates only in a small population.
❏ Changes in the frequency of genes in a gene pool
is called genetic drift.
 Founder effect

❏ Genetic drift in a new

colony is called founder
effect because only a few
founders carrying a small
fraction of genetic
variability of the parent
population begin the
colony.
 Natural Selection

❏ If differential reproduction (some

individuals produce more, some only a few
and still others none) is continuous for
many generations, genes of the individuals
which produce more offspring will become
predominant in the gene pool of the
population.
❏ Thus, natural selection occurs through
differential reproduction in successive
generations.
 Natural Selection

❏ Stabilising selection favours individuals possessing an

average value for a trait and are selected against individuals
with extreme values.
❏ Directional selection tends to favour phenotypes at one
extreme of the range of variation.
❏ Disruptive selection favours individuals at both extremes of
variation. Selection is against the middle of curve.
Natural Selection
 Industrial Melanism

❏ This phenomenon was studied by Barnard Kettlewell.

❏ Before the industrial revolution, the dull grey form of (peppered moth)-
Biston betularia - was dominant; the Carbonaria form (Black) was rare
because it was susceptible to predation by birds. The reason was that it
was conspicuously visible while resting on tree trunks covered with lichen.
❏ The industrial revolution resulted in large scale smoke which got deposited
on tree trunks turning them black.
❏ Now grey varieties became susceptible-the black forms flourished.
❏ Replacement of coal by oil and electricity reduced production of black
moth so the frequency of grey moths increased again.
Industrial Melanism
 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

❏ Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was proposed by G.H.

Hardy, an English mathematician, and Wilhelm
Weinberg, a German physician, in 1908.
❏ They established a simple mathematical relationship
to the study of gene frequencies.
❏ Mutations introduce new genes into a species resulting
in a change in gene frequencies.
 Conditions necessary for gene frequencies to remain constant

❏ Mating must be completely random.

❏ Mutations must not occur.
❏ Migrations of individual organisms into and out of the population
must not occur.
❏ The population must be very large.
❏ All genes must have an equal chance of being passed to the
next generation.
❏ According to Hardy-Weinberg concept, the gene frequencies
will remain constant if all the above five conditions are met.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

The frequency of two alleles in a gene pool is 0.19 (A) and

0.81(a). Assume that the population is in
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
(a) Calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in
the population.
(b) Calculate the percentage of homozygous recessives in the
population.
SOLUTION

(a) Calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in

the population.
★ According to the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation,
heterozygotes are represented by the 2pq term.
★ Therefore, the number of heterozygous individuals (Aa) is
equal to 2pq which equals 2 × 0.19 × 0.81 = 0.31 or 31%
SOLUTION

(b) Calculate the percentage of homozygous recessives in the

population.
★ The homozygous recessive individuals (aa) are represented
by the q2 term in the H-W equilibrium equation which equals
0.81 × 0.81 = 0.66 or 66%
 Human Evolution

❏ Evolution of man probably took place in Central Africa.

❏ Human evolution states that humans develop from primates or ape
like ancestors.
❏ Anthropology is the study of human evolution and culture. It deals
with the fossils of prehistoric and living man.
❏ Carolus linnaeus gave the scientific name Homo sapiens to man.
❏ The fossils of pre human and ancestral human forms are obtained
from widely diverse regions of Africa, Asia and Europe which
indicates that humans' centre of origin was probably in Asia and
Africa.
 DRYOPITHECUS

❏ Evolution ≈ 15-20 million years ago.

❏ Regarded as direct ancestor of modern day apes and man.
❏ They were forest dwellers, spending most of the time on the trees.
❏ Origin and evolution in Miocene epoch.
❏ Semi erect posture, quadrupedal locomotion, forelimbs longer
than hind limbs.
❏ Thick growth of hair
❏ U shaped jaws, teeth larger and sharper
❏ By nature, vegetarian, fruit eater
DRYOPITHECUS
 RAMAPITHECUS

❏ It has been established that in Late Miocene

epoch Dryopithecus gave rise to Ramapithecus
which was on the direct line of human evolution.
❏ Ramapithecus survived from late miocene to
pliocene. Thus, he appeared about 14-15 million
years ago.
❏ Fossils of Ramapithecus was discovered by
Edward Lewis from pliocene rocks of shivalik hills
of India.
 AUSTRALOPITHECUS (THE FIRST APE MAN)

❏ Prof. Raymond Dart discovered a fossil of skull of (5 - 6) year

old baby from the old pliocene rocks of Tuang region (S.
Africa).
❏ He named it Tuang baby, later on he renamed it or A. africanus.
❏ About 3-2 million years ago, it lived in East African grasslands.
❏ Evidences show that they hunted with stone. His cranial
capacity was 350-480 cc.
❏ It was an ape man because it had many characters of man
and apes, so it is also considered as the connecting link
between apes and man.
 HOMO HABILIS

❏ Homo habilis lived about 2–1.75 mya.

❏ His cranial capacity was about 735 cc.
❏ He was the first fossil man who used tools
of chipped stones extensively.
 HOMO ERECTUS (THE FORERUNNER OF MODERN HUMANS)

❏ In the middle Pleistocene period, Australopithecines were

succeeded by large brained form which were described under the
name Pithecanthropus or Java man.
❏ Its first fossils were obtained by Dubois (1891). These were named
Pithecanthropus erectus (erect ape-man).
❏ Similar fossils were found in a cave near Peking, China, and were
named Sinanthropus pekinensis.
❏ Homo erectus includes three fossils - Java ape man, peking man
and heidelberg man.
 HOMO ERECTUS

❏ (THE FORERUNNER OF MODERN HUMANS)

 NEANDERTHAL MAN

❏ Their fossils were found in the Neanderthal valley in Germany.

❏ Previously, it was named as H. sapiens neanderthalensis.
❏ These arose some 1,50,000 years ago and flourished in Europe, Asia and
North Africa.
❏ The skull bones were thick, forehead was low and slanting and the
eyebrow ridges were heavy. The jaw was deep with no chin.
❏ The cranial capacity was about 1450 c.c.
❏ They were quite intelligent as they, to used and constructed tools.
NEANDERTHAL MAN
 MODERN MAN (HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS)

❏ First appeared about 10000 years ago

in Asia near Caspian sea.
❏ They have cranial capacity of about
1300-1600 cc.
❏ They have developed sound into
words.
S.NO Lineage Time Fossils found Adaptations and Cranial
from Behaviour capacity

Dryopithecus 15 million Europe, Quadrupedal, ------

(Tree Apes) years ago Asia, Arboreal,
Africa Frugivorous

2. Ramapithecus 15 million Asia Quadrupedal, ------

years ago (Shivalik hills in Massive jaws with
himalayas) large teeth,
more human like

3. Australopithecus
(Southern Ape) Africa Bipedal,
- A. africanus / 4-2 million (South, east, bent posture, 450-600 cc
Taung baby year ago central Africa) Knuckle walking,
- A. boisei / vegetarian,
Paranthropus used stone tools
- A. afarensis /
Lucy
S.NO Lineage Time Fossils found from Adaptations and Behaviour Cranial
capacity

2-1.5 Bipedal, well developed

4. Homo- habilis million Old Uwai George opposable thumb,
(Handyman) years in Tanzania cultural tool maker, 650 - 800
ago (Africa) did not eat meat cc

5. Homo erectus 1.5-0.5 Africa, Bipedal,

(Pithecanthropus) million Asia , fashioned tools, 900 cc
- Migratory man years Europe ate meat, vegetarian also
E.g. Java man, Peking ago discovered use of fire.
man, Heidelberg man, “Out of Africa”
theory

6. Neanderthal man Sloping forehead,

Homosapiens 100000- prognathous face, no
neanderthalensis 40,00 Europe, chin, heavy brow ridges, 1400 cc
- Extinct year ago Asia stout body, moved with
lumbering gait, had burial
customs, omnivorous,
building huts
S.NO Lineage Time Fossils found Adaptations and Cranial
from Behaviour capacity

8. Homo sapiens
sapiens 1350 cc
Modern Man
QUESTION

Q) Which of the following had the smallest brain capacity?

(2015)

A. Homo habilis
B. Homo neanderthalensis
C. Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus
ANSWER

Q) Which of the following had the smallest brain capacity?

(2015)

A. Homo habilis
B. Homo neanderthalensis
C. Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus
QUESTION

Q) Choose the correct series of human evolution.(2010)

A. Dryopithecus → Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon

man
B. Australopithecus → Homo erectus → Neanderthal man → Homo
sapiens
C. Australopithecus → Ramapithecus → Dryopithecus → Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon man →
Neanderthal man
ANSWER

Q) Choose the correct series of human evolution.(2010)

A. Dryopithecus → Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon

man
B. Australopithecus → Homo erectus → Neanderthal man → Homo
sapiens
C. Australopithecus → Ramapithecus → Dryopithecus → Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon man →
Neanderthal man
QUESTION

Which one of the following ancestors of man first time showed

bipedal movement?

(a) Australopithecus
(b) Cro-magnon
(c) Java apeman
(d) Peking man
ANSWER

Which one of the following ancestors of man first time showed

bipedal movement?

(a) Australopithecus
(b) Cro-magnon
(c) Java apeman
(d) Peking man