EVOLUTION

Origin of Life
Evolution of Life Forms- A Theory
What are the Evidences for Evaluation?
What is Adaptive Radiation?
Biological Evolution
Mechanism of Evolution
Mechanism pf Evolution
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
A brief Account of Evolution
Origin and Evolution of Man.

Original Of Life:

Stellar distances (distance between stars and earth) = Light year

Evolutionary biology is the study of the evolutionary processes that produced the
diversity of life on Earth.

Universe is almost 20 billion years old.

Earth came into existence sometime between 4.5 billion years ago.

The origin of life is considered a unique event in the history of the universe. Several
theories have been put forth to explain the origin of life.

Big Bang Theory: (Origin of Universe)

The universe is vast. Earth is likely a speck.

Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe.

Galaxies contain- stars, clouds of gas and dust.

The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of the universe and the
creation of life, it is considered the most credible scientific explanation of how the
universe was created.
Was proposed by Lemaiter in 1931.

According to this theory, universe had an explosive beginning.

It suggests that through a process of expansion and explosion, hydrogen gas was
created which led to the formation of stars, and their death (supernova) led to the
creation of life.

Huge explosion

The universe expanded

Temperature came down

Hydrogen and Helium formed

Because of gravitation gases condensed

Forms Galaxies.
Milky way galaxy.

No atmosphere on the early earth.

Volcanoes (released molten mass)

Water vapour, CH4,CO2,NH3 released.

UV rays
Water H2+O2

Lighter hydrogen escaped.

Oxygen combine with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and other gases.

Ozone layer was formed.

After cooling water vapour condensed and form rain.

All the depressions present on the surface of Earth forms-Oceans.

Earth came into existence sometime between 4.5 billion years ago.

Life appears 500 million years after the formation of years back. (almost 4 billion
years back)

Theory of special creation:

The greatest supporter of this theory was Father Suarez.

It states that,

Some supernatural power, called God formed living organisms

Living organims were formed all of a sudden
They have not undergo any change since their formation

Panspermia Theory or Spore theory:

This theory was proposed by Richter (1865) amd supported by Arrhenius

(1908)
The panspermia hypothesis states that the seeds of life (Spores)exist all over the
universe and can be propagated through space from one location to another.

For millennia, this idea has been a topic of philosophical debate. However, due to the
lack of any validation, it remained merely speculative until a few decades ago.

This theory is also known as Cosmozoic theory.

Theory of Spontaneous Generation:

(Abiogenesis or Autobiogenesis)

This theory states that life originates from non-living things in a spontaneous manner.
This concept held by Greek philosophers like Thales, Plato, Aristotle

The theory of spontaneous generation believed that life originated spontaneously

from non-living decaying and rotting matter like straw and mud.

Abiogenesis

Theory of biogenesis:

Louis Pasteur demonstrated that life comes from pre-existing life. He showed that
in pre-sterilized flasks, life did not come from killed yeast while in another flask
open to air, new living organisms arose from ‘killed yeast’.

Chemosynthetic (Chemical evolution) Theory of Life:

It was proposed by A.I. Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England.

They proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-
living organic molecules, e.g. RNA, protein, etc., and that the formation of life was
preceded by chemical evolution, i.e., the formation of diverse organic molecules
from inorganic constituents.

The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic storms, and reducing
atmosphere containing CH4, NH3, water vapours etc.

Lighting formation of organic molecules.

This theory was hypothetical theory,

It was supported by S.L. Miller, an American scientist.

In 1953, he created similar conditions on a laboratory scale.

He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing Methane (CH4), Hydrogen
(H2), Ammonia (NH3), and Water vapor (H2O) at 8000C.

He observed the formation of amino acids.

Other scientist observed the formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
i. e bio molecules.

Miller’s experiment showed how simple molecules could be assembled into the more
complex molecules necessary for life by natural processes.

The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back.
The first cellular form of of life till about 2000 million (2 billion) years ago.

Evolution of Life Forms – A Theory

The formation of complex organisms through ‘gradual change’ from simple

ancestral types over the course of geological time is termed Evolution.

Conventional religious literature tells us about the theory of special creation,

3 connotations,
1. All living organisms that that we see today were created as such
2. The diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future
also.
3. The earth is about 4000 years old.

All these ideas challenged during 19th century, by Charles Darwin (Naturalist)

Based on the observations, made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S.
Beagle round the world,
The Charles Darwin concluded,

Existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees not only among
themselves but also with life forms the existed millions of years ago.

Many such life forms do not exist any more,

Extinction of species

New species formed at different periods of history of earth,

Gradual evolution of life forms.

Any population has built in variation in characteristics.

Those characteristics enables to survive better in natural conditions (climate, food,

physical factors etc) as compare to others that unable to survive under such natural
conditions.

Fitness of the individual or population (survival of fitness)

According to Darwin fitness is related to Reproductive fitness.

Hence, those who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny than others,
will survive more and hence selected by nature.

NATURAL SELECTION

Mechanism of evolution.

Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also to similar
conclusions around the same time.

The theory of evolution is a shortened form of the term “theory of evolution by

Natural selection,” which was proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel
Wallace in the nineteenth century.

Darwinism is based on five main postulates:

1. Overproduction (Prodigality of nature)
2. Struggle for existence
3. Organic variations
4. Natural selection
5. Origin of new species(Speciation)
Evidences for Evolution:
The evidence supporting organic evolution is derived from a number of fields of
Biology. Those discussed here are:

Palaeontological evidence: Study of fossils.

(remains or hard parts of an organisms)

Different-aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life forms that probably
died during the formation of the particular sediment.

Some of them appear similar to modern organisms.

Fossils include bones,teeth,shells and other hard parts of animal or plant body.

The media in which the fossils occur include sedimentary

rocks,amber,asphalt,volcanic ash,ice,peat bogs,sand , mud etc.

A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological periods in

which they existed

The age of fossils is determined by Radioactive dating technique (absolute dating)

Relative dating. Carbon dating,

Potassium- Argon method

Fossil record can be arranged in a chronological sequence.

Geological time scale.

They represent extinct organisms, e.g., Dinosaurs.

A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in

which they existed.

Hence, new forms of life have arisen at different times in the history of Earth.

Palaeontology helps to understand the evolutionary study.

Fossil evidences which shows combined features of two groups are called. Missing
links.
Eg. Archaeopteryx displace the characteristics of both reptiles and birds.

Embryological evidence:

It was proposed by Ernst Heckel based on the observation of certain features during
the embryonic stage common to all vertebrates that are absent in adults.

For example, the embryos of all vertebrates including humans develop a row of
vestigial gill slits just behind the head but it is a functional organ only in fish and not
found in any other adult vertebrates.
However, this proposal was disapproved by Karl Ernst Baer, he noted that embryos
never pass through the adult stages of other animals.

Morphological evidence and comarative anatomy:

Though organisms of different species and groups are quite different from each
other, they still retain certain common features.
Morphological evidence for evolution is derived from:

Divergent evolution:

Species from a common ancestral origin evolve similar anatomical parts (called
homologous structures) but with dissimilar functions. For example, whales, bats,
cheetahs, and humans (all mammals) share similarities in the pattern of bones of
forelimbs.

Though these forelimbs perform different functions but they have similar anatomical
structure.

Homologous Organs: Origin same but they are adapted to perform different
functions.
Common ancestors.

Analogous Organs: Origin different but adated to perform same functions.

No common ancestors.

Homology shows Divergent evolution (common ancesters)

Analogy shows Convergent evolution (uncommon ancesters)

Examples of homologous organs in plants,

Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of cucurbita

Examples of homologous organs in animlas,
Forelimbs of various vertebrates.

Convergent evolution:

It creates analogous structures that have similar forms or functions but were not
present in the last common ancestor of those groups.

Both sharks and dolphins have similar body forms, yet are only distantly related:
sharks are fish and dolphins are mammals.

Examples of Analogous organs:

In plants,
Sweet potato(root modification)
Potato (stem modification)

Examples of Analogous organs:

In animals,
The eye of octopus and of mammals

Or
Flippers of penguins and dolphins.

Wings of butterfly and birds

Molecular evidence:
Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse
organisms give clues to common ancestry. These biochemical similarities point to
the same shared ancestry as structural similarities among diverse organisms.

Industrial melanism:
It is an example of the Natural selection,

Comes from England in collection of Moths made in 1850s.

Before industrialization, moths on tree - white- winged with dark blotches and spots
moths (Biston betularia typica)were more than dark winged (Biston betularia
carbonaria)or melanised moths.

It is appearance of dark melanic forms of Moths in the industrial regions.

Because of industrialization, in 1920 soot emmision from the burning coal.barks got
covered with the smoke, so white moths were selectively picked by birds

There were more number dark- winged moths in the same area. I.e. the proportion
was reversed.

But black moths remain unnoticed so they managed to survive resulting in more
population of black moths and less population of white moths.

In rural areas, the count of melanic moths was low.

Similarly, excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc

Selection of resistant varieties.

Adaptive Radiation

Given by Darwin

Adaptive radiation is a rapid increase in the number of species with a common

ancestor, characterized by great ecological and morphological diversity.

This process occurs due to natural selection.

An example of adaptive radiation is Darwin finches, found on Galapagos Island.

A large variety of finches is present in Galapagos Island that arose from a single
species, which reached this land accidentally.

As a result, many new species have evolved, diverged, and adapted to occupy new
habitats.

These finches have developed different eating habits and different types of beaks to
suit their feeding habits.

The insectivorous, blood-sucking, and other species of finches with varied dietary
habits have evolved from a single seed-eating finch ancestor.

The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting

from a point and literally radiating to other areas geography(habitats). ADAPTIVE
RADIATION

Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia:

Marsupials : Pouched mammals (Kangaroo)

Adaptive radiation in placental mammals:

Same type of adaptive radiation in occurred in placental mammals in Australia.

Placental mammals that are present in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in
evolving into varieties of such placental mammals each of which appears to be
‘similar’ to a corresponding marsupial.
When similar type of adaptive radiation in occurring in different habitat produced
similar result

CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
Convergent evolution is the process whereby organisms not closely related (not
monophyletic), independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to
similar environments or ecological niches.
Picture showing convergent evolution of Australian Marsupials and placental
mammals.

In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify

rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a
change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges,
or opens new environmental niches.
Biological Evolution
Change in genetic code and that change is inherited in next generation.

Theories of Evolution:

Theory of inheritance of acquired characters.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck, a French biologist, explained this theory in his book
‘Philosophie Zoologique’ in 1809.

Important features of Lamarckism:

1. Environment and new needs:

Change in environment brings about changes in plants and some animals.

Change in environment produce new needs.

New needs produce a new movements the body that brings about modifications of
existing organs and formation of new organs.

This is known as doctrine of desire or appetency

2. Use and disuse organ:

3. Inheritance of acquired characters.

Eg. Giraffe

Giraffe started stretching of his neck

Length of neck increased (this is acquired character due to change in environment)

This trait is then inherited in the next generation.

Darwin’s theory :
Darwin explained the theory for the origin of species by Natural selection.

Elaborated by Darwin in his book “The Origin of Species by Natural Selection”

The rate of the appearance of new species is linked with the life cycle or life span

Microbes divide fast have ability to multiply and become millions of individuals within
hours.

Nature selects for the fitness.

Fitness is based on the characteristics which are inherited.

Branching descent (the process of evolving a new species from a single common
ancestor) and natural selection are key concepts of Darwinian Theory of Evolution.

New species developed and become geographically adapted to a new environment.

Thomas Malthus theory of Population:

Natural resources are limited, the growth of population size will grow exponentially if
everybody reproduce maximally.

The population which make resources utilization better only those reproduce and
leave more progeny.

Hence for a period of time, over many generations,

Survivors will leave more progeny and there would be a change in population
characteristic and hence new forms appear to arise.

Mechanism of Evolution:
Various theories about the mechanism of evolution have been proposed; some of
them such as Lamarck’s theory of “Inheritance of acquired characters” and

Hugo DeVries’ theory of ‘mutation’

(MUTATION THEORY)

According to Hugo DeVries,

He believed that mutations or discontinuous variation are the raw materials of

evolution.

Mutation appear all of the sudden and become operational immediately.

Mutation are random and directionless while Darwinian variations are small and
directional.

Useful mutations are selected by nature whereas lethal mutations are eliminated.

Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVeries believed mutation cause
speciation and hence called it Saltation (single step large mutation)

Hardy-Weinberg Principle:
Hardy–Weinberg Principle mathematically explains the occurrence and consistency
of gene frequency for a particular gene.

According to Hardy- Weinberg principle:

Allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to

generation.

The allele pool (total genes and their alleles in a population remains constant)

SUM TOTAL OF ALLELIC FREQUNECY IS 1

p+q =1 or

p2 +2pq+q2 =1

p = frequency of dominant allele

q = frequency of recessive allele

p2 = frequncy of homozygous dominant individuals (TT)

q2 = frequncy of homozygous recessive individuals (tt)
2pq= frequqncy of heterozygous individuals. (Tt)

Dominant tall = TT=p

Recessive dwarf= tt=q

p +q =1
(p+q)2 =1
p2 +2pq+q2 =1
If the frequency of dominant allele A is 0.4, then what is the frequency of
homozygous dominant, heterozygous and homozygous recessive?( Alleles A n a)

p+q=1

p2= AA= (0.4)2 = 0.16 AA

2pq=Aa=0.4*0.6*2=0.48 Aa
q2 = aa= (0.6)2 =0.36 aa

Factors affecting the Hardy-Weinberg principle:

Mutation: “Mutation is the change in our DNA base pair sequence due to various
environmental factors such as UV light, or mistakes during DNA replication.”

Mutations in the structure of genes can be classified as Small-scale Mutationsand

Large Scale Mutations.
Small-scale mutations are types of gene mutations, such as those affecting a small
gene in one or a few nucleotides, including:

Point mutations
A mutation is said to be punctual when it touches one or more nucleotides of the
same gene.

point mutation

a. Substitution mutations :

Missense mutations: This point mutation results in the replacement of one

nucleotide by another. In some cases, this change causes a change in the amino acid
encoded, which may or may not have an impact on the function of the protein
produced by the gene in the case of a gene encoding, or the affinity for a
transcription factor, in the case of a promoter region of the DNA.
Nonsense mutation: In this instead of substituting one amino acid for another,
however, the altered DNA sequence prematurely signals the cell to stop building a
protein. This type of mutation results in a shortened protein that may function
improperly or not at all.
Silent mutations: These are mutations that do not alter the sequence of a protein
because of the redundancy of the genetic code (the new triplet codes for the same
amino acid as the original triplet), or because it affects an area not coding DNA or an
intron.

2.Insertions and deletions

The insertions and deletions are the type of mutations and are the two types of
mutations called frame-shift. Addition or deletion of nucleotides is not a multiple of 3
will cause a change of reading frame of the genetic code.

Insertions add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA. An insertionchanges the
number of DNA bases in a gene by adding a piece of DNA.
Deletions mean removing one or more nucleotides from the DNA. Like insertions,
these mutations can alter the reading frame of the gene.

Large Scale Mutations

1,Chromosomal Mutations
It can be a loss or gain of chromosomes:These mutations change from one
generation to the next, they correspond to the high repetition of some triplets at the
DNA level

2,Somatic or Germline mutations

We speak of germ-line mutation or de-novo mutation when the mutation involves the
DNA of stem cells from a gamete. In this case, the embryo will carry the mutation
without any of its parents are possessed in his genetic heritage. This type of
mutation occurs during the formation of life or the gametes of one parent (sperm or
ovum).
Generally the somatic mutations do not affect cells for reproduction, they are never
inherited.

Genetic drift: Change in allele frequency by chance.

Natural selection:

Gene flow : Movement of genes into or out of a population

Genetic recombination: During gamete formation exchange of genetic material,

Crossing over

Genetic equilibrium:
The condition where a gene pool is not changing in frequency across generations is a
genetic equilibrium.
This is because the evolutionary forces acting upon the allele are equal.
As a result, the population does not evolve even after several generations.
It is an ideal or theoretical state that provides a baseline to measure genetic change.

Gene flow: The introduction of genetic material (by interbreeding) from one
population of a species to another, thereby changing the composition of the gene
pool of the receiving population.
Due to gene migration.

All these factors contribute to the change in gene frequency of a species in an area.

If a few individuals from a species migrate to another place, the gene frequency
changes again.

It decreases from the place from where the individuals migrate and increase in the
place they migrate to.

If the frequency of the genes is high enough in the newly migrated land to start a
new species, the original migrated individuals become the founder species, and the
effect is called the Founder effect.

Thus, all these mechanisms contribute to the process of evolution.

Speciation is defined as the evolutionary formation of new biological species, usually

by the division of a single species into two or more genetically distinct ones.

Speciation occurs along with the help of genetic drift, migration, geographical
isolation, and natural selection.

Natural selection: heritable variations enabling better survival

Reproduce

Leave greater number of progeny

Variation is due to mutation or due to recombination during gametogenesis or due to

gene flow or genetic drift results in changed frequency of genes or alleles in future
generation.

Natural selection can lead to,

Stabilization (individual acquire mean character value)

Directional change (more individual acquire value other than mean character value)

Disruptive (more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of

distribution curve)
Diagrammatic representation of the operation of natural selection on different traits :
(a) Stabilizing (b) Directional © Disruptive.

Brief Account of Evolution

Evolution refers to the gradual change which occurs in an organism over a long
duration of time.

It is a slow-going process that results in the development of the organism.

Life originated on Earth about 3.5 billion years ago.

It is believed that there might have been the presence of simple elements on earth
which may have given rise to simple organic and inorganic molecules.

From these simple molecules, complex molecules like protein, DNA, etc. may have
been formed.

Other evolutionary changes may have resulted in the formation of simple cells and
the result of the continuous evolution on Earth is the several species of plants and
animals that exist on Earth.

Today, the diversity on earth varies from unicellular amoeba to a human beings and
from unicellular Algae like Chlorella to a huge banyan tree.
Homologous structures
Similar in anatomy Dissimilar in anatomy
Doing dissimilar functions Doing similar functions
Develop in related animals Develop in unrelated animals
Inherited from a common Not inherited from common
ancestor ancestor
Similar developmental pattern Developmental pattern is not similar
Similar structure and Origin Dissimilar in structure and origin

DIVERGENT EVOLUTION CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

1. Development of different Development of similar adaptive
functional structures from a functional structures in unrelated
common ancestral form is called groups of organisms is called
divergent evolution. convergent evolution.
2. Homologous organs show Analogous organs show convergent
divergent evolution. evolution.
examples. Australian Marsupials and
Examples.: Darwin’s Finches,
Placental mammals, various equatic
Australian Marsupials,
vertebrate and wings of insect bird
locomotion in mammals.
and bat.

The factors that affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are-

• Gene migration or gene flow.
• Genetic drift
• Mutation
• Genetic recombination
• Natural selection.

During genetic drift ,sometimes change in alleles frequency is so different in a

sample of population that they become a different species. The original drifted
population becomes founder and that effect is called founder effect.

Brief Account of evolution

About 2000 million ago first cellular form of life appeared on earth.

The mechanism of how non cellular aggregates of giant macromolecules

Evolve into cells with membranous evolve is unknown

Some of cell had ability to release O2.

 Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular forms and by the time

500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active.

 Jawless fish evolved around 350 mya.

Sea weeds and few plants existed around 320 mya.

 Organisms started to invade from water to land.

First organisms that invaded land were plants

They were widespread on land when animals invaded land.

 Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water
These animals called lobe-finneds evolved into the first amphibians.

The fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water.

In 1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth

Extinct

These animals called lobe fins

Evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and water.

These are no specimens of these left with us.

However, these were ancestors of modern day frog and salamanders

The ambhibians evolved into

Reptiles
(they lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in the sun unlike ambhinians)

Modern day descendants turtles, tortoise, and crocodiles.

In the next 200 millions years or so, reptiles of different shape and sizes

Dominate the earth.

Giants ferns (ptredidophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits
slowly.

A sketch of the evolution of plant forms through geological period

Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles
(probably 200 mya) (eg Ichthyosaurs)

And the land reptiles e.g dinosaurs. The biggest of them was Tyrannosaurus rex.
(20 feet) and had huge teeth.

About 65 mya, the dinosuarors suddenly disappered.

Some say evolved into birds.

Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.

The first mammal like shrews

Their fossils are small sized.

Mammals were viviporous.

Were more intelligent.

When reptiles came down mammals took over land.

In South Africa mammal resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc

Due to continental drift (movement of continents towards and away from each other)
when South Africa joined North Africa

These animal overridden by North American fauna.

Due to same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of

lack of competition from any other mammal.

Some mammal live wholly in water whales, dolphins, seals and sea co.

Evolution of life forms,their times on a geographical scale are indicated in

Origin and Evolution of Man:

About 15 mya,

Primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were extinct.

 Hairy and walked like gorilla and chimpanzees

Ramapithecus- man like

Dryopithecus - ape like

Fossils of man - in Euthopia and Tanzania

They were not taller than 4 feet but walked upright.

2 mya

Australopithecus, lived in East African grasslands.

First human like-hominid called Homo habilis

Brain capacities - 650-800cc (cranial capacity)

Did not eat meat.

Fossils discovered in Java 1891 revealed the next satge

Homo erectus - 1.5 mya brain around 900cc eat meat.

Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived near east and central Asia.

They used hider to protect their body and buried their dead.

Homo sapians arose in Africa and across continents and developed into distinct
races.

During ice age between 75000-100000 years ago modern Homo sapians arose.

Pre historic cave art developed about 18000 years ago

Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.

Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started.
A comparison of the skulls of adult modern human being, baby chimpanzee and
adult chimpanzee. The skull of baby chimpanzee is more like adult human skull than
adult chimpanzee skull

Man belongs to the family Hominidae of the order Primates. Humanlike apes belong
to the same order.
With the passage of time, their ancestors evolved and became more and more
different. The first-ever ancestors of humans are believed to have originated in Africa,
eventually migrating to Europe, Asia, and the rest of the world.
Man originated through several stages:

Dryopethicus: It is the earliest known ancestor of man.

They were found in some parts of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The evolution of man
began with him.

Dryopethicus was followed by Australopithecus.

Australopithecus: These were 1.2 meters tall and could walk upright. They inhabited
the African mainland. They had large jaws and human-like teeth.

Homo habilis: They were five feet tall and could make use of tools. They are believed
to have been able to speak.

Homo erectus: They were more evolved beings. They were also upright and had a
larger brain size. They had a prominent speech. They invented fire and were
carnivorous.

Homo Neanderthals: Homo sapiens is the only extant species of hominin around
today, but a few thousand years ago, there were a few other species that existed
alongside anatomically modern humans – the Neanderthals, Denisovans and the
Homo floresiensis.
Today, scientists consider Neanderthals to be more of a subspecies of humans
rather than a completely separate species.

Homo sapiens: These are modern men. They developed the power of thinking, used
tools, were omnivorous, and produced art. Their brain size was reduced to 1300 cc.

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