Internal Regulation

PSY 208
 Temperature

Brain Mechanism of Temperature Regulation

Thirst

Contents Types of Thirst

Hunger

Neuroanatomy and Biochemistry of Hunger

Eating Disorders

Tan (2021)
Temperature
Temperature Regulation
• Temperature affects many aspects of behavior
• Temperature regulation is vital to the normal functioning of
many behavioral processes
• Homeostasis refers to temperature regulation and other
biological processes that keep certain body variables within
a fixed range
Homeostasis
• Various biological processes that keep body variables within a fixed
range.
• Examples: temperature, levels of water, oxygen, glucose, calcium, protein, fat,
and acidity in the body
• Set point: a single value that the body works to maintain
• Negative feedback: processes that reduce discrepancies from the set
point
Controlling Body Temperature
• Temperature regulation is one of the body’s biological priorities
• Maintaining temperature requires twice as much energy as all other
activities combined
• Basal metabolism
• Energy used to maintain a constant body temperature while at rest
Poikilothermic
• Poikilothermic (ectothermic): idea
that the body temperature
matches that of the environment
• Amphibians, reptiles, and most
fish
• The organism lacks the internal,
physiological mechanisms of
temperature regulation
• Temperature regulation is
accomplished via choosing
locations in the environment
• Although known as “cold-
blooded,” organism is cold only
if environment is cold Image: https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/animals/what-is-an-ectotherm.html
Homeothermic
• Homeothermic (endothermic): use of
internal physiological mechanisms to
maintain an almost constant body
temperature
• Characteristic of mammals and birds
• Requires energy and fuel
• Sweating and panting decrease
temperature
• Increasing temperature is accomplished
via shivering, decreasing blood flow to the
Image: https://www.medfriendly.com/homeothermy.html
skin, and fluffing out fur to increase
insulation
Temperature Control
Surviving in Extreme Cold – Poikilothermic animals
• Poikilothermic animals
• Death will occur if body temperature drops below freezing
• Ice crystals form in cells and blood
• Amphibians and reptiles burrow underground to avoid the cold
• Some insects and fish stock blood with antifreeze compounds in winter
• Extraordinary blood-clotting ability quickly repairs ruptured blood vessels
Temperature Control
Advantages of constant body temperature
• Mammals evolved to have a constant temperature of 37˚C (98˚F)
• Muscle activity benefits from being as warm as possible
• Ready for vigorous activity
• So why not go higher if warmer is better?
• Requires even more energy.
• Proteins in the body break their bonds and lose their useful properties at
higher temperatures
• Reproductive cells require cooler temperatures
Brain Mechanism of Temperature Regulation
Brain Mechanism
• Body temperature regulation is
predominantly dependent upon
areas in the preoptic area/
anterior hypothalamus (POA/AH)

• POA/AH receives input from

temperature receptors
throughout the body
Immune System
• Immune system delivers prostaglandins and histamines
• Causes shivering, increased metabolism, and fever
• POA/AH is the primary area for controlling sweating or shivering
• Damage – can still regulate temperature, but less effectively
• Behavioral mechanism
Fever
• Reflects an increased body
temperature set point, directed by
the hypothalamus
• Benefits
• Certain bacteria grow less vigorously
• Immune system works more
vigorously
• Fever of above 39˚C (103˚F) does
the body more harm than good Image: https://www.healthhub.sg/a-z/diseases-and-
• Fevers above 41˚C (109˚F) are life- conditions/693/common-childhood-conditions-fever

threatening
Thirst
Thirst
• Water constitutes 70 percent of the
mammalian body

• Human mechanisms of water

regulation vary depending on
circumstances

• Water can be conserved by:

• Excreting concentrated urine
• Decreasing sweat

• Most often, water regulation is

accomplished by drinking more water
than we need and excreting the rest Image: https://www.freepik.com/premium-vector/happy-cute-
kid-girl-feels-so-thirsty-because-hot-weather-summer-
season_11188911.htm
Vasopressin
• Vasopressin is a hormone released by the posterior pituitary
• Raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels
• Helps to compensate for decreased water volume
• Also known as an antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Enables the kidneys to reabsorb water and excrete highly concentrated urine
Types of Thirst
Types of Thirst
• Two different kinds of thirst
• Osmotic thirst: results from eating salty foods
• Hypovolemic thirst: a thirst resulting from loss of fluids due to bleeding or
sweating
Osmotic Pressure

• Solutes inside and outside a cell

create osmotic pressure
• Water flows across a semi-
permeable membrane from an
area of low solute concentration
to an area of high solute
concentration
• Occurs when solutes are more
concentrated on one side of the
membrane
• Eating salty food causes sodium
ions to spread through the blood
and extracellular fluid of the cell

• Trigger osmotic thirst to help

restore the body to its normal
state
Detecting Osmotic
Pressure

• The brain detects osmotic pressure from:

• Receptors around the third ventricle
• The OVLT (organum vasculosum
laminae terminalis) and the subfornical
organ (SFO)
• Receptors in the periphery, including
the stomach and digestive tract
Mechanism
• Receptors relay information to two
areas of the hypothalamus
• Supraoptic nucleus
• Paraventricular nucleus

• Both control the rate at which the

posterior pituitary releases
vasopressin

• Receptors also relay information to

the lateral preoptic area, which
controls drinking

Image: https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/hypothalamus-
neurosecretory-neurons-paraventricular-nuclei-supraoptic-nuclei-superior-hypo-q43939917
Hypervolemic Thirst & Sodium-Specific
Hunger
• Thirst associated with low volume of body fluids
• Release vasopressin (brain) & angiotensin II (kidney).
• Like vasopressin, angiotensin II constricts blood vessels to compensate for a drop in
blood pressure
• Stimulates neurons in areas adjoining the third ventricle, send axons to
hypothalamus where angiotensin II is released as a neurotransmitter
• Animals with hypovolemic thirst have a preference for slightly salty water
Sodium-Specific Hunger
• Sodium-specific hunger: strong craving for salty foods
• Develops automatically to restore solute levels in the blood
• Adrenal glands produce aldosterone
• Retain salt in kidneys, salivary glands, sweat glands
• Aldosterone and angiotensin II change the properties of taste receptors on
tongue, increase salt intake
 Type of Best Relieved Receptor
Caused by
Thirst by Location
Osmotic High solute Pure water OVLT,
concentration subfornical
outside cells organ, and
digestive tract
Hypovolemic Low blood Water Kidneys and
Volume containing blood vessels
solutes, near
0.15M
Hunger
Hunger
• Animals vary in their eating
strategies
• Predators have large digestive
systems adapted to huge, infrequent
meals
• Small birds eat only what is needed at
the moment
• To preserve light weight for flight
Image: https://gifrific.com/patrick-star-inhaling-krabby-patties/
Digestion and Food Selection
• Digestive system function
• Break down food into smaller molecules that the cells can
use

• Digestion begins in the mouth

• Enzymes in saliva break down carbohydrates

• Hydrochloric acid and enzymes in the stomach digest

proteins

• Enzymes in the small intestine digest proteins, fats, and

carbohydrates
• Digested food absorbs into the bloodstream

• The large intestine absorbs water and minerals

• Lubricates the remaining materials to pass as feces
Consumption of Dairy
Products
• At the age of weaning, most mammals lose the intestinal
enzyme lactase, which is necessary for metabolizing lactose
• Lactose: the sugar found in milk
• Milk consumption after weaning can cause gas and
stomach cramps
• Declining levels of lactase may be an evolutionary
mechanism to encourage weaning
• Many human adults have
enough lactase to consume
milk and other dairy products
throughout their lifetime
• Nearly all adults in China and
surrounding countries lack
the gene that enables adults
to metabolize lactose
• Only small quantities of dairy
products can be consumed
Food Selection and
Behavior
• Unsubstantiated beliefs may influence food
selection
• Examples:
• Sugar intake increases
hyperactivity in children
• Eating turkey increases body
supply of tryptophan, which
makes you sleepy
• Adage that fish is brain food is partly
true
• Old people with genetic risk of
dementia show smaller cognitive
declines if they eat seafood
consistently

Image: Wikipedia
Neuroanatomy and Biochemistry of Hunger
Short-Term & Long-Term
Regulation of Feeding

• Oral factors
• The desire to taste and chew are also
motivating factors in hunger and satiety
• Chewing gum from 4500 B.C. discovered

• Sham feeding experiments

• Everything an animal eats leaks out of a
tube connected to the stomach or
esophagus
• Do not reliably produce satiety
Stomach
• The main signal to stop eating is the
distention of the stomach
• The vagus nerve
• Cranial nerve X
• Conveys information about the
stretching of the stomach walls to the
brain

Image: https://www.bartleby.com/107/illus793.html
Duodenum
• Duodenum
• Part of the small intestine
• Site of initial absorption of significant
amounts of nutrients
• Distention of the duodenum can also
produce feelings of satiety
• The duodenum also releases the hormone
cholecystokinin (CCK), which helps to
regulate hunger
• Constrict sphincter muscle between
stomach/duodenum: contents remain in
stomach, aids stomach distension

Image: https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/duodenum
Insulin and Glucagon
• Insulin and glucagon regulate the flow of glucose into cells
• Glucose: body fuel
• Converted into glycogen (liver), or fat for storage
• Prevents glucose rising too quickly

• Insulin: Hormone released by pancreas that enables glucose to enter the

cell
• Low glucose & insulin – hunger

• Glucagon: Hormone released by the pancreas when glucose levels fall

• Stimulates the liver to convert some of its stored glycogen to glucose
• To replenish low supplies in the blood
Insulin Levels
• If insulin level stays constantly
high:
• Blood glucose enter into the cells
• Blood glucose drops and hunger
increases in spite of high insulin
levels
• Food is rapidly deposited as fat and
glycogen
• Causes weight gain
Type I Diabetes
• In people with Type I
diabetes, insulin levels
remain constantly low, but
blood glucose levels are
high
• People eat more food than
normal, but excrete the
glucose unused and lose
weight
Leptin
• Long-term hunger regulation is accomplished by the monitoring of fat
supplies by the body
• The body’s fat cells produce the peptide leptin, which signals the
brain to increase or decrease eating
• Low levels of leptin increase hunger
• High levels of leptin do not necessarily decrease hunger
• Most people are obese because they are less sensitive to leptin
• Puberty
Arcuate Nucleus
• Information from all parts of the
body regarding hunger impinge onto
the arcuate nucleus
• 2 sets of neurons: detect hunger, and
satiety

• Hunger:
• Ghrelin stimulates hunger (stomach
contraction, increase appetite)
• Satiety:
• CCK, glucose, leptin, nicotine

Image:https://www.intechopen.com/books/hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases/anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus
 Paraventricular Hypothalamus

• Output from the arcuate nucleus

goes to the paraventricular
nucleus
• Inhibits the lateral hypothalamus,
an area important for eating
• Hunger cell: inhibit
paraventricular nucleus =
excitation (GABA,
neuropeptide Y, AgRP)
• Satiety-sensitive cells deliver
an excitatory message to the
paraventricular nucleus
• Causes release of
melanocortins (limiting
food intake)

Image:https://www.intechopen.com/books/hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases/anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
• Feeding-related functions of the lateral
hypothalamus
• Controls insulin secretion
• Alters taste responsiveness
• Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus
increases the drive to eat
• Damage to this area causes aversion to
food
Lateral Hypothalamus
and Axons
• Many axons containing dopamine pass
through the lateral hypothalamus
• Axon functions
• Affect the taste sensation and salivation
response to tastes
• Cause cortical cells to increase response
to taste, smell, or sight of food
• Increase pituitary gland’s hormone
secretion that increase insulin secretion
• Control digestive secretions
Medial Areas of the Hypothalamus
• Output from the
ventromedial hypothalamus
(VMH) inhibits feeding
• Damage to this nucleus leads
to overeating and weight gain
• Rats eat normal sized meals
but eat more frequently

Figure 9.26 Effects of damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus

(a) On the right is a normal rat. On the left is a rat after damage to the ventromedial
hypothalamus. A brain damaged rat may weigh up to three times as much as a normal rat.
Sources: Yoav Levy/Phototake (b) Weight and eating after damage to the ventromedial
hypothalamus. Within a few days after the operation, the rat begins eating much more than
normal. Based on “Disturbances in feeding and drinking behavior after hypothalamic lesions,”
by P. Teitelbaum, pp. 39–69, in M. R. Jones, Ed., 1961, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.
University of Nebraska Press, 1988. © Cengage Learning 2016.
Eating Disorders
Obesity influence

• Environmental
• Ancestors: starvation more problematic
• Lifestyle shift: food availability, sedentary routine
• High calorie, tasty food hard to ignore
• Rats easily made obese: lose interest in rewards besides food
• Humans no different: activates brain reward centres
• Mood
• Psychological distress and weight gain (less in long term, weak relationship)
• Prenatal
• A high-fat diet before birth can result in the offspring being born with a larger than
average lateral hypothalamus
Genetics and Body Weight
• Syndromal obesity result from medical conditions
• Prader-Willi: high ghrelin(hunger), short, obese, mental
retardation
• Monogenic obesity: occurs when a single gene leads
to obesity without physical or mental abnormalities.

• Polygenic/common obesity: relates to many genes,

each slightly increases probability of obesity.

• Usually interact with environment

Weight Loss
• Dieting by itself not
considered reliably effective
• Most people do not stick to diet
for long
• Lifestyle changes including
increased exercise essential
• Weight loss drugs (side effect)
• Gastric bypass surgery

Image: https://health.clevelandclinic.org/5-ways-to-win-your-battle-with-weight-loss-2/
Bulimia Nervosa
• Eating disorder in which people
alternate between extreme dieting
and binges of overeating
• Purge - trying to get rid of the extra
calories in an unhealthy way. Some
force vomiting after eating
• Associated with increased release of
ghrelin and alterations of several
other hormones and transmitters
• Resembles drug addiction

Image: https://www.steadfastnutrition.in/blogs/news/bulimia-nervosa-bn
Anorexia Nervosa

• Eating disorder characterized by a refusal to

eat enough to maintain a healthy body
weight
• Distorted body image, low & fear of
weight gain
• Most have an exaggerated fear of
getting fat
• Many also engage in excessive exercise

Image: https://www.news-medical.net/health/Anorexia-Nervosa.aspx