Publication 5
Publication 5
Publication 5
PROKARYOTES
By : Naseer Ahmed
What are OPERONS?
bacteria genes that en- expression. The oper- Repressible operons:
code for proteins with on can therefore be
The include genes
closely related functions categorized as induci-
that encode for en-
are found grouped along ble or repressible.
zymes involved in
with
This cis-acting
story can fitregulatory
100-150
Inducible operons: biosynthetic path-
elements
words. that determine
ways, and the expres-
the transcription of these They include
The subject matter that ap- sion of the gene is
genes, thus these genes genes that encode
pears in newsletters is virtu- controlled by the end
are regulated in a coordi- for enzymes that -product of the path-
nated way. These
ally endless. clusters
You can include
take part in meta- way
of genes are called oper-
stories that focus on current
bolic pathways the
ons, and their
technologies transcrip-
or innovations expression of the Example: the "Trp
tion product
in your field. is a single gene is controlled Operon".
polycistronic mRNA. by the substrate
You may also want
Organization to notein
of genes
business orcontributes
economic trends, Example: the "Lac
operons to Operon"
the regulation of gene
or make predictions for your
1. Lactose molecules are metabolized by the lac enzymes, an intermediate is formed called allolac-
tose (an isomer of lactose)
2. Allolactose acts as an inducer by binding to the lactose repressor and changing its conformation -
-> therefore it can no longer bind to the operator.
In the presence of glucose (even if present together with lactose):Glucose is preferred because it
requires less energy expenditure to be broken down
The operon senses the glucose presence and by a mechanism called "catabolite repression" it is
switched off.
The regulatory protein "CAP" (Catabolite Activator Protein) binds to a DNA sequence upstream
to the lac promoter and enhances binding of the RNA polymerase leading to an increased tran-
scription of the operon.
However, CAP will only bind behind the promoter only if cAMP is bound on it. Adenylate
cyclase though, the enzyme required for the synthesis of cAMP, is inhibited by glucose and the
operon will be eventually expressed at very low rate.
The formation of the stem-loops on the mRNA depends on the binding of ribosomes to the mRNA.
If the tryptophan is present in adequate levels in the cytoplasm, it will be translated and the ribosome will
keep translocating following closely behind the RNA polymerase preventing the formation of the large loop
structure, allowing the terminator structure to form further on and transcription ends.
If tryptophan is lacking, the ribosome will be stalled as it tries to translate the coding region. This will allow
the RNA polymerase to move ahead and leave enough space for the larger stem-loop structure to form, thus
allowing the transcription to continue.
Overall the trp repressor determines whether to switch on or off the entire operon while the method of attenu-
ation determines the efficiency of transcription, according to the level of tryptophan available.
Catabolic Repression:
Lac operon also shows positive control by catabolic repression. This is an additional control system, which binds
the repressor-operator. In E. coli, in the presence of both glucose and lactose, the glucose in first fully utilized and then lac-
tose is taken up for production of energy.Glucose is richest and more efficient source of energy. Glucose has an inhibitory
effect on the expression of lac operon. The mechanism of positive control enables E. coli to adapt more efficiently to the
changing environment of its natural habitat, which is the human intestine.
In the presence of glucose, synthesis of β-galactosidase enzyme becomes suppressed. The inhibitory effect of glu-
cose is due to the marked drop in the level of a nucleotide called cyclic AMP (c-AMP), which inhibits the transcription of
mRNA. Lactose operon transcription requires not only cyclic AMP but also another protein called catabolic activator protein
(CAP). The cAMP and CAP form a complex called cAMP-CRP complex, which is necessary for the functioning of lactose
operon.
A catabolic breakdown product of glucose, called glucose catabolite, prevents the activation of lac operon by lac-
tose. This effect is called catabolic repression. When glucose concentration increases, the cAMP concentration decreases and
vice versa. High concentration of cAMP is necessary for the activation of lac operon.
Normally in the presence of glucose, the lactose operon remains inactive.Glucose catabolite prevents the formation cAMP-
CRP complex. In this way cAMP-CRP system is positive control because expression of lac operon requires the presence of
an activating signal which is this case in cAMP-CRP complex. There are some promoters on DNA at which RNA polymer-
ase cannot initiate transcription without the presence of some additional protein factors such as cAMP-CRP complex. These
factors are positive regulators because their presence is necessary to switch on the cistrons. These are called activators or
stimulators.