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How was the Mid-Sem

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GNR 651
Digital Cartography

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India is covered by
nearly 385
toposheets on
1:2,50,000 scale and
these are also called
as Degree Sheets.
Each Degree sheet
has 16
top0osheets of
1:50,000 scale and at
present the whole of
the country is
covered by 1:50,000
rigorous metric
surveys in more than
5000 toposheets.

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NR 651 Digital Photogrammetry And Cartography 3006

Principles of analog and analytical photogrammetry, Modelling the geometry

of imaging systems, History and evolution of 2D and 3D imaging systems on
Indian and foreign satellites, Epi-polar registration of stereo images, Orbit
attitude modeling using ground control points and Rational Polynomial
techniques. Digital feature extraction and matching techniques for stereo
image analysis.
Cartographic problems of mapping the earth with horizontal and vertical
controls, Reference Surfaces, Geoid and ellipsoid definitions, Map
Projections and their properties, Hardware and software components of
digital mapping systems

Text / References
1.Cliff Greve (Ed.), 'Digital Photogrammetry - An addendum to the Manual of
Photogrammerty', ASPRS,1996.
2.Paul, R. Wolf, Elements of Photogrammetry, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York,1974.
3.Arthur H. Robinson et.al, 'Elements of Cartography’, John Wiley & Sons,
inc. ,1995.
4.Quihe H. Yang , Map Projection Transformation, Taylor and Francis,
London,2000.

What ?

Cartography:
• Art and Science of Map and Map making
• Making and study of maps in all their aspects

“Mapped and related statistical data do form the greatest storehouse

of knowledge about the condition of the living space of mankind.”
(Roger F. Tomlinson )

With this thought in mind, it only makes sense that maps be created as
accurately as possible and be as accessible as possible.

Map:
Graphic representation of Geographic settings

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Introduction (Cartography In India)

Indian civilization has over 2500 years of mapping tradition. During ancient period,
Indian scholars were familiar with the idea of scale, length, shape, area and
angles. Archeological excavations of the magnificent cities of Indus Valley
Civilization (Mackay 1938), hymns and chants of ancient Indian texts
viz. Sulvasutras(Seidenberg 1978; van der Waerden 1983; Staal 1999) corroborate
this claim. This legacy continued in the mathematical and astronomical works of
great Indian scholars viz. Aryabhatta, Barahamihira,
Bhāskara and Bhaskaracharya spanning the 5th to the 12th century (Amma 1979;
Waerden 1983). However, this glorious tradition seemed to be paused due to
political and economic instability in Indian subcontinent. During 16th and
17th centuries, maps were prepared and used by the Mughal rulers to run smooth
administration and establish a generalized revenue collection (Habib 1974; Gole
1988). Since the 17th century Europeans had also widely identified Indian Territory
through maps for the expansion of trade and commerce (Gole 1976). Another
significant native tradition of mapping was developed in India by the Maratha
rulers during the 17th and 18th centuries (Gogate & Arunachalam 2008). The
history of Indian cartography entered into a new era in 1767 with establishment
of the Survey of India (SOI) as the survey and mapping of India were taken over
by the British colonial rulers.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography_of_India
Prehistory
(2008) proposes that the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500–
Joseph E. Schwartzberg

1900 BCE) may have known "cartographic activity" based on a number of

excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods and that the use of large
scale constructional plans, cosmological drawings, and cartographic material was
known in India with some regularity since the Vedic period (1st millennium
BCE).[clarification needed][7]

'Though not numerous, a number of map-like graffiti appear among the

thousands of Stone Age Indian cave paintings; and at least one complex
Mesolithic diagram is believed to be a representation of the cosmos.’[8]

Susan Gole (1990) comments on the cartographic traditions in early India:

The fact that towns as far apart as Mohenjodaro near the Indus and Lothal on the
Saurashtra coast were built in the second millennium BCE with baked bricks of
identical size on similar plans denotes a widespread recognition of the need for
accuracy in planning and management. In the 8th century CE the Kailas temple
at Ellora in Maharashtra was carved down into mountain for 100 feet, with
intricate sculptures lining pillared halls, no easy task even with an exact map to
follow, impossible without. So if no maps have been found, it should not be
assumed that the Indians did not know how to conceptualize in a cartographic
manner.[2]

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Western Perspective
Cartography of India as a part of the greater continent of Asia develops in Classical
Antiquity.
In Greek cartography, India appears as a remote land on the eastern fringe of Asia
in the 5th century BCE (Hecataeus of Miletus). More detailed knowledge becomes
available after the conquests of Alexander the Great, and the 3rd-century BCE
geographer Eratosthenes has a clearer idea of the size and location of India. By the
1st century, at least the western coast of India is well known to Hellenistic
geography, with itineraries such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Marinus and
Ptolemy had some knowledge of the Indian Ocean (which they considered a sea)
but their Taprobana (Sri Lanka) was vastly too large and the Indian peninsula much
reduced. They also had little knowledge of the interior of the country.
Native Indian cartographic traditions before the Hellenistic period remain
rudimentary. Early forms of cartography in India included legendary paintings; maps
of locations described in Indian epic poetry, for example the Ramayana.[9] These
works contained descriptions of legendary places, and often even described the
nature of the mythological inhabitants of a particular location.[9] Early Indian
cartography showed little knowledge of scale, the important parts of the map were
shown to be larger than others (Gole 1990). Indian cartographic traditions also
covered the locations of the Pole star, and other constellations of use.[1] These
charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of
navigation.[1] Other early maps in India include the Udayagiri wall sculpture—made
under the Gupta empire in 400 CE—showing the meeting of the Ganges and the
Yamuna.[10] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography_of_India

What goes in the map of The Earth ?

•Location and Attributes
•Scale ( Reduction or Enlargements)
•Transformations ( Map Projections)
•Abstraction ( Signs, Symbols, Marks )

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Basic Characteristics of Maps

• Locations in two-dimensional space
• Attributes - qualities or magnitudes

Examples:
- Relationships among locations, e.g. Distance
- Relationships among various attributes at one
location, e.g. Temperature, rainfall and soil
- Relationships among the locations of the
attributes of a given distribution, e.g. Rainfall
- Relationships among the locations of derived
or combined attributes of given distributions,
e.g. Relation of GDP and population
• All geographical maps are reductions.(Scale)

• All maps involve geometrical transformations. (Map projection).

• All maps are abstractions of reality.
• All maps use signs to stand for elements of reality. (Symbolism).

30 50 70 90
10

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Elevation Name Country Comments

[1]
The highest in the world according to National
Geographic Magazine (May 2003) (30,000
5,100 metres (16,700 ft) La Rinconada Peru inhabitants), (2012)(50,000 inhabitants). 5,052 metres
according to the INEI in Peru.[2] 9,746 inhabitants
(2017 census).
5,070 metres (16,630 ft) Tuiwa, Tibet Autonomous Region China [3]

5,011 metres (16,440 ft) Chasangcun, Tibet Autonomous Region China

Rongbuk Monastery, Tibet Autonomous
4,980 metres (16,340 ft) China
Region
Lobuche or lobuje is a small settlement near Mount
Everest in the Khumbu region of Nepal. It is one of
4,940 metres (16,210 ft) Lobuche, Nepal Nepal
the last overnight stops with lodging on the way to
Everest Base camp.
4,920 metres (16,140 ft) Domar, Tibet Autonomous Region China Population 1,488
[4] This small settlement is the highest "city" in the

world according to The Guinness Book of World

4,870 metres (15,980 ft) Wenquan, Qinghai China
Records.[5] Highest in the Eastern and Northern
Hemisphere.
4,770 metres (15,650 ft) Santa Barbara, Bolivia Bolivia Miners' village
4,735 metres (15,535 ft) Lungring, Tibet Autonomous Region China 31°07′30″N 91°42′17″E
Yanshiping, Qinghai / Tibet Autonomous
4,720 metres (15,490 ft) China Population 2,919 (2017).
Region (de facto)
4,710 metres (15,450 ft) Amdo, Tibet Autonomous Region China Population 3,327 (2017).
4,700 metres (15,400 ft) Phinaya, Cusco District Peru Population 339[6]
4,660 metres (15,290 ft) Condoroma Peru Population 533
4,660 metres (15,290 ft) Ananea Peru Population 1,729
4,570 metres (14,990 ft) Karzok, Ladakh India Population 1,291 (2011).
4,530 metres (14,860 ft) Komic, Lahaul Spiti India Population 114
4,500 metres (14,800 ft) Hanle, Ladakh India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_settlements

Please keep One A4 size blank paper and Pencil/Eraser Handy.

We will need it in the Class
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Let’s Know what you know about Mapping

On a A4 size blank paper, draw a MAP that will Guide Your Friend to Reach your
Hostel Room from IITB Main Gate and End in Your Department Entrance.
Google Pin Location is NOT the OPTION- we will later try to understand how this
pin is dropped in Google navigator through cartographic Processes.

As far as possible the Map you draw

Name: Roll No: should be self explanatory with minimal
Lexical /Text instructions

You Can Safe keep this Page and also Send

it to my Email address
[email protected] by 12 noon today

At the End of the cartography section, we shall

try to Draw it again !

Categories of Maps
Classification by scale
• Small-scale map
• Large-scale map

Classification by function
• General reference maps
• Thematic maps
• Charts

Classification by subject matter

• Topographical
• Political
• climate
• economic or resource maps
• environmental ……….

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Processes in Cartography

• Data Collection, Selection , Manipulation,

Generalisation for making maps
• Map Design and Reading/viewing
• Map Query and Analysis

Cartography is a process of reducing the spatial characteristics of large

areas- for the whole or part of the surface of earth/Celestial body.
( The tools and techniques can also be used for microscopically enlarged
objects)

Why Maps ?
Primary purpose of any map is to transmit the knowledge through Human
Cognition indicating the interrelationships of objects and phenomenon in the
given geographic setup.

Transferring Knowledge is NOT Easy

Cartography as Inter disciplinary

• Cognitive science
Art and Science
• Psychology
• Linguistics
• Graphical Art
• Computer science
• Artificial intelligence
• Digital Mapping / GIS
• …

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How ?

Human Spatial Cognition

• Cognition:
- Knowledge (acquisition, storage &
retrieval, manipulation, use)
- includes perception, reasoning & problem
solving, imagery, memory, learning,
language
- “exercising intelligence”

• Cognition and cartography

• Cognition & perception
• Navigation & wayfinding
• Spatial knowledge and decision-
making
• Cognitive maps
• Computational models for wayfinding
• AI
• ANN
• CNN
• ……………

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Human Spatial Cognition

Human Knowledge: Visual

Cognition of the Surroundings /
Environment supported by inputs
from other senses (data
/information), Analysed through
cognitive processes in Human
Brain…..

Can Your Brain Fool You to

See Non-Existing Things
(Illusion)

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perception
Psychology
Zoology
noun
1
the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses.
"the normal limits to human perception“

2
the way in which something is regarded, understood, or interpreted.
"Hollywood's perception of the tastes of the American public"

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? Can This Object Exist

( Possible /Impossible ? )

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? Can This Object Exist

( Possible /Impossible ? )

Which is the Highest Point in the following Object

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Human Spatial Cognition

Case study on wayfinding

• Based on cognitive processes
• People practice it all the time
• Wayfinding from maps, wayfinding
from modern services, etc.

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End

Start

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Wayfinding
• People often face wayfinding difficulties.
• Why?:
- complex environments
- insufficient and missing signs
• Researchers develop models of human
orientation and wayfinding
=> Basis for wayfinding simulation in
computational systems
=> Support architects in optimizing
planned buildings

In Conclusions
• Cognition is an essential part of
cartography:
– The world is cognitively represented in
maps;
– map contents are cognitively Interpreted
and understood by the map reader;

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Cognition and Cartography

Representation as Understood by End User

Representation of Real World

functional functional

How will You Instruct Your Friend to Reach Your Hostel Room From Maingate

• On Phone
• In Person
• In Advance through any communication
• ? How to Reach

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Types of Map
Aspect A map that shows the prevailing direction that a slope faces at
each pixel (point). Aspect maps are often color-coded to show the eight
major compass directions, or any of 360 degrees.

Base A map portraying background reference information onto which other

information is placed. Base maps usually show the location and extent of
natural Earth surface features and permanent human-made objects.
Raster imagery, orthophotos, and orthoimages are often used as base
maps.

Bathymetric A map portraying the shape of a water body or reservoir

using isobaths (depth contours).

Cadastral A map showing the boundaries of the subdivisions of land for

purposes of describing and recording ownership or taxation.

Choropleth A map portraying properties of a surface using area symbols.

Area symbols usually represent categorized classes of the mapped
phenomenon.

Types of Map …2

Composite A map on which the combined information from different thematic

maps is presented.

Contour A map in which lines are used to connect points of equal elevation.
Lines are often spaced in increments of ten or twenty feet or meters.

Derivative A map created by altering, combining, or analyzing other maps.

Index A reference map that outlines the mapped area, identifies all of the
component maps for the area if several map sheets are required, and identifies all
adjacent map sheets.

Inset A map that is an enlargement of some congested area of a smaller scale

map, and that is usually placed on the same sheet with the smaller scale main
map.

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Types of Map …3

Isarithmic A map that uses isorithms (lines connecting points of the same value for
any of the characteristics used in the representation of surfaces) to represent a
statistical surface. Also called an isometric map.

Isopleth A map on which isopleths (lines representing quantities that cannot exist at
a point, such as population density) are used to represent some selected quantity.

Morphometric A map representing morphological features of the Earth’s surface.

Outline A map showing the limits of a specific set of mapping entities, such as
counties, NTS quads, etc. Outline maps usually contain a very small number of
details over the desired boundaries with their descriptive codes.

Planimetric A map showing only the horizontal position of geographic objects,

without topographic features or elevation contours.

Types of Map …4

Relief Any map that appears to be, or is, three-dimensional. Also called a
shaded relief map.

Slope A map that shows changes in elevation over distance. Slope maps are
usually color-coded according to the steepness of the terrain at each pixel.

Thematic A map illustrating the class characterizations of a particular spatial

variable (e.g., soils, land cover, hydrology, etc.)

Topographic A map depicting terrain relief.

Viewshed A map showing only those areas visible (or invisible) from a
specified point(s). Also called a line-of-sight map or a visibility map.

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• Photo maps
• Google Map
• …….

Total Sediment
Thickness of the Worlds
Oceans and Marginal
Seas:

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Shaded relief

Ortho Photo

Geology

221K: Part of "Geologic Map of

the South Side of the Moon,"
1979, 1:5,000,000,
Polarstereographic projection, 41
x 33 inches.

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182K: Part of "Hydrologic Unit Map-1981, State of Nevada," 1:500,000,

Lambert conformal conic projection, 45 x 65 ½ inches.

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Mumbai as seen in
Satellite Image Mumbai as seen in
Aerail Image

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The Earth and Its Shape

? Sphere

? Ellipsoid

? Geoid
(Equipotential Gravity Surface)

Actual terrain

As we
know
it
today

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As we
know
it
today

An Image of Some thing that has

? MAP
been projected especially an
image of the earth surface

3D 2D Map

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Representation of Shape of the Earth on a Map

Issues:

• Cartographic use of the sphere, ellipsoid and geoid

• Geographical coordinates

• Properties of the graticule (Reference Frame)

• Geodetic position determination

The Earth
The earth is a very smooth geometrical figure.
• Imagine the earth reduced to a “sea level” ball 10 in
(25.4cm) in diameter ( Bowling Ball)

On this Sphere:
The highest Point on the Earth Surface

• Mt. Everest with height of 29,028 feet (8,848 meters) above

sea level would be a 0.007in (0.176mm) bump

The Lowest Point

• Mariana trench in the Pacific Ocean southwest of Guam
36,198 feet (11,033 meters) below surface would be a
0.0085in (0.218mm) scratch on this ball

( It would be smoother than any bowling ball yet made! )

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Earth As a Sphere
• For More Than 2000 years, People knew that the
earth is spherical.

• Pythagoras (6 century B.C.): Humans must live on a

body of the “perfect shape”.

• Aristotle (4 century B.C.): Sailing ships disappear

from view hull first, mast last.

• Eratosthenes (Greek, 250 B.C.): First calculation of

the size of spherical earth.

• Authalic sphere: 6,371km radius, 40,030.2km

circumference.

Aristotle's Observation

Aristotle noted that sailing ships always disappear

from view hull first, mast last, rather than becoming
ever smaller dots on the horizon of a flat earth.

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North Pole

Measurement
Summer solstice (21 June )
Sun light hits the bottom of
well at Syene meaning the
Sun is exactly overhead Alexandria
( tropic of Cancer )
SUN
Syene
Summer
At Alexandria presumed to
Solstice
be due north at ~ 925km of
Syene; the shadow length
of vertical column on the
solistice was at 82°48'

7°12' = 1/50 circumference

Thus:
Circumference = 82°48'
925 x 50 = 46250km
(only 15% too large)
From Robinson, et al., 2002 ~ 925km

7°12'

solstice

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Schematic cross section of Earth's orbit.

AT is the axial tilt, about 23.5?

Every year on (about) December 21st, the solar rays fall vertically upon a parallel near 23.50 S.
Longest day in the southern hemisphere (notice how most of it is exposed to the sun, so that date is called the
southern summer solstice),
But
It is the shortest day in the northern hemisphere (therefore winter solstice); not only shorter daylight periods
but a shallower angle of incidence of solar rays explain the lower temperatures north of Equator.

Near June 21st, a similar phenomenon happens along the parallel opposite North. By definition, these two
parallels encircle the torrid or tropical zone; they are named after the zodiacal constellations where the sun is at
those dates, thus Tropic of Capricorn (south) and Tropic of Cancer (north).
In regions south of the Tropic of Capricorn the sun appears to run always north of the observer, even at noon; in
places north of the Tropic of Cancer the sun runs always south of the observer, while in tropical regions the sun
appears sometimes south, sometimes north, depending on the season.

Authalic Sphere

•Cartographer realised that earth is not a

perfect Sphere and hence they visualised it
as a perfect sphere with Surface area same
as that of the real earth

•This authalic Sphere has a radius of 6371

km and hence circumference of 40,030.2
km.

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Earth As an Ellipsoid

•Newton (1670) proposed that the earth would be flattened

because of rotation. The polar flattening would be1/300 th
of the equatorial radius.

• Actual flattening is about 21.5km.

•The amount of the polar flattening as per (WGS [world

geodetic system] 84) is 1/ 298.257.

WGS 84 ellipsoid
a = 6,378,137m
b = 6,356,752.3m
equatorial diameter = 12,756.3km
polar diameter = 12,713.5km
equatorial circumference =
40,075.1km
surface area = 510,064,500km2

Flattening Factor authalic Sphere

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In the 1830s, Sir

George Everest,
India's first
Surveyor General,
mapped out the
geodetic reference
datum for India.
This datum, called
the Everest
Spheroid in his
honour, has since
been used as the
basis for all
government-
issued maps of
India

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Definition of Ellipse

Area of an Ellipse

πab

a<b

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Eccentricity of an Ellipse is a measure of how close it is to Circular Shape

? Eccentricity of a Circle 0

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Geoidal Earth
•Geoid (“earth like”): Sea level equi-potential
surface.

•Gravity is everywhere equal to its strength at

mean sea level.

•The surface is irregular, with difference of -104m

at the southern tip of India to a Maximum of 75 m
near Guinea with WGS84 datum.

• The direction of gravity everywhere is not

directed towards the centre of the shape of earth.

Geoid surface computed from the GEM-T3 gravity model by

the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Centre. (Cited in Robinson, et al., 2002)

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The surface of global undulations was calculated based on altimetric observations

and very precise (up to two centimeters) measurements taken from the
TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite. This data was represented in the Earth Geodetic
Model (EGM96), which is also referred to as the spherical harmonic model of the
earth's gravitational potential. Source:ESRI-ArcUser Online

The official Earth Gravitational Model EGM2008 has

been publicly released by the National Geospatial-
Intelligence Agency (NGA) EGM Development Team.
This gravitational model is complete to spherical
harmonic degree and order 2159, and contains additional
coefficients extending to degree 2190 and order 2159.
Full access to the model's coefficients and other
descriptive files with additional details about EGM2008
are provided within these web pages.

http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/gravitymod/egm2008/

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EGM 2008: This gravitational model is complete to spherical harmonic degree and
order 2159, and contains additional coefficients extending to degree 2190 and order
2159.

The map shows the areas of the globe that would have a sea level below the theoretical
surface of the WGS84 ellipsoid, or the theoretical and geometrically correct sea level
(shown in blue). The sharp contrast between the blue and green indicates where the
ellipsoid and geoid intersect. With the continents displayed as opaque, the remaining
area covered by water reveals where sea level is actually at zero elevation relative to
the WGS84 ellipsoid. Source:ESRI-ArcUser Online

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Lateral variations in gravity anomalies are related to anomalous density distributions within the Earth.
Local measurements of the gravity of Earth help us to understand the planet's internal structure

Gravity and geoid anomalies caused by various crustal and lithospheric thickness
changes relative to a reference configuration. All settings are under local isostatic
compensation with an elevation of either +1000 or -1000 m above the reference
level.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_anomaly

GEOID Representation

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EGM2020
EGM2020 is to be a new release (still not released as of February 2022) with the
same structure as EGM2008, but with improved accuracy by incorporating newer
data.[12] It was originally planned to be released in April 2020.
The precursor version XGM2016 (X stands for experimental) was released in 2016
up to degree and order (d/o) 719. XGM2019e was released in 2020 up to
spheroidal d/o 5399 (that corresponds to a spatial resolution of 2′ which is ~4 km)
and spherical d/o 5540 with a different spheroidal harmonic construction followed
by conversion back into spherical harmonics. XGM2020 was also released
recently

Spheroidal wave functions are solutions of the Helmholtz equation that are found by writing the
equation in spheroidal coordinates and applying the technique of separation of variables, just like the
use of spherical coordinates lead to spherical harmonics. They are called oblate spheroidal wave
functions if oblate spheroidal coordinates are used and prolate spheroidal wave functions if prolate
spheroidal coordinates are used.[1] If instead of the Helmholtz equation, the Laplace equation is solved
in spheroidal coordinates using the method of separation of variables, the spheroidal wave functions
reduce to the spheroidal harmonics. With oblate spheroidal coordinates, the solutions are called oblate
harmonics and with prolate spheroidal coordinates, prolate harmonics. Both type of spheroidal
harmonics are expressible in terms of Legendre functions

Cartography with Sphere, Ellipsoid and Geoid

•Authalic sphere: the reference surface for small-scale maps

where Differences between sphere and ellipsoid is negligible

•Ellipsoid : the reference surface large-scale maps

•Geoid: the reference surface for ground surveyed horizontal

and vertical positions

Representative Franction
Size of Scale
(RF)

Large Scale 1:25,000 or larger

Medium Scale 1:1,000,000 to 1:25,000

Small Scale 1:1,000,000 or smaller

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Geographical Coordinates Geographical Coordinates

• Geographical coordinate system uses latitude and

longitude

• Traced back to Hipparchus of Rhodes (2 century B.C.)

• Latitude Also called Parallels, north-south

• Longitude Also called Meridians, east-west

https://www.davidrumsey.com/

Welcome to the David Rumsey Map Collection. Here you can explore maps through a
variety of viewers. Read the Blog to learn more about collection highlights, such
as Urbano Monte's manuscript world map from 1587. Visit the physical collection at
the David Rumsey Map Center at the Stanford University Library. Or take a virtual
tour of the Map Center, which hosts events such as the recent Barry Lawrence
Ruderman Conference on Cartography : Indigenous mapping.

Ptolemy, Claudius; Mercator, Gerhard, 15...

ASIAE: XI. TAB
1584,
World Atlas

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https://www.mapsofindia.com/history/medieval.html
https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/how-was-
india-measured-why-is-it-important-to-measure-land-1281835-2018-07-10

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Phase one of measurement

After the completion of his first project, he divided the British-controlled India
into two equal halves on the basis of north-south direction.
This time, the starting point was Kanyakumari, the southernmost point of the
country.
This project was named as the Great Indian Arc of the Meridian -- a meridian
being an arc of longitude running north-south on the Earth's surface, of which
the Arc was a large section.
His team, which was compiling the survey manually, acquired the name of the
Great Trigonometrical Survey of India.

After 13 years of work, in 1818, Lambton and his team had covered the entire
area from Kanyakumari to Hyderabad, which means they had crossed 700
miles, i.e. around 1,020 km, or 10-degree latitude of the Earth's surface by foot.
There were very bleak chances of error in his work, for only 0.002 per cent
errors were rectified.

https://www.mapsofindia.com/history/medieval.html

Phase two of measurement

Lambton appointed George Everest as his assistant to start off his measurement
towards Nagpur and Agra.
Amid this journey in 1822, Lambton passed away due to a tubercular cough.

Phase three of measurement

After Lambton, Everest started his work from scratch, improving the whole plan.
Now, the framework started from Kalianpur in Madhya Pradesh, which was
approximately the centre of India and served as the reference point of this map.
He aimed to measure the length and breadth of the country.
Later, he modified the theodolite, making it more compact with 10-foot bars instead
of steel chain.
The Arc was finally completed in the Himalayas near Mussorie -- it measured a
length of 2400 km.

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After the death of Col. Lambton, Everest assumed the control of the Great
Trigonometrically Survey. In spite of his serious illness, he continued the
measurement of the arc and reached the Tropic of Cancer in May 1824 and Sironj
where he measured another baseline of 38410 ft. and completed the astronomical
observation atKalianpura by November.
Along with the measurement of meridianal arc, a longitudinal series of triangles
was extended from Sironj to Calcutta by Mr. Joseph Olliva and it was completed by
July, 1832 covering a distance of 700 miles.

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Open Series Map (Free PDF)

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117

An Image of Some thing that has

? MAP
been projected especially an
image of the earth surface

3D 2D Map

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ISSUES in Mapping The Earth

(3D to 2D Transformations)

• Distance
• Direction
• Area
• Shape

ISSUES in Mapping The Earth

(3D to 2D Transformations)

Coordinate system

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Latitude
Authalic latitude: based on the spherical earth.
( The angle formed by a pair of lines extending from the
equator to the centre of the earth.)
From Robinson, et al., 2002

Longitude
Longitude is associated with an infinite set of meridians,
arranged perpendicularly to the parallels.
• No meridian has a natural basis for being the starting
line.
•Prime meridian: meridian of the royal observatory at
Greenwich. Universally agreed in 1884 at the
international meridian conference in Washington D.C.

• Defined as the angle formed by a line going from the

intersection of the prime meridian and the equator to the
centre of the earth, and then back to the intersection of
the equator and the “local” meridian passing through he
position.

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Graticule

•The imaginary network of parallels and meridians on the

earth and their projection onto a flat map is called
graticule.

•The properties of the graticule are used to compute

distance, direction and area.

•Assume the earth to be spherical.

Geodetic latitude: based on the ellipsoid earth.

(The angle formed by a line from the equator toward the
centre of the earth, and a second line perpendicular to the
ellipsoid surface at one’s location.)
Length of 1 degree arc centered
along geodetic Latitude
(WGS 84 Ellipsoid)
N
Latitude Kilometers
0° 110.57
10° 110.61
20° 110.70
30° 110.85
F
W E 40° 111.04
50° 111.23
60° 111.41
70° 111.56
80° 111.66
90° 111.69
S

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Meridians and Their Properties

(Solar Time)
East-west distances between points separated by one minute of
solar time at different latitudes. Distance is zero at poles, where
one "sees" every moment of the day at any time.

Variation of Longitudinal Separation

with Latitude
Length of 1 degree arc of
d = D cos φ longitude (WGS 84 ellipsoid))
Where:
d= ground distance Latitude Kilometres
D= ground distance at equator 0° Equator 111.32
φ= latitude 10° 109.64
20° 104.65
30° 96.49
40° 85.39
50° 71.70
60° 55.80
70° 38.19
80° 19.39
90° Pole 0.00

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Issues …..
• Distance
• Direction
• Area
• Shape

Distance
• The equator is the only complete great circle in the graticule.
• All meridians are one half a great circle in length.
• All parallels other than the equator are called small circles
and their circumference is given by:.
C = 2 π R cos φ
C= Circumference
Φ = geographical latitude

Great Circle
•The great circle is the intersection
between the earth surface and a
plane that passes through the
center of the earth.
•An arc of the great circle joining
two points is the shortest course
between them on the spherical
earth.

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Great Circle Distances

cos D = sin a sin b + cos a cos b cos | δλ |

Great circle arc distance = D× R

Where
D= angle of the great circle arc (in radians)
a and b= latitudes at A and B
| δλ| = the absolute value of the difference in
longitude between A and B
R= the radius of the globe (6,371 km)

In this equidistant cylindrical map, all arrow lines have the same length;
however, actual world distances (measured in km) between the ends of each
arrow vary enormously. The included graphical scale (blue) is only useful
along the Equator and meridians (where scale is constant, for this projection
at least); also, only along those lines each arrow actually follows a straight
route on Earth.

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Distance CD < Distance CB Distance CD = Distance CB

Distance AB = Distance CD Distance AB = Zero

In the map on the left, center C of the blue cross appears closer to D than
from B (red Line). Similarly distance CD appears to be same as AB

Actually, As evident from the fig. on the right, every point on red line is
equidistant from C and also that distance between A and B iz Zero being at
the pole.

? Distance Between
Mumbai 18.9750° N, 72.8258° E

And

Moscow 55 deg.45 min N and 37 deg. 37 min East

cos D = sin a sin b + cos a cos b cos | δλ |

Assignment.
Find the shortest distance traveled by an Aircraft from Mumbai to Los
Angelis (Trans Atlantic).
What will be the total shortest distance if the aircraft was to have a stopover
at London ?
What if the flight takes pacific route and has stopover at Tokyo

(Submission Date: Same Day, next week) 23 March 2023

HAND WRITTEN ONLY

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ISSUES

• Distance
• Direction
• Area
• Shape

Based on the current WMM model, the

2020 location of the north magnetic pole
is 86.50°N and 164.04°E and the south
Direction magnetic pole is 64.07°S and 135.88°E.
• Directions on the earth are arbitrary.
• North-south: along any meridian.
• East-west: along any parallel.
• The two directions everywhere are perpendicular except
at poles.
• True azimuth: clockwise angle the arc of the great circle
makes with the meridian at the starting point.
• Constant azimuth (rhumb line or loxodrome): a line that
intersects each meridian at the same angle.
In navigation, a rhumb line, rhumb, or loxodrome is an
arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same
angle, i.e. a path with constant bearing as measured
relative to true or magnetic north.
A loxodrome (or rhumb line) is a line of constant
bearing. It is the easiest route between two points
since a constant bearing is enough to follow; any
other path would require frequent changes of
direction.

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Observed north dip poles

during 1831 - 2007 are
yellow squares. Modeled
pole locations from 1590
to 2020 are circles
progressing from blue to
yellow

Observed south dip poles

during 1903 - 2000 are
yellow squares. Modeled
pole locations from 1590
to 2020 are circles
progressing from blue to
yellow.

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Oblique orthographic map

Same line in equidistant cylindrical map

Polar stereographic map

True Azimuth

A great circle arc on the earth's graticule intersects

each meridian at a different angle.
From Robinson, et al., 2002

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Computing True Azimuth

Cot Z = cos a tan b Cosec| δλ | -sin a cot |δλ |

Where,
Z= the true azimuth
a and b = latitudes at A and B
|δλ| = the absolute value of the difference
in longitude between A and B

? True Azimuth Between

Washington D.C. 38deg. 50 min North, 77 deg. west
And
Moscow 55 deg.45 min N and 37 deg. 37 min East

Assignment.
Find True Azimuth between Christchurch (NZ) and Moscow
(Submission date: Same Day, next week) 2223 March 2023
HAND WRITTEN ONLY March

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The Great Circle Route

Two maps showing the same great circle arcs (solid line) and rhumbs
(dashed lines).
• Map A is a gnomonic map projection in which the great circle arc
appears as a straight line, while the rhumbs appear as longer
"loops".
• In Map B, a Mercator map projection, the representation has
been reversed so that the rhumbs appear as straight lines, with the great
circle "deformed“ into a longer curve on the map.
From
A Robinson, et al., 2002

ISSUES

• Distance
• Direction
• Area
• Shape

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Area
•The surface area of quadrilaterals is the areas bounded by
pairs of parallels and meridians on the sphere.
•East-west: equally spaced.
•North-south: decrease from equator to pole.

S = R 2 × | sin a − sin b| × δλ
Latitude Area (km2)
0° 1,224,480
Where 10° 1,188,528
a and b= latitudes of the upper 20° 1,117,359
30° 1,011,480
and lower bounding parallels 40° 875,138
δλ= difference in longitude 50° 711,510
between the bounding 60° 525,312
70° 322,195
meridians (in radians) 80° 108,584

Defining Geodetic Position

• Geodetic latitude and longitude determination
- Latitude: observing Polaris and the sun
- Longitude: time difference
• Horizontal control networks
- Survey monument
- Order of accuracy
• Vertical control
- Bench mark Latitude determination through
observation of Polaris (A)
and the sun (B).

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Horizontal Control Networks

Vertical Control Vertical Control (DATUM)

The relationship between ellipsoid height, geoid-ellipsoid height difference, and elevation.
From Robinson, et al., 2002

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