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CIE A Level Biology Your notes
16.3 Gene Control

Contents
16.3.1 Gene Control
16.3.2 Lac Operon
16.3.3 Gene Control: Transcription Factors
Page 1 of 8
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16.3.1 Gene Control

Your notes
Gene Control
The nucleus of every cell in the human body contains the same genes
However not every gene is expressed in every cell
Not all of these genes are expressed all the time
There are several mechanisms that exist within cells to make sure the correct genes are expressed in
the correct cell at the right time
They involve regulatory genes
Structural & regulatory genes
A structural gene codes for a protein that has a function within a cell
For example, the F8 gene codes for the protein Factor VIII involved in blood clotting
A regulatory gene codes for a protein that helps to control the expression of another gene
Structural and regulatory genes that work together are usually found close together
Inducible & repressible enzymes
Some genes code for proteins that form enzymes
Some enzymes are required all the time and some are required only at specific times
The expression of enzyme-producing genes can be controlled
Inducible enzymes are only synthesized when their substrate is present
The presence of the substrate induces the synthesis of of the enzyme by causing the transcription
of the gene for the enzyme to start
Repressible enzymes are synthesized as normal until a repressor protein binds to an operator
The presence of the repressor protein represses the synthesis of the enzyme by causing the
transcription of the gene for the enzyme to stop
Controlling when enzymes are synthesized can be beneficial for cells as it stops materials and energy
being wasted
For example, using materials and energy to synthesize an enzyme when its substrate is not present
and it can’t carry out its function would be highly wasteful
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16.3.2 Lac Operon

Your notes
Lac Operon
Regulatory genes control structural genes and their levels of protein production
Regulatory genes sometimes have control over several structural genes at once
Structural genes in prokaryotes can form an operon: a group or a cluster of genes that are controlled
by the same promoter
The lac operon found in some bacteria is one of the most well-known of these
The lac operon controls the production of the enzyme lactase (also called β-galactosidase) and two
other structural proteins
Lactase breaks down the substrate lactose so that it can be used as an energy source in the bacterial
cell
It is an inducible enzyme that is only synthesized when lactose is present
This helps prevent the bacteria from wasting energy and materials
Structure of the lac operon

The components of the lac operon are found in the following order:
Promoter for structural genes
Operator
Structural gene lacZ that codes for lactase
Structural gene lacY that codes for permease (allows lactose into the cell)
Structural gene lacA that codes for transacetylase
Located to the left (upstream) of the lac operon on the bacterium's DNA there is also the:
Promoter for regulatory gene
Regulatory gene lacI that codes for the lac repressor protein
The lac repressor protein has two binding sites that allow it to bind to the operator in the lac operon
and also to lactose (the effector molecule)
When it binds to the operator it prevents the transcription of the structural genes as RNA
polymerase cannot attach to the promoter
When it binds to lactose the shape of the repressor protein distorts and it can no longer bind to
the operator
Lac Operon Structure
Page 3 of 8
Your notes
The components of the Lac operon along with the upstream regulatory gene and its associated
promoter
What happens when lactose is absent?
The following processes take place when lactose is absent in the medium that the bacterium is
growing in:
The regulatory gene is transcribed and translated to produce lac repressor protein
The lac repressor protein binds to the operator region upstream of lacZ
Due to the presence of the repressor protein RNA polymerase is unable to bind to the promoter
region
Transcription of the structural genes does not take place
No lactase enzyme is synthesized
Lac Operon When Lactose is Absent
Page 4 of 8
The repressor protein binding to the operator region of the Lac operon and preventing transcription of
the structural gene
Your notes
What happens when lactose is present?
The following processes take place when lactose is present in the medium that the bacterium is
growing in:
There is an uptake of lactose by the bacterium
The lactose binds to the second binding site on the repressor protein, distorting its shape so that
it cannot bind to the operator site
RNA polymerase is then able to bind to the promoter region and transcription takes place
The mRNA from all three structural genes is translated
Enzyme lactase is produced and lactose can be broken down and used for energy by the
bacterium
Lac Operon When Lactose is Present
Lactose binding to the repressor protein which frees up the operator region of the Lac operon so RNA
polymerase can bind and begin transcription of the structural genes
Exam Tip
The example above explains how the genetic control of an inducible enzyme works. You could get
some questions on the genetic control of repressible enzymes.In this mechanism an effector
molecule also binds to a repressor protein produced by a regulatory gene. However this binding
actually helps the repressor bind to the operator region and prevent transcription of the structural
genes. So it's the opposite of the lac operon: when there is less of the effector molecule, the
repressor protein cannot bind to the operator region and transcription of the structural genes goes
ahead, meaning the enzyme is produced.
Page 5 of 8
16.3.3 Gene Control: Transcription Factors

Your notes
Gene Control: Transcription Factors
Prokaryotes use operons to control the expression of genes in cells
Eukaryotes also use transcription factors to control gene expression
A transcription factor is a protein that controls the transcription of genes by binding to a specific
region of DNA
They ensure that genes are being expressed in the correct cells, at the correct time and to the right
level
It is estimated that ~10% of human genes code for transcription factors
There are several types of transcription factors that have varying effects on gene expression
This is still a relatively young area of research and scientists are working hard to understand how all
the different transcription factors function
Transcription factors allow organisms to respond to their environment
Some hormones achieve their effect via transcription factors
How transcription factors work
Some transcription factors bind to the promoter region of a gene
This binding can either allow or prevent the transcription of the gene from taking place
The presence of a transcription factor will either increase or decrease the rate of transcription of a
gene
For example, PIF is a transcription factor found in plants that activates the transcription of the amylase
gene
A transcription factor binding to the promoter region of a gene which allows RNA polymerase to bind
and for transcription to occur
Page 6 of 8
Gene Control: Gibberellin

Plant cells use transcription factors in a similar way to animal cells Your notes
Gibberellin is a hormone found in plants (e.g. wheat and barley) that controls seed germination by
stimulating the synthesis of the enzyme amylase
It does this by influencing transcription of the amylase gene
When gibberellin is applied to a germinating seed there is an increased amount of the mRNA for
amylase present
Mechanism
The breakdown of DELLA protein by gibberellin is necessary for the synthesis of amylase
The following components are involved:
Repressor protein DELLA
Transcription factor PIF
Promoter of amylase gene
Amylase gene
Gibberellin
Gibberellin receptor and enzyme
The process occurs as follows:
DELLA protein is bound to PIF, preventing it from binding to the promoter of the amylase gene so no
transcription can occur
Gibberellin binds to a gibberellin receptor and enzyme which starts the breakdown of DELLA
PIF is no longer bound to DELLA protein and so it binds to the promoter of the amylase gene
Transcription of amylase gene begins
Amylase is produced
Page 7 of 8
Your notes
The breakdown of DELLA protein by Gibberellin allows the transcription factor PIF to bind to the
promoter for the amylase gene and for transcription to initiate
Exam Tip
In your exam you may be asked to explain why RNA analysis is important with regards to gene
expression. From the outside most cells look almost identical with the same DNA in their nucleus.
However we know that they are most likely expressing different genes.When a cell expresses a gene,
RNA is produced by transcription. This RNA present in a cell can be analysed. Scientists can match the
RNA present in a cell to specific genes and work out which genes are being expressed in that specific
cell.
Page 8 of 8

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CIE A Level Biology Your notes

16.3 Gene Control

16.3.1 Gene Control

16.3.2 Lac Operon

Structure of the lac operon

16.3.3 Gene Control: Transcription Factors

Gene Control: Gibberellin

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