How Genes Are Controlled: Powerpoint Lectures

CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS,
NINTH EDITION, GLOBAL EDITION

PowerPoint Lectures
Chapter 11
How Genes
Are Controlled TAYLOR
SIMON
DICKEY
HOGAN
REECE
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
Introduction
• The first mammal to be cloned was an adult ewe
(female sheep) in 1996.
• However, the outcomes of animal cloning have not
lived up to initial expectations.
• Cloned animals are often abnormal, with shortened
life spans and increased incidences of age-related
diseases.
• The difficulties in producing a healthy clone
highlight the complex role genes play in the growth
of an organism.

Figure 11.0_1

Figure 11.0_2
Chapter 11: Big Ideas
Control of Gene Cloning of Plants The Genetic Basis of

Expression and Animals Cancer

CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION

11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn
prokaryotic genes on or off in response to
environmental changes
• The overall process by which genetic information
flows from genes to proteins—that is, from
genotype to phenotype—is gene expression.
• Gene regulation, the turning on and off of genes,
can help organisms respond to environmental
changes.

• In prokaryotes, genes for related enzymes are
often controlled together in units called operons.
• Regulatory proteins bind to control sequences in
the DNA.

Figure 11.1a

Figure 11.1b
Operon turned off (lactose is absent):
OPERON
Regulatory Promoter Operator
gene Lactose utilization genes
DNA
mRNA RNA polymerase

cannot attach to
the promoter
Active
Protein
repressor
Operon turned on (lactose inactivates the repressor):
DNA
RNA polymerase
is bound to the
mRNA promoter
Translation
Protein
Lactose Inactive Enzymes for

repressor lactose utilization
Figure 11.1b_1
Operon turned off (lactose is absent):

OPERON
Regulatory Promoter Operator
gene Lactose utilization genes
DNA
mRNA RNA polymerase

cannot attach to
the promoter
Active
Protein
repressor

Figure 11.1b_2
Operon turned on (lactose inactivates the repressor):
DNA
RNA polymerase
is bound to the
mRNA promoter
Translation
Protein
Lactose Inactive Enzymes for

repressor lactose utilization

Figure 11.1c
lac operon (inducible) trp operon (repressible)

Promoter Operator Gene
DNA
Active Active
repressor repressor Tryptophan
Inactive Lactose Inactive

repressor repressor

Checkpoint question A certain mutation in E. coli
impairs the ability of the lac repressor to bind to the
lac operator. How would this affect the cell?

11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical
modifications can affect gene expression
• As a zygote develops into a multicellular organism,
individual cells must undergo differentiation,
becoming specialized in structure and function.
• Each cell type must maintain a specific regimen of
gene expression in which some genes are
expressed and others are not.
• The differences between cell types, therefore, are
not due to different genes being present but instead
due to selective gene expression.

• A chromosome contains DNA wound around
clusters of small proteins called histones, forming
a string of bead-like nucleosomes.
• DNA packing tends to block gene expression by
preventing access of transcription proteins to DNA.
• One example of DNA packing is X chromosome
inactivation in the cells of female mammals.
• Chemical modification of DNA bases or histone
proteins can result in epigenetic inheritance.

Figure 11.2a
DNA double helix

(2-nm diameter) Duplicated
metaphase
TEM 100,000×
chromosome
Tight helical
fiber (30-nm
Linker fiber)
“Beads on
a string”
Histones Nucleosome
(10-nm fiber)
TEM 14,000×
Looped domain
(300-nm fiber)
700 nm

Figure 11.2a_1
TEM 100,000×
Linker
“Beads on
a string”

Figure 11.2a_2
Duplicated
metaphase
chromosome
TEM 14,000×

700 nm
Figure 11.2b
Early Embryo Adult

Cell division Two cell populations
X and random
X chromosome Active X Orange
chromosomes
inactivation Inactive X fur
Allele for Allele for Inactive X

orange fur black fur Active X Black fur

Figure 11.2b_1
Early Embryo Adult

Cell division Two cell populations
X and random
chromosomes X chromosome Active X Orange
inactivation Inactive X fur
Allele for Allele for Inactive X

orange fur black fur Active X Black fur

Figure 11.2b_2

Checkpoint question How can epigenetic changes
such as histone methylation affect gene
expression?

Animation: DNA Packing

11.3 Complex assemblies of proteins control
eukaryotic transcription
• A variety of regulatory proteins interact with DNA
and with each other to turn the transcription of
eukaryotic genes on or off.
• Transcription factors are proteins that promote
the binding of RNA polymerase to a gene.

11.3 Complex assemblies of proteins control
eukaryotic transcription
Checkpoint question What must occur before RNA
polymerase can bind to a promoter and transcribe
a specific eukaryotic gene?

Figure 11.3
Enhancers Promoter
Gene
DNA
Activator
proteins
Transcription
factors Other
proteins
DNA-bending
protein
RNA
polymerase
Bending
of DNA
Transcription
Animation: Initiation of Transcription

11.4 Eukaryotic RNA may be spliced in more
than one way
• After transcription, alternative RNA splicing may
generate two or more types of mRNA from the
same transcript.
• In humans, more than 90% of protein-coding
genes appear to undergo alternate splicing.

11.4 Eukaryotic RNA may be spliced in more
than one way
Checkpoint question How is it possible that just
under 21,000 human genes can produce more
than 100,000 polypeptides?

Figure 11.4_1
Exons
DNA 1 2 3 4 5
Introns Introns

Figure 11.4_2
Exons
DNA 1 2 3 4 5
Introns Introns
Cap Tail
RNA
transcript 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 11.4_3
Exons
DNA 1 2 3 4 5
Introns Introns
Cap Tail
RNA
transcript 1 2 3 4 5
RNA splicing
or
mRNA 1 2 3 5 1 2 4 5

Animation: RNA Processing

11.5 Later stages of gene expression are also
subject to regulation
• The lifetime of an mRNA molecule helps determine
how much protein is made, as do factors involved
in translation.
• A protein may need to be activated in some way,
and eventually the cell will break it down.

Checkpoint question Review Figure 11.5. If the
enzyme responsible for cleaving inactive insulin is
deactivated, what effect will this have on the form
and function of insulin?
11.6 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in
controlling gene expression.
• Only about 1.5% of the human genome codes for
proteins. (This is also true of many other
multicellular eukaryotes.)
• Another small fraction of DNA consists of genes for
ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA.

• A flood of recent data suggests that a significant
amount of the remaining genome is transcribed
into functioning but non-protein-coding RNAs.
• A variety of small RNA molecules, when bound to
proteins, can prevent gene expression by forming
complexes with mRNA molecules.
• Small single-stranded RNA molecules, called
microRNAs (miRNAs), can bind to
complementary sequences on mRNA molecules.

Checkpoint question What are the two possible
outcomes of a miRNA binding to an mRNA?

Figure 11.6_1
Protein
miRNA
1
miRNA-protein
complex

Figure 11.6_2
Protein
miRNA
1
miRNA-protein
complex
Target mRNA with Target mRNA

sequence complementary with partially
to entire length of miRNA complementary
2
sequence

Figure 11.6_3
Protein
miRNA
1
miRNA-protein
complex
Target mRNA with Target mRNA

sequence complementary with partially
to entire length of miRNA complementary
2
sequence
3 4
or
mRNA degraded Translation blocked

Animation: Blocking Translation

Animation: mRNA Degradation

11.7 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Multiple
mechanisms regulate gene expression in
eukaryotes
• Gene expression can be regulated multiple ways
within both the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Figure 11.7_1
Chromosome
DNA unpacking Gene NUCLEUS

DNA
CYTOPLASM

Figure 11.7_2
Chromosome

DNA
Transcription
Exon CYTOPLASM
Intron

Figure 11.7_3
Chromosome

DNA
Transcription
Exon CYTOPLASM
Splicing
RNA Intron
Addition of a transcript
cap and tail mRNA in Tail
nucleus
Cap

Figure 11.7_4
Chromosome

DNA
Transcription
Exon CYTOPLASM
Splicing
RNA Intron
nucleus
Flow through
nuclear envelope
Cap
mRNA in
cytoplasm

Figure 11.7_5
Chromosome

DNA
Transcription
Exon CYTOPLASM
Splicing
RNA Intron
nucleus
Flow through
nuclear envelope
Cap
mRNA in
Breakdown cytoplasm
of mRNA
Broken-down mRNA

Figure 11.7_6
Chromosome

DNA
Transcription
Exon CYTOPLASM
Splicing
RNA Intron
nucleus
Flow through
nuclear envelope
Cap
mRNA in
Breakdown cytoplasm
of mRNA
Translation Broken-down mRNA
Polypeptide

Figure 11.7_7
Chromosome

DNA
Transcription
Exon CYTOPLASM
Splicing
RNA Intron
nucleus
Flow through
nuclear envelope
Cap
mRNA in
Breakdown cytoplasm
of mRNA
Polypeptide
Cleavage,
modification,
activation Active
protein

Figure 11.7_8
Chromosome

DNA
Transcription
Exon CYTOPLASM
Splicing
RNA Intron
nucleus
Flow through
nuclear envelope
Cap
mRNA in
Breakdown cytoplasm
of mRNA
Polypeptide
Cleavage,
modification,
activation Active
protein
Breakdown
of protein
Amino
acids

11.7 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Multiple
mechanisms regulate gene expression in
eukaryotes
Checkpoint question Of the nine regulatory
“valves” shown here, which five can also operate in
a prokaryotic cell?

Animation: Protein Degradation

Animation: Protein Processing

11.8 Cell signaling and waves of gene
expression direct animal development
• A series of RNAs and proteins produced in the
embryo control the development of an animal from
a fertilized egg.
• A homeotic gene is a master control gene that
regulates groups of other genes that determine the
anatomy of parts of the body, such as which body
parts will develop where in a fly.

Figure 11.8a
Eye
Antenna
SEM 50×
SEM 50×
Extra pair
of legs
Figure 11.8a_1
Eye
Antenna
SEM 50×

Figure 11.8a_2
SEM 50×
Extra pair
of legs

Figure 11.8b_1
Egg cell within ovarian follicle
Egg cell
1 Egg cell and follicle cells
signaling each other
Follicle cells
Gene expression
Growth of egg cell
Localization of “head” mRNA
2 Egg cell
“Head”
mRNA
Cascades of
gene expression

Figure 11.8b_2
Egg cell
Follicle cells
Gene expression
Growth of egg cell
2 Egg cell
“Head”
mRNA
Cascades of
gene expression
Fertilization and mitosis
Embryo
Body segments
3
75×

Figure 11.8b_3
Egg cell
Follicle cells
Gene expression
Growth of egg cell
2 Egg cell
“Head”
mRNA
Cascades of
gene expression
Fertilization and mitosis
Embryo
Body segments
3
75×
Expression of homeotic genes
and cascades of gene expression
Adult fly
15×
Animation: Cell Signaling

11.9 CONNECTION: Researchers can monitor
the expression of specific genes
• Scientists can use various techniques to study how
genes work together.
• Nucleic acid hybridization allows researchers to
identify cells in which a target gene is expressed.
• A DNA microarray can gather data about which
genes are turned on or off in a particular cell.

Figure 11.9a
The yellow probe hybridizes The blue probe hybridizes
with mRNAs in cells that are with mRNAs in cells that
expressing gene A. are expressing gene B.
T A A CGG T T C C A GC C T C AAG T T GC T C T
A U U G C C A A GG U C G GA G UU C A A C GA GA
A mRNA B mRNA
Cells expressing Cells expressing

gene A gene B
120×
Figure 11.9b
Each dot is a well containing
identical copies of DNA
fragments that carry a
specific gene. Genes bind to red
cDNAs.
Genes bind to green

cDNAs.
Genes expressed in
both tissues; bind to
both red and green
cDNAS.
Genes are not expressed

in tissues and do not
bind to either cDNA.
11.9 CONNECTION: Researchers can monitor
the expression of specific genes
Checkpoint question What can be learned from a
DNA microarray?

11.10 Signal transduction pathways convert
messages received at the cell surface to
responses within the cell
• Cell-to-cell signaling coordinates cellular activities
via proteins or other kinds of molecules, carrying
messages from signaling cells to receiving cells.
• In most cases, a signaling molecule acts by binding
to a receptor protein in the plasma membrane.
• A signal transduction pathway is a series of
molecular changes that converts a signal on a
target cell’s surface to a specific response inside
the cell.

Figure 11.10
Signaling cell EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Signaling molecule
1 Receptor protein
2
Plasma membrane
Target cell 3
Relay Signal
proteins transduction
pathway
Transcription
factor 4
(activated)
NUCLEUS
DNA
5 Transcription
mRNA
New
6 protein
CYTOPLASM Translation
Figure 11.10_1
Signaling cell EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

Signaling molecule
1
Receptor protein
2
Plasma membrane
Target cell 3
Relay Signal
proteins transduction
pathway

Figure 11.10_2
Transcription
factor 4
(activated)
NUCLEUS
DNA
5 Transcription
mRNA
New
6 protein
CYTOPLASM
Translation

11.10 Signal transduction pathways convert
messages received at the cell surface to
responses within the cell
Checkpoint question To turn on a gene, must a
signal molecule actually enter a target cell?

Animation: Overview of Cell Signaling

Animation: Signal Transduction Pathways

11.11 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Cell-
signaling systems appeared early in the
evolution of life
• Similarities among organisms suggest that signal
transduction pathways evolved early in the history
of life on Earth.
Checkpoint question In what sense is the joining
of yeast mating types “sex”?

Figure 11.11
Receptor
α factor
a α
Yeast cell, Yeast cell,

mating type a mating type α
a factor
a α
a/α

CLONING OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

11.12 Plant cloning shows that differentiated
cells may retain all of their genetic potential
• A clone is an individual organism created by
asexual reproduction and thus genetically identical
to a single parent.
• Any cell capable of producing every kind of
specialized cell in an organism is said to be
totipotent.
• Regeneration, the regrowth of lost body parts,
demonstrates that differentiation need not impair
an animal cell’s genetic potential.

Figure 11.12
Root of
carrot plant
Single cell
Root cells cultured Cell division

in growth medium in culture Plantlet Adult plant
11.12 Plant cloning shows that differentiated
cells may retain all of their genetic potential
Checkpoint question How does the cloning of
plants from differentiated cells support the view
that differentiation is based on the control of gene
expression rather than on irreversible changes in
the genome?

11.13 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Biologists can
clone animals via nuclear transplantation
• In the process of animal cloning called nuclear
transplantation, DNA from a donor cell is inserted
into a nucleus-free host egg, resulting in a clone of
the DNA donor.
• If the animal being cloned is a mammal, the
blastocyst is then implanted into the uterus of a
surrogate mother. This type of cloning is called
reproductive cloning because it can result in the
birth of a new living individual.

Figure 11.13_1
1
The nucleus
is removed
from an egg
cell.

Figure 11.13_2
Donor
cell
1 2
The nucleus A somatic
is removed cell from an
from an egg adult donor
cell. is added.

Figure 11.13_3
Donor
cell Nucleus from
the donor cell
Blastocyst
1 2 3
The nucleus A somatic The cell grows in
is removed cell from an culture to produce
from an egg adult donor a blastocyst (early
cell. is added. embryo).

Figure 11.13_4
Donor
cell Nucleus from
the donor cell
Blastocyst
1 2 3 4
The nucleus A somatic The cell grows in The blastocyst
is removed cell from an culture to produce is implanted in
from an egg adult donor a blastocyst (early a surrogate
cell. is added. embryo). mother.

Figure 11.13_5
Donor
cell Nucleus from
the donor cell
Blastocyst
1 2 3 4 5
The nucleus A somatic The cell grows in The blastocyst A clone of
is removed cell from an culture to produce is implanted in the donor is
from an egg adult donor a blastocyst (early a surrogate born.
cell. is added. embryo). mother.

11.13 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Biologists can
clone animals via nuclear transplantation
Checkpoint question Why does the history of
cloning sheep suggest human cloning should not
be pursued?

11.14 CONNECTION: Therapeutic cloning can
produce stem cells with great medical
potential
• The goal of therapeutic cloning is to produce
embryonic stem cells.
• Such cells may eventually be used for a variety of
therapeutic purposes.
• Like embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells can
both perpetuate themselves in culture and give rise
to differentiated cells.
• Unlike embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells
normally give rise to only a limited range of cell
types.

Figure 11.14
Blood cells
Adult stem
cells in bone
marrow
Embryonic
stem cells
removed
from Nerve cells
blastocyst Cultured
embryonic
stem cells
Heart muscle cells
Different culture Different types of
conditions differentiated cells

11.14 CONNECTION: Therapeutic cloning can
produce stem cells with great medical
potential
Checkpoint question In nature, how do embryonic
stem cells differ from adult stem cells?

THE GENETIC BASIS OF CANCER

11.15 Cancer results from mutations in genes
that control cell division
• Cancer cells, which divide uncontrollably, result
from mutations in genes whose protein products
affect the cell cycle.
• A mutation can change a proto-oncogene, a
normal gene that helps control cell division, into an
oncogene, which causes cells to divide
excessively.
• Mutations that inactivate tumor-suppressor genes
can also lead to cancer.

Figure 11.15a
Proto-oncogene
(for a protein that stimulates cell division)
DNA
A mutation Multiple Mutation within

within copies a control region
the gene of the gene of DNA
Oncogene Mutated promoter
Hyperactive
growth- Normal growth- Normal growth-
stimulating stimulating stimulating
protein in a protein protein
normal amount in excess in excess

Figure 11.15b
Tumor-suppressor gene Mutated tumor-suppressor gene
Normal
growth- Defective,
inhibiting nonfunctioning
protein protein
Cell division
Cell division not under control
under control

11.16 Multiple genetic changes underlie the
development of cancer
• Cancers result from a series of genetic changes.
• Colon cancer illustrates the gradual progression
from somatic mutation to cancer.

Figure 11.16a_1
DNA An oncogene
changes: is activated
Cellular Increased
changes: cell division
1
Colon wall

Figure 11.16a_2
DNA An oncogene A tumor-suppressor

changes: is activated gene is inactivated
Cellular Increased Growth of a polyp

changes: cell division (benign tumor)
1 2
Colon wall

Figure 11.16a_3
DNA An oncogene A tumor- A second tumor-

changes: is activated suppressor gene suppressor gene
is inactivated is inactivated
Cellular Increased Growth of a polyp Growth of a
changes: cell division (benign tumor) malignant tumor
1 2 3
Colon wall

Figure 11.16b
1 2 3 4
Chromosomes mutation mutations mutations mutations
Normal Malignant
cell cell

11.16 Multiple genetic changes underlie the
development of cancer
Checkpoint question Epithelial cells, those that
line body cavities, are frequently replaced and so
divide more often than most other types of body
cells. Will epithelial cells become cancerous more
or less frequently than other types of body cells?

11.17 Faulty proteins can interfere with
normal signal transduction pathways
• Signal transduction pathways lead to the synthesis
of proteins that influence the cell cycle.
• Many proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor
genes code for proteins active in signal
transduction pathways regulating cell division.

Figure 11.17a
Normal Mutant
Growth No
factor growth
Target cell factor
Normal Normal
product of product of
ras gene ras gene
Relay
Hyperactive relay
proteins
protein (product of
ras oncogene)
CYTOPLASM Transcription even in absence
factor of growth factor
(activated)
DNA DNA
Transcription Transcription
NUCLEUS NUCLEUS
Protein that Translation

Overexpression of
stimulates stimulating protein
cell division
Normal Increased
cell cell
division division
Figure 11.17a_1
Normal
Growth
factor
Target cell
Normal
product of
ras gene
Relay
proteins
CYTOPLASM Transcription
factor
(activated)
DNA
Transcription
NUCLEUS
Protein that Translation

stimulates
cell division
Normal
cell
division
Figure 11.17a_2
Mutant
No
growth
factor
Normal
product of
ras gene
Relay
Hyperactive relay
proteins
protein (product of
ras oncogene)
Transcription even in absence
factor of growth factor
(activated)
DNA
Transcription
NUCLEUS
Overexpression of
stimulating protein
Increased
cell
division
Figure 11.17b
Normal Mutant
Growth-
inhibiting
factor Receptor
Relay
proteins Nonfunctional
transcription
Normal factor (product
product of faulty p53
of p53 tumor-
gene suppressor
gene) cannot
Transcription trigger
factor transcription
(activated)
Transcription
Transcription and translation
do not occur
Protein Translation
that Protein
inhibits absent (cell
cell division division not
inhibited)
No cell Increased
division cell
division
Figure 11.17b_1
Normal
Growth-
inhibiting
factor Receptor
Relay
proteins
Normal
product
of p53
gene
Transcription
factor
(activated)
Transcription
Protein Translation
that
inhibits
cell division
No cell
division
Figure 11.17b_2
Mutant
Relay
proteins Nonfunctional
transcription
factor (product
of faulty p53
tumor-
suppressor
gene) cannot
trigger
transcription
Transcription
and translation
do not occur
Protein
absent (cell
division not
inhibited)
Increased
cell
division
11.17 Faulty proteins can interfere with
normal signal transduction pathways
Checkpoint question Contrast the action of an
oncogene with that of a cancer-causing mutation in
a tumor-suppressor gene.

11.18 CONNECTION: Lifestyle choices can
reduce the risk of cancer
• Cancer is the second-leading cause of death (after
heart disease) in most industrialized nations.
• Most cancers arise from mutations caused by
environmental factors. Agents that alter DNA and
make cells cancerous are called carcinogens.
• Reducing exposure to carcinogens and making
other lifestyle choices can help reduce cancer risk.

Checkpoint question Looking at the data
presented in Figure 11.18, which type of
screenable cancer kills the most people?
You should now be able to
1. Describe and compare the regulatory
mechanisms of the lac operon, trp operon, and
operons using activators.
2. Explain how selective gene expression yields a
variety of cell types in multicellular eukaryotes.
3. Explain how DNA is packaged into
chromosomes.
4. Explain how a cat’s tortoiseshell coat pattern is
formed and why this pattern is only seen in
female cats.

5. Explain how eukaryotic gene expression is
controlled.
6. Describe the process and significance of
alternative DNA splicing.
7. Explain how mRNA breakdown, initiation of
translation, protein activation, and protein
breakdown regulate gene expression.
8. Describe the significance of miRNA molecules.

9. Describe the roles of homeotic genes in
development.
10. Explain how scientists can monitor the
expression of specific genes.
11. Explain how a signal transduction pathway
triggers a specific response inside a target cell.
12. Compare the cell-signaling systems of yeast
and animal cells.

13. Explain how plant cloning demonstrates the
potential of differentiated cells.
14. Describe some of the practical applications of
reproductive cloning and the process and goals
of therapeutic cloning.
15. Explain how viruses, proto-oncogenes, and
tumor-suppressor genes contribute to cancer.
16. Explain why the development of most cancers is
a slow and gradual process.

17. Explain how faulty proteins can interfere with
normal signal transduction pathways.
18. Describe factors that can increase or decrease
the risks of developing cancer.

Figure 11.UN01
A typical operon
Operator
Regulatory
gene Promoter Gene 1
Gene 2
Gene 3
DNA
Encodes a repressor RNA Switches Code for

that in active form polymerase the operon proteins
attaches to an operator binding site on or off

Figure 11.UN02
Egg cell or
zygote with
nucleus removed
Nucleus An early embryo Surrogate Clone of

from a resulting from mother the donor
donor cell nuclear trans-
plantation

Figure 11.UN03
An early Embryonic Specialized

embryo stem cells cells
in culture

Figure 11.UN04
Gene (a)
prokaryotic regulation
genes are often is a normal gene that
grouped into can be mutated to an
in eukaryotes when
may involve abnormal
operons oncogene
may
controlled by a lead to
can cause
protein called
are
(b) switched (c)
on/off by
in active
form binds to
(d) (e) (f) (g)
are proteins can produce

occurs in
that promote
female multiple kinds of

transcription
mammals mRNA per gene

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CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS,

NINTH EDITION, GLOBAL EDITION

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Chapter 11: Big Ideas

Control of Gene Cloning of Plants The Genetic Basis of

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

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© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

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mRNA RNA polymerase

Operon turned on (lactose inactivates the repressor):

Lactose Inactive Enzymes for

Operon turned off (lactose is absent):

mRNA RNA polymerase

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Operon turned on (lactose inactivates the repressor):

Lactose Inactive Enzymes for

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lac operon (inducible) trp operon (repressible)

Inactive Lactose Inactive

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DNA double helix

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Early Embryo Adult

Allele for Allele for Inactive X

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Early Embryo Adult

Allele for Allele for Inactive X

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Target mRNA with Target mRNA

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Target mRNA with Target mRNA

mRNA degraded Translation blocked

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