Unit 9: Earth Pressure Theory:

9.1 Introduction
The force which is on the retaining wall when the soil is retained at a slope steeper than it can
sustain by virtue of its shearing strength.
The magnitude of earth pressure is a function of the magnitude and nature of the absolute and
relative movements of the soil and the structure.
• Lateral Earth Pressure
The pressure exerted by the earth backfill on the back of the wall is called lateral earth pressure.
9.2 Different types of lateral earth pressures
The wall will attain 3 conditions at any point of time. According to the wall position, earth
pressure changes. Three general conditions of the wall are-
1. The wall does not move or the wall at rest
2. The wall moves away from the backfill (Active earth pressure condition)
3. The wall moves towards the backfill (Passive earth pressure condition)
Wall at rest
The wall and base of the wall are rigid, which makes the wall stay at a single place without any
movement.
As the wall does not move in any direction, the lateral strains (ratio of change in the area to the
original area) is zero.

Active earth pressure

Wall moves away from the backfill
The wall moves in one direction i.e. far from backfill. Wall and its
base are not rigid under this case.
As the wall moves away from the soil, because of this some of
the pressure of soil gets relieved, hence the shear resistance
gets mobilized and it is in opposition to the wall movement.
The shear resistance is in the opposite direction, so, the pressure
in the horizontal direction gets reduced.
As the wall keeps moving away, we will reach a condition where
full shear resistance would be mobilized. After a point, there will
not be any further resistance even if the wall moves away.
That horizontal pressure would be the minimum and it is called
Active Earth Pressure.
Fig Active earth pressure condition

Passive earth pressure

Wall moves towards the backfill.
Due to the mass of creating wall and the speed which it moves,
the mass of the soil (backfill) tends to move upward.
The shear resistance acts in the same direction as horizontal
pressure. There will be a situation where the stress can’t be
maximum than that, that is the Passive Earth Pressure.

Fig Passive earth pressure condition

9.3 Introduction to Rankine’s earth pressure theory (Active and passive earth pressure in
cohesive and cohesion less soil)
• Assumptions:
– The backfill soil is isotropic, homogeneous and is cohesion less.
– The soil is in a state of plastic equilibrium during active and passive earth pressure conditions.
– The rupture surface is a planar surface which is obtained by considering the plastic
equilibrium of the soil.
– The backfill surface is horizontal.
– The back of the wall is vertical.
– The back of the wall is smooth.
Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure for Cohesion less Backfill:
Rankine (1857) considered the equilibrium of a soil element at any depth (h) in the backfill
behind a retaining wall and determined the active earth pressure.
Rankine assumed that the soil element is subjected to only two types of stresses:
i. Vertical stress (σz) due to the weight of the soil above the element.
ii. Lateral earth pressure (pa).
Major principal stress, σ1 = σz = 𝛾h and minor principal stress, σ3 = pa
Figure 5.6 shows the Mohr’s circle of stresses and the failure envelope for the active case.
When the soil element reaches the state of plastic equilibrium with sufficient movement of the
wall away from the backfill, the Mohr’s circle of stresses touches the Coulomb’s failure
envelope, as shown in Figure 5.6.

It is known that the principal stresses are related to the shear parameters of the backfill material
by the Bell’s equation as follows –
σ1 = σ3 tan2 α + 2c tan α …(15.7)
Considering a dry cohesion less backfill, we have c = 0, hence
σ1 = σz = 𝛾h (in active case) and σ3 = pa
Substituting these values in Eq. (15.7), we have
Where Ka is the Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure and is given by

α = 45+ ɸ/2
Equation (15.8) indicates that the active earth pressure is zero at the top surface of the backfill
(h = 0) and increases linearly with depth below the surface. The distribution of active earth
pressure is shown in Fig. 15.7(b).

The total or resultant active earth pressure exerted on the wall is obtained by computing the
area of the pressure diagram.
Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram that is,

The total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the centroid of the pressure diagram.
Vertical distance of total active earth pressure above the base of the wall = y̅.
For a triangular pressure distribution, we know that y̅ = (H/3) above the base of the wall. The
failure plane makes an angle of α = 45 + (ɸ/2) with the major principal plane. As the major
principal stress in the active case is vertical, the major principal plane is horizontal and the
failure plane makes an angle of α = 45 + (ɸ/2) with the horizontal.
Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure for Cohesive Backfill:
Resal (1910) and Bell (1915) extended Rankine’s theory of earth pressure for cohesive soils.
We know that the principal stresses are related to soil properties by Bell’s equation, which is as
follows
σ1 = σ3 tan2 α + 2c tan α …(15.35)

Consider a soil element at any depth h below the surface of the backfill, as shown in Fig.
15.24(a). In the active case, major principal stress –
σ1 = σv = 𝛾h
Minor principal stress
σ3 = Pa
Substituting these in Eq. (15.35), we have –
σv = pa tan2 α + 2c tan α = 𝛾h ⇒ pa tan2 α = 𝛾h – 2c tan α
Thus, active earth pressure is negative at the top of the wall and increases linearly with the
increase in depth. As the soil is weak in tension, tension cracks will develop in the negative
active earth pressure zone of the backfill. The depth of a tension crack can be obtained by
substituting pa = 0 in Eq. (15.38) –

If the soil is able to withstand the negative active earth pressure, the negative pressure over the
depth htc is balanced by a positive pressure over the same depth below. Hence, the resultant
active earth pressure is zero over the depth H c = 2htc, known as critical height. Thus,
excavations in cohesive soils can stand with vertical sides without any lateral support over the
critical height, provided no tension crack is developed in the negative pressure zone. Critical
height –

The total active earth pressure can be obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram.

Effect of Submergence
(i) Lateral earth pressure due to submerged unit weight of the backfill soil; and
(ii) Lateral pressure due to pore water.

Fig. Effect of submergence on lateral earth pressure

At a depth H below the surface, the lateral pressure, σH, is given by: σH = Ka.𝛾 ′ H + 𝛾𝑤 H
Effect of partial submergence

Fig. Effect of partial submergence on lateral earth pressure

The lateral pressure above the water table is due to the most unit weight of soil, and that below
the water table is the sum of that due to the submerged unit weight of the soil and the water
pressure.
• Where H1 = depth of submerged fill,
• Ka = active earth pressure coefficient,
• H2 = depth of fill above water table (taken to be moist),
• 𝛾 = moist unit weight, and
• 𝛾 ′ = submerged or effective unit weight.
Lateral pressure at the base of wall, = Ka γH2 + Kaγ′ H1 + γw H1

Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure for Cohesion less Backfill:

Figure Rankine's passive earth pressure in cohesion less soil

If the wall AB is pushed into the mass to such an extent as to impart uniform compression
throughout the mass, the soil wedge ABC in fig. will be in Rankine's Passive State of plastic
∅
equilibrium. The inner rupture plane AC makes an angle (45 0+2) with the vertical AB. The
pressure distribution on the wall is linear as shown.
The lateral passive earth pressure at A is Pp = Kp𝛾𝐻 . which acts at a height H/3 above the base
of the wall.
Passive Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil

Fig. Passive pressure distribution for the cohesive soil

Q) A gravity retaining wall retains 12 m of a backfill, γ= 17.7 KN/m3 φ = 25° with a uniform
horizontal surface. Assume the wall interface to be vertical, determine the magnitude and point
of application of the total active pressure. If the water table is a height of 6 m, how far do the
magnitude and the point of application of active pressure changed?
Q) What are the limiting values of the lateral earth pressure at a depth of 3 meters in a uniform
sand fill with a unit weight of 20KN/m3 and a friction angle of 35°? The ground surface is level. If
a retaining wall with a vertical back face is interposed, determine the total active thrust and the
total passive resistance which will act on the wall.

9.4 Types of retaining walls

1. Gravity Retaining Walls
Gravity retaining wall depends on its own weight only to resist lateral
earth pressure. Generally, gravity retaining wall is massive because
it requires significant gravity load to counter act horizontal soil
pressure. While designing gravity retaining wall, sliding, overturning,
and bearing forces shall be taken into consideration. It can be
constructed from different materials such as stone, concrete and
masonry units. Crib retaining wall and gabion retaining wall are type
of gravity retaining walls, being used more frequently nowadays.
2. Cantilever Retaining Walls
Cantilever retaining walls are constructed of reinforced concrete.
Cantilever retaining wall consists of a relatively thin stem and a base
slab. The base is divided into two parts, namely the heel and toe.
The heel is the part of the base under the backfill and the toe is the
other part of the base. It uses much less concrete than monolithic
gravity walls, but requires more design and careful construction. It
can be formed on site or precast in a factory.

3. Counterfort Retaining Walls

Counterfort retaining walls are same as cantilever walls except they
have thin vertical concrete webs at regular intervals along the
backside of the wall and these webs are known as counterforts. The
counterforts tie the slab and base together, and the purpose of them
is to reduce the bending moments and shear forces imposed on the
wall by the soil. The secondary effect of these webs is to increase
the weight of the wall from the added concrete. It can be precast or
formed on site.

4. Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls

Semi-gravity retaining walls are the specialized form of gravity walls. These types of retaining
walls have some tension reinforcing steel included so as to minimize the thickness of the wall
without requiring extensive reinforcement. They are a blend of the cantilever wall and gravity
wall designs. These walls are often constructed of reinforced concrete, un-reinforced concrete,
or stone masonry. The rigid gravity walls develop their soil retaining capacity from their dead
weights. The semi-gravity walls, such as cast-in place concrete cantilever walls, develop
resistance to overturning and sliding from self-weight and weight of soil above the wall footing.

5. Anchored Walls
For the construction of high retaining walls, deep cable rods
or wires are driven deep sideways into the earth, then the
ends are filled with concrete to provide an “anchor”. These
are also known as tiebacks. These types of retaining walls
typically consist of the same elements as the non-gravity
cantilevered walls but derive additional lateral resistance from
one or more tiers of anchors. The anchored walls are typically
used in the cut situation, in which the construction proceeds
from the top to the base of the wall.
6. Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls
These types of retaining walls normally include a facing
element and a reinforcement element embedded in the
backfill behind the facing. The facing element can be
concrete, segmental block or panel, or steel wire mesh.
The reinforcement element can be either geo synthetic
(geo textile, geo grid) or metallic (strip, grid, wire mesh).
These types of retaining walls are often used to support fills
and when substantial total and differential settlement are
anticipated. Most of the MSE walls are proprietary, and a
list of pre-approved MSE walls for use can be obtained
from the geotechnical engineer.

7. Hybrid Systems
Retaining walls that use both mass and reinforcement for stability
are termed as Composite retaining wall or Hybrid systems.

8. Piled Retaining Wall

Pile retaining walls are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles near
to each other.

9. Gabion Retaining Walls

These types of retaining walls are multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh
boxes, which are filled with rocks or other suitable materials. It is
constructed for construction of erosion control structures. Gabion retaining
walls are also used to stabilize steep slopes.
10. Crib Retaining Wall
Retaining walls are constructed not only for creating a beautiful
landscape, but also serve major functionality. The advantages of
retaining walls include erosion control, flood prevention, and adding
value to your residence. A short retaining wall can also be turned into
a seating area, making these walls a truly versatile addition to your
yard.

9.5 Principles of the design of retaining walls

Retaining Wall Design Principles

Retaining wall design – Retaining walls can fail in many ways. The diagram above and the
explanation below describes the failure types.
Overturning – The material being retained creates a force (moment) that causes toppling of the
wall. The weight of a gravity retaining wall resists this moment.
Bearing capacity – The weight of the wall and earth is supported by the ground beneath. The
ground bearing capacity needs to be checked to ensure any settlement is within limits.
Sliding – The retaining earth creates a horizontal force that can cause the retaining wall to
slide. This is resisted by the friction between the wall and earth beneath, and the embedment of
the wall.
Stability – The earth around the wall requires adequate strength to avoid an overall slip failure.
Shear – The blocks can shear at the base or on courses. We introduce a kicker at the base and
interlocking buttons to resist these forces.
Retaining Wall Design

Now we know how retaining walls fail we can design them so they don’t fail. The types of
retaining walls we build use concrete lego blocks. They deliver a fast and economical solution to
many civil engineering retaining wall problems. The types we design and build are:

Gravity Retaining Walls – Uses the mass of the blocks to resist the forces

Reinforced Block Retaining Walls – Uses the reinforced block wall together with the foundation
to act as a cantilever to resist the forces

Inclined Retaining Walls – Uses the mass of and gravity acting on the inclined blocks to resist
the forces

Reinforced Earth Retaining Walls – Uses the reinforced earth as the retaining structure

The concrete lego blocks come in three sizes 300, 600 and 800mm wide. The blocks interlock
so they cannot slide from the horizontal joints. The walls are design to resist the failure modes
above. A soil investigation has to be carried out to check the ground bearing capacity and to
make sure the wall is stable within the ground. We highly recommend that a structural engineer
reviews all design to make sure they work. We can do this work for you using our structural
engineering service.

RETAINING WALL
Retaining walls are usually built to hold back soil mass. However,
retaining walls can also be constructed for aesthetic landscaping
purposes.
Each retaining wall divided into three parts; stem, heel, and toe as
shown for the following cantilever footing (as example):

Gravity retaining wall

The following are all cases of rankine theory in designing a retaining wall:
1. The wall is vertical and backfill is horizontal:
Here the active force Pa is horizontal and can be calculated as following:
1 ∅
Pa = 2*𝛾*H2Ka Ka = tan2 (45 - 2 )

2. The wall is vertical and the backfill is inclined with horizontal by angle (𝛂):
Note that the force Pa is inclined with angle
(α) and not depend on the inclination of the
wall because the force applied on the
vertical line and can be calculated as
following:
1
Pa = 2*𝛾*H’2Ka
Why H′?→ Because the pressure is applied
on the vertical line (according active theory)
not on the wall, so we need the height of this
vertical line H′=H + d →→d=L tanα

Earth Pressure (P)

Earth pressure is the pressure exerted by the retaining material on the
retaining wall. This pressure tends to deflect the wall outward.
Types of earth pressure:
Active earth pressure or earth pressure (Pa) and
Passive earth pressure (Pp).
Active earth pressure tends to deflect the wall away from the backfill.

Factors affecting earth pressure

Earth pressure depends on type of backfill, the height of wall and the soil conditions
Soil conditions: The different soil conditions are
• Dry leveled back fill
• Moist leveled backfill
• Submerged leveled backfill
• Leveled backfill with uniform surcharge
• Backfill with sloping surface.

Analysis for dry back fills

Maximum pressure at any height, p=ka𝛾h
Total pressure at any height from top, pa=1/2[ka𝛾h]h = [ka𝛾h2]/2
Bending moment at any height
M=pa * h/3= [ka𝛾h3]/6
∴Total pressure, Pa= [ka𝛾h2]/2
∴Total Bending moment at bottom, M = [ka𝛾h3]/6