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Module-3
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Lateral earth pressures
3.3 Earth pressure at rest
3.4 Earth pressure theories
3.5 Lateral Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil
3.6 Lateral earth pressure for cohesion less soil
3.7 Rebhann‘s Condition and Graphical Method
3.8 Culmann‘s Graphical Method
3.9 Stability of slopes
33.10 Problems
3.11 Assignment Questions
3.12 Outcomes
3.13 Further reading

3.0 Objectives
 To understand earth pressure and its importance
 To determine magnitude of LEP by applying Rankines and Coulomb’s theory and graphical methods
 To understand stability slopes, its causes and importance
 To estimate factor of safety of slopes by analytical and graphical method

3.1 Introduction
Soil is neither a solid nor a liquid, but it exhibits some of the characteristics of both. One
of the characteristics similar to that of a liquid is its tendency to exert a lateral pressure against
any object in contact. This important property influences the design of retaining walls,
abutments, bulkheads, sheet pile walls, basement walls and underground conduits which retain or
support soil, and, as such, is of very great significance. Retaining walls are constructed in
various fields of civil engineering, such as hydraulics and irrigation structures, highways,
railways, tunnels, mining and military engineering.

3.2 Lateral earth pressures

Lateral earth pressure is the force exerted by the soil mass upon an earth- retaining
structure, such as a retaining wall. There are two distinct kinds of lateral earth pressure; the
nature of each is to be clearly understood. First, let us consider a retaining wall which holds back

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a mass of soil. The soil exerts a push against the wall by virtue of its tendency to slip laterally
and seek its natural slope or angle of repose, thus making the wall to move slightly away from the
backfilled soil mass. This kind of pressure is known as the ‗active‘ earth pressure of the soil. The
soil, being the actuating element, is considered to be active and hence the name active earth
pressure. Next, let us imagine that in some manner the retaining wall is caused to move toward
the soil. In such a case the retaining wall or the earth-retaining structure is the actuating element
and the soil provides the resistance which soil develops in response to movement of the structure
toward it is called the ‗passive earth pressure‘, or more appropriately ‗passive earth resistance‘
which may be very much greater than the active earth pressure. The surface over which the
sheared-off soil wedge tends to slide is referred to as the surface of ‗sliding‘ or
‗rupture‘. The limiting values of both the active earth pressure and passive earth resistance for a
given soil depend upon the amount of movement of the structure. In the case of active pressure,
the structure tends to move away from the soil, causing strains in the soil mass, which in turn,
mobilise shearing stresses; these stresses help to support the soil mass and thus tend to reduce the
pressure exerted by the soil against the structure. This is indicated in Fig.

Fig.Conditions in the case of pressure passive earth resistance Fig.Conditions in the case of active

In the case of passive earth resistance also, internal shearing stresses develop, but act in the
opposite direction to those in the active case and must be overcome by the movement of the
structure. This difference in direction of internal stresses accounts for the difference in magnitude
between the active earth pressure and the passive earth resistance. The conditions obtaining in the
passive case are indicated in Fig.

3.3 Earth pressure at rest

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Active pressures are accompanied by movements directed away from the

soil, and passive resistances are accompanied by movements towards the soil. Logically,
therefore, there must be a situation intermediate between the two when the retaining structure is
perfectly stationary and does not move in either direction. The pressure which develops in this
condition is called ‗earth pressure at rest‘. Its value is a little larger than the limiting value of
active pressure, but is considerably less than the maximum passive resistance. This is indicated in
Fig.

Fig. Relation between lateral earth pressure and movement of wall

Earth pressure at rest may be obtained theoretically from the theory of elasticity applied to an
element of soil, remembering that the lateral strain of the element is zero. Referring to Fig. (a),
the principal stresses acting on an element of soil situated at a depth z from the surface in semi-
infinite, elastic, homogeneous and isotropic soil mass are σv, σh and σh as shown. σv and σh
denoting the stresses in the vertical and horizontal directions respectively.

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Fig. Stress conditions relating to earth pressure at rest

The soil deforms vertically under its self-weight but is prevented from deforming laterally
because of an infinite extent in all lateral directions. Let Es and ν be the modulus of elasticity and
Poisson‘s ratio of the soil respectively.

But σv = γ. z, where γ is the appropriate unit weight of the soil depending upon its condition.

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The distribution of the earth pressure at rest with depth is obviously linear (or of hydrostatic
nature) for constant soil properties such as E, υ, and γ, as shown in Fig. If a structure such as a
retaining wall of height H is interposed from the surface and imagined to be held without yield,
the total thrust on the wall unit length P0, is given by

This is considered to act at (1/3) H above the base of wall. As has been indicated in the previous
chapter, choosing an appropriate value for the Poisson‘s ratio, ν, is by no means easy; this is the
limitation in arriving at K0 from equation. Various researchers proposed empirical relationships
for K0, some of which are given below.

φ′ in these equations represents the effective angle of friction of the soil and Ip, the plasticity
index. Brooker and Ireland (1965) recommend Jaky‘s equation for cohesioness soils and their
own equation, given above, for cohesive soils. However, Alpan (1967) recommends Jaky‘s
equation for cohesionless soils and Kenney equation for cohesive soils as does Kenney (1959).

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Certain values of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest are suggested for different soils, based
on field data, experimental evidence and experience. These are given in Table

3.4 Earth pressure theories

The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure is evaluated by the application of

one or the other of the so-called ‗lateral earth pressure theories‘ or simply ‗earth pressure
theories‘. The problem of determining the lateral pressure against retaining walls is one of the
oldest in the field of engineering. A French military engineer, Vauban, set forth certain rules for
the design of revetments in 1687. Since then, several investigators have proposed many theories
of earth pressure after a lot of experimental and theoretical work. Of all these theories, those
given by Coulomb and Rankine stood the test of time and are usually referred to as the
―Classical earth pressure theories‖. These theories are considered reliable in spite of some
limitations and are considered basic to the problem. These theories have been developed
originally to apply to cohesionless soil backfill, since this situation is considered to be more
frequent in practice and since the designer will be on the safe side by neglecting cohesion. Later
researchers gave necessary modifications to take into account cohesion, surcharge, submergence,
and so on. Some have evolved graphical procedures to evaluate the total thrust on the retaining
structure. Although Coulomb presented his theory nearly a century earlier to Rankine‘s theory,
Rankine‘s theory will be presented first due to its relative simplicity.

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3.4.1 Rankine’s theory

Rankine (1857) developed his theory of lateral earth pressure when the backfill consists of dry,
cohesionless soil. The theory was later extended by Resal (1910) and Bell (1915) to be applicable
to cohesive soils.

The following are the important assumptions in Rankine’s theory:

(i) The soil mass is semi infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.

(ii) The ground surface is a plane which may be horizontal or inclined.

(iii) The face of the wall in contact with the backfill is vertical and smooth. In other words, the
friction between the wall and the backfill is neglected (This amounts to ignoring the presence of
the wall).

(iv) The wall yields about the base sufficiently for the active pressure conditions to develop; if it
is the passive case that is under consideration, the wall is taken to be pushed sufficiently towards
the fill for the passive resistance to be fully mobilised. (Alternatively, it is taken that the soil mass
is stretched or gets compressed adequately for attaining these states, respectively. Friction
between the wall and fill is supposed to reduce the active earth pressure on the wall and increase
the passive resistance of the soil. Similar is the effect of cohesion of the fill soil). Thus it is seen
that, by neglecting wall friction as also cohesion of the backfill, the geotechnical engineer errs on
the safe side in the computation of both the active pressure and passive resistance. Also, the fill is
usually of cohesionless soil, wherever possible, from the point of view of providing proper
drainage.

3.4.2 Coulomb’s wedge theory

The primary assumptions in Coulomb’s wedge theory are as follows:
1. The backfill soil is considered to be dry, homogeneous and isotropic; it is elastically
underformable but breakable, granular material, possessing internal friction but no cohesion.
2. The rupture surface is assumed to be a plane for the sake of convenience in analysis. It passes
through the heel of the wall. It is not actually a plane, but is curved and this is known to Coulomb.

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3. The sliding wedge acts as a rigid body and the value of the earth thrust is obtained by
considering its equilibrium.

4. The position and direction of the earth thrust are assumed to be known. The thrust acts on the
back of the wall at a point one-third of the height of the wall above the base of the wall and
makes an angle δ, with the normal to the back face of the wall. This is an angle of friction
between the wall and backfill soil and is usually called ‗wall friction‘.

5. The problem of determining the earth thrust is solved, on the basis of two-dimensional case of
‗plane strain‘. This is to say that, the retaining wall is assumed to be of great length and all
conditions of the wall and fill remain constant along the length of the wall. Thus, a unit length of
the wall perpendicular to the plane of the paper is considered.

6. When the soil wedge is at incipient failure or the sliding of the wedge is impending, the theory
gives two limiting values of earth pressure, the least and the greatest (active and passive),
compatible with equilibrium. The additional inherent assumptions relevant to the theory are as
follows:

7. The soil forms a natural slope angle, φ, with the horizontal, without rupture and sliding. This is
called the angle of repose and in the case of dry cohesionless soil, it is nothing but the angle of
internal friction. The concept of friction was understood by Coulomb.

8. If the wall yields and the rupture of the backfill soil takes place, a soil wedge is torn off from
the rest of the soil mass. In the active case, the soil wedge slides sideways and downward over the
rupture surface, thus exerting a lateral pressure on the wall. In the case of passive earth resistance,
the soil wedge slides sideways and upward on the rupture surface due to the forcing of the wall
against the fill. These are illustrated in Fig.

9. For a rupture plane within the soil mass, as well as between the back of the wall and the soil,
Newton‘s law of friction is valid (that is to say, the shear force developed due to friction is the
coefficient of friction times the normal force acting on the plane). This angle of friction, whose
tangent is the coefficient of friction, is dependent upon the physical properties of the materials
involved.

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10. The friction is distributed uniformly on the rupture surface.

11. The back face of the wall is a plane.

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Limitations of coulomb’s theory

Also note that Coulomb‘s theory treats the soil mass in the sliding wedge in
its entirety. The assumptions permit one to treat the problem as a statically determinate one.
Coulomb‘s theory is applicable to inclined wall faces, to a wall with a broken face, to a sloping
backfill curved backfill surface, broken backfill surface and to concentrated or distributed
surcharge loads. One of the main deficiencies in Coulomb‘s theory is that, in general, it does not
satisfy the static equilibrium condition occurring in nature. The three forces (weight of the sliding
wedge, earth pressure and soil reaction on the rupture surface) acting on the sliding wedge do not
meet at a common point, when the sliding surface is assumed to be planar. Even the wall friction
was not originally considered but was introduced only some time later. Regardless of this
deficiency and other assumptions, the theory gives useful results in practice; however, the soil
constants should be determined as accurately as possible.

3.5 Lateral Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil

3.5.1 Active Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil

The lateral earth pressure of cohesive soil may be obtained from the
Coulomb‘s wedge theory; however, one should take cognisance of the tension zone near the
surface of the cohesive backfill and consequent loss of contact and loss of adhesion and friction at
the back of the wall and along the plane of rupture, so as to avoid getting erroneous results. The
trial wedge method may be applied to this case as illustrated in Fig. The following five forces act
on a trial wedge:

1. Weight of the wedge including the tension zone, W.

2. Cohesion along the wall face or adhesion between the wall and the fill, Ca.
3. Cohesion along the rupture plane, C.
4. Reaction on the plane of failure, R, acting at φ to the normal to the plane of failure.
5. Active thrust, Pa, acting at δ to the normal to the face of the wall.
6. The total adhesion force, Ca, is given by

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where ca is the unit adhesion between the wall and the fill, which cannot be greater than the unit
cohesion, c, of the soil. ca may be obtained from tests; however, in the absence of data, ca may be
2 2
taken as equal to c for soils with c up to 50 kN/m , ca may be limited to 50 kN/m for soils with c
greater than this value. (Smith, 1974).

Fig. Active earth pressure of cohesive soil—trial wedge method—Coulomb‘s theory

The total cohesion force, C, is given by

c being the unit cohesion of the fill soil and BC→ is the length of the rupture plane. The three
forces W, Ca, and C are fully known and the directions of the other two unknown forces R and Pa
are known; the vector polygon may therefore be completed as shown in Fig. (b), and the value of
Pa may be scaled-off. A number of such trial wedges may be analyzed and the maximum of all Pa
values chosen as the active thrust. The rupture plane may also be located. The final value of the
thrust on the wall is the resultant of Pa and Ca. Culmann‘s method may also be adapted to suit
this case, as illustrated in fig.

3.5.2 Passive Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil

The procedure adopted to determine the active earth pressure of cohesive

soil from Coulomb‘s theory may also be used to determine the passive earth resistance of
cohesive soil. The points of difference are that the signs of friction angles, φ and δ, will be

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reversed and the directions of Ca and C also get reversed. Either the trial wedge approach or
Culmann‘s approach may be used but one has also to consider the effect of the tensile zone in
reducing Ca and C. However, it must be noted that the Coulomb theory with plane rupture surfaces
is not applicable to the case of passive resistance. Analysis must be carried out, strictly speaking,
using curved rupture surfaces such as logarithmic spirals (Terzaghi, 1943), so as to avoid
overestimation of passive resistance.

Fig. Culmann‘s method adapted to allow for cohesion

3.6 Lateral earth pressure for cohesionless soil

3.6.1 Active Earth Pressure of Cohesionless Soil

A simple case of active earth pressure on an inclined wall face with a

uniformly sloping backfill may be considered first. The backfill consists of homogeneous, elastic
and isotropic cohesionelss soil. A unit length of the wall perpendicular to the plane of the paper is
considered. The forces acting on the sliding wedge are (i) W, weight of the soil contained in the
sliding wedge, (ii) R, the soil reaction across the plane of sliding, and (iii) the

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active thrust Pa against the wall, in this case, the reaction from the wall on to the sliding wedge,
as shown in Fig.

Fig. Active earth pressure of cohesionless soil—Coulomb‘s theory

The triangle of forces is shown in Fig. (b). With the nomenclature of Fig. one may proceed as
follows for the determination of the active thrust, Pa: W = γ (area of wedge ABC)

Substituting and simplifying,

From the triangles of forces,

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Substituting for W,

The maximum value of Pa is obtained by equating the first derivative of Pa with respect to θ to
zero;

The value of Pa so obtained is written as

This is usually written as

Ka being the coefficient of active earth pressure. For a vertical wall retaining a horizontal
backfill for which the angle of wall friction is equal to φ, Ka reduces to

by substituting α = 90°, β = 0°, and δ = φ. For a smooth vertical wall retaining a backfill
with horizontal surface, α = 90°, δ = 0, and β = 0;

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which is the same as the Rankine value. In fact, for this simple case, one may proceed
from fundamentals as follows:

Fig. Active earth pressure of cohesionless soil special case: α = 90°, δ = β = 0°

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as obtained by substitution in the general equation. Ironically, this approach is sometimes known
as ‗Rankine‘s method of Trial Wedges‘. A few representative values of Ka from Eq. 13.34 for
certain values of φ, δ, α and β are

It may be observed that the theoretical solution is thus rather complicated even for relatively
simple cases. This fact has led to the development of graphical procedures for arriving at the total
thrust on the wall. Poncelet (1840), Culmann (1866), Rebhann (1871), and Engessor (1880) have
given efficient graphical solutions, some of which will be dealt with in the subsequent
subsections. An obvious grpahical approach that suggests itself if the ―Trial-Wedge method‖. In
this method, a few trial rupture surfaces are assumed at varying inclinations, θ, with the
horizontal and passing through the heel of the wall; for each trial surface the triangle of forces is
completed and the value of Pa found. A θ – Pa plot is made which should appear somewhat as
shown in Fig. If an adequate number of intelligently planned trial rupture surface are analysed.
The maximum value of Pa from this plot gives the anticipated total active thrust on the wall per
lineal unit and the corresponding value of θ, the inclination of the most probable rupture surface.
Wall friction At this juncture, a few comments on wall friction may be appropriate. In the active
case, the outward stretching leads to a downward motion of the backfill soil relative to the wall.
Such a downward shear force upon the wall is called ‗positive‘ wall friction for the active case.

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This leads to the upward inclination of the active thrust exerted on the sliding wedge as shown in
Fig. (a). This means that the active thrust exerted on the wall will be directed with a downward
inclination. In the passive case, the horizontal compression must be accompanied by an upward
bulging of the soil and hence there tends to occur an upward shear on the wall. Such an upward
shear on the wall is said to be ‗positive‘ wall friction for the passive case. This leads to the
downward inclination of the passive thrust exerted on the sliding wedge as shown in fig. 13.24
(a); this means that the passive resistance exerted on the wall will be directed with upward
inclination. In the active case wall friction is almost always positive. Sometimes, under special
conditions, such as when part of the backfill soil immediately behind the wall is excavated for
repair purposes and the wall is braced against the remaining earth mass of the backfill, negative
wall friction might develop. Either positive or negative wall friction may develop in the passive
case. This sign of wall friction must be determined from a study of motions expected for each
field situation. Once wall friction is present, the shape of the rupture surface is curved and not
plane. The nature of the surface for positive and negative values of wall friction is shown in Figs.
(a) and (b), respectively.

Fig. Angle of inclination of trial rupture plane versus active thrust

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Fig. Positive and negative wall friction for active case along with probable shape of sliding
surface

The angle of wall friction, δ, will not be greater than φ; at the maximum it can equal φ, for a
rough wall with a loose fill. For a wall with dense fill, δ will be less than φ. It may range from 12
φ to 34 φ in most cases; it is usually assumed as (2/3) φ in the absence of precise data. The
possibility of δ shifting from +φ to –φ in the worst case should be considered in the design of a
retaining wall. The value of Ka for the case of a vertical wall retaining a fill with a level surface,
in which φ ranges from 20° to 40° and δ ranges from 0° to φ, may be obtained from the chart
given in Fig.

Fig. Coefficient of active pressure as a function of wall friction

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The influence of wall friction on Ka may be understood from this chart to some extent. The
assumption of plane failure in the active case of the Coulomb theory is in error by only a
relatively small amount. It has been shown by Fellenius that the assumption of circular arcs for
failure surfaces leads to active thrusts that generally do not exceed the corresponding values from
the Coulomb theory by more than 5 per cent.

3.6.2 Passive Earth Pressure of Cohesionless Soil

The passive case differs from the active case in that the obliquity angles at the wall and on the
failure plane are of opposite sign. Plane failure surface is assumed for the passive case also in
the Coulomb theory but the critical plane is that for which the passive thrust is minimum. The
failure plane is at a much smaller angle to the horizontal than in the active case, as shown in Fig.
The triangle of forces with the usual nomenclature, the passive resistance PP may be determined
as follows:

Fig. Passive earth pressure of cohesionless soil—Coulomb‘s theory

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Substituting for W,

The minimum value of Pp is obtained by differentiating with respect to θ

KP being the coefficient of passive earth resistance. For a vertical wall retaining a horizontal
backfill and for which the friction is equal to φ, α = 90°, β = 0°, and δ = φ, and Kp reduces to

For a smooth vertical wall retaining a horizontal backfill, α = 90°, β = 0° and δ = 0°;

which is the same as the Rankine value. For this simple case, it is possible to proceed from
fundamentals, as has been shown for the active case. [(θ + φ) takes the place of (θ – φ) and (45°
+ φ/2) that of (45° – φ/2) in the work relating to the active case.] Coulomb‘s theory with plane
surface of failure is valid only if the wall friction is zero in respect of passive resistance. The
passive resistance obtained by plane failure surfaces is very much more than that obtained by
assuming curved failure surfaces, which are nearer truth especially when wall friction is present.
The error increases with increasing wall friction. This leads to errors on the unsafe side.

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Fig. Curved failure surface for estimating passive resistance

Terzaghi (1943) has presented a more rigorous type of analysis assuming curved failure surface
(logarithmic spiral form) which resembles those shown in Fig.. Terzaghi states that when δ is less
than (1/3) φ, the error introduced by assuming plane rupture surfaces instead of curved ones in
estimating the passive resistance is not significant; when δ is greater than (1/3) φ, the error is
significant and hence cannot be ignored. This situation calls for the use of analysis based on
curved rupture surfaces as given by Terzaghi; alternatively, charts and tables prepared by Caquot
and Kerisel (1949) may be used. Extracts of such results are presented in Table 13.3 and Fig.

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Fig. Chart for passive pressure coefficient(After Caquot and Kerisel, 1949)

Alternatively, Sokolovski‘s (1965) method may be used. This also gives essentially the same
results. The theoretical predictions regarding passive resistance with wall friction are not well
confirmed by experimental evidence as those regarding active thrust and hence cannot be used
with as much confidence. Tschebotarioff (1951) gives the results of a few large-scale laboratory
tests in this regard.

3.7 Rebhann’s Condition and Graphical Method

Rebhann (1871) is credited with having presented the criterion for the direct location of the
failure plane assumed in the Coulomb‘s theory. His presentation is somewhat as follows: Figure
(a) represent a retaining wall retaining a cohesionless backfill inclined at +β to the horizontal. Let
BC be the failure plane, the position of which is to be determined.

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Fig. Rebhann‘s condition for Coulomb‘s wedge theory— Location of failure plane for the active
case.

Figure (b) represents the forces on the sliding wedge and Fig. (c) represents the force triangle. Let
BD be a line inclined at φ to the horizontal through B, the heel of the wall, D being the
intersection of this φ-line with the surface of the backfill. The value of Pa depends upon the angle
θ relating to the location of the failure plane. Pa will be zero when θ = φ, and increases with an
increase in θ up to a limit, beyond which it decreases and reaches zero again when θ = 180° – α.
The situations when Pa is zero are both ridiculous, since in the first case, no wall is required to
retain a soil mass at an angle φ and in the second, the failure wedge has no mass. Thus, the failure
plane will lie between the φ-line and the back of the wall. Let AE be drawn at

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an angle (φ + δ) to the wall face AB to meet the φ-line in E. Let CG be drawn parallel to AE to
meet the φ-line in G. Let the distances be denoted as follows: AE = a BG = c CG = x BD = b BE
= d It is required to determine the criterion for which Pa is the maximum, which is supposed to
give the correct location of the failure surface. Weight of the soil in the sliding wedge

W = γ. ( ABC)

= γ. (ΔABD – BCD)

= γ. (b/2). (sin ψ) (a – x)

Value of thrust on the wedge (the same as the thrust on the wall).

since x is the only value which varies with the orientation of the failure plane.

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This equation signifies that for EC to be the failure plane the requirement is that the area of the
failure wedge ABC be equal to the area of the triangle BCG. This is known as ―Rebhann‘s
condition‖, since it was demonstrated first by Rebhann is 1871. The triangles ABC and BCG
which are equal have a common base BC; hence their altitudes on to BC should be equal; or AJ.
sin ∠AJB = CG. sin ∠BCG But ∠AJB = ∠BCG as CG is parallel to AJ. This leads to CG = AJ = x;
and JE = a – x Triangles DAE and DCG are similar.

Also, triangles BCG and BJE are similar. Consequently,d/c .x = a – x Subtracting one from the
another,

Thus if c is known, the position of G and hence that of the most dangerous rupture p surface, BC,
can be determined and the weight of the sliding wedge, W, and the active thrust, Pa, can be
calculated. The relationship expressed by Eq. 13.44 is called the ―Poncelet Rule‖ after Poncelet
(1840). It is obvious that Rebhann‘s condition leads one to Poncelet‘s rule and the satisfaction of
one of these two implies that of the other automatically.

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which gives an analytical procedure for the computation of the active thrust by Coulomb‘s wedge
theory. However, elegant graphical methods have been devised and are preferred to the analytical
approach, in view of their versatility, coupled with simplicity. The graphical method to follow is
given by Poncelet and it is also sometimes known as the Rebhann‘s graphical method, since it is
based on Reghann‘s condition. The steps involved in the graphical method are as follows, with
reference to Fig.

(i) Let AB represent the backface of the wall and AD the backfill surface.

(ii) Draw BD inclined at φ with the horizontal from the heel B of the wall to meet the backfill
surface in D.

(iii) Draw BK inclined at ψ(= α – δ) with BD, which is the ψ-line.

(iv) Through A, draw AE parallel to the ψ-line to meet BD in E. (Alternatively, draw AE at (φ +

δ) with AB to meet BD in E).

(v) Describe a semi-circle on BD as diameter.

(vi) Erect a perpendicular to BD at E to meet the semi-circle in F.

(vii) With B as centre and BF as radius draw an arc to meet BD in G.

(viii) Through G, draw a parallel to the ψ-line to meet AD in C.

(ix) With G as centre and GC as radius draw an arc to cut BD in L; join CL and also draw a
perpendicular CM from C on to LG.

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Fig. Poncelet graphical construction for active thrust

BC is the required rupture surface. The criterion may be checked as follows: Since ABC = BCG, and BC is their common
base, their altitudes on BC must be equal; or AN sin ∠ANB = NG sin ∠GNC that is to say AN = NG, since ∠ANB = ∠GNC. (N
is intersection of AG and BC). Thus, if AN and NG are measured and found to be equal, the construction is correct. The active
thrust

Pa is given by

(Incidentally, with the notation of Fig. 13.27 (a), it may be easily understood that W =1/2 γ.x.n.

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3.8 Culmann’s Graphical Method

Karl Culmann (1866) gave his own graphical method to evaluate the earth
pressure from Coulomb the earth pressure and to locate the most dangerous rupture surface
according to Coulomb‘s wedge theory. This method has more general application than Poncelet‘s
and is, in fact, a simplified version of the more general trial wedge method. It may be
conveniently used for ground surface of any shape, for different types of surcharge loads, and for
layered backfill with different unit weights for different layers. With reference to Fig. 13.33 (b),
the force triangle may be imagined to the rotated clockwise through an angle (90° – φ), so as to
bring the vector W parallel to the φ-line; in that case, the reaction, R will be parallel to the rupture
surface, and the active thrust, Pa, parallel to the ψ-line.‘s theory. Culmann‘s method permits one
to determine graphically the magnitude of

Fig. Culmann‘s graphical method for active thrust

Hence, if weights of the various sliding wedges arising out of arbitrarily assumed sliding surface
are set off to a convenient force scale on the φ-line from the heel of the wall and if lines parallel

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to the ψ-line are drawn from the ends of these weight vectors to meet the respective assumed
rupture lines, the force triangle for each of these sliding wedges will be complete. The end points
of the active thrust vectors, when joined in a sequence, form what is known as the ―Culmann-
curve‖. The maximum value of the active thrust may be obtained from this curved by drawing a
tangent parallel to the φ-line, which represents the desired active thrust, Pa. The corresponding
rupture surface, which represents the most dangerous rupture surface, may be obtained by the line
joining the heel of the wall to the end of the maximum pressure vector.

The steps in the construction may be set out as follows:

(i) Draw the ground line, φ-line, and ψ-line, and the wall face AB.

(ii) Choose an arbitrary failure plane BC1. Calculate weight of the wedge ABC and plot it as B-1
to a convenient scale on the φ-line.

(iii) Draw 1 – 1′ parallel to the ψ-line through 1 to meet BC1 in 1′. 1′ is a point on the Culmann
line.

(iv) Similarly, take some more failure planes BC2, BC3, ..., and repeat the steps (ii) and (iii) to
establish points 2′, 3′, ...

(v) Join B, 1′, 2′, 3′, etc., smoothly to obtain the Culmann curve.

(vi) Draw a tangent t-t, to the Culmann line parallel to the φ-line. Let the point of the tangency be
F′

(vii) Draw F′F parallel to the ψ-line to meet the φ-line in F.

(viii) Join BF′ and produce it to meet the ground line in C.

(ix) BF′C represents the failure surface and F F ′ represents Pa to the same scale as that chosen to
represent the weights of wedges. If the upper surface of the backfill is a plane, as shown in Fig.,
the weights of wedges will be proportional to the distances l1, l2 ... (bases), since they have a
common-height, H1. Thus B-1, B-2, etc ..., may be made equal or proportional to l1, l2, etc. The
sector scale may be easily obtained by comparing BF with the weight of wedge ABC.

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Comparison of Coulomb’s Theory with Rankine’s Theory

The following are the important points of comparison:

(i) Coulomb considers a retaining wall and the backfill as a system; he takes into account the
friction between the wall and the backfill, while Rankine does not.

(ii) The backfill surface may be plane or curved in Coulomb‘s theory, but Rankine‘s allows only
for a plane surface.

(iii) In Coulomb‘s theory, the total earth thrust is first obtained and its position and direction of
the earth pressure are assumed to be known; linear variation of pressure with depth is tacitly
assumed and the direction is automatically obtained fromthe concept of wall friction. In
Rankine‘s theory, plastic equilibrium inside a semiinfinite soil mass is considered, pressures
evaluated, a retaining wall is imagined to be interposed later, and the location and magnitude of
the total earth thrust are established mathematically.

(iv) Coulomb‘s theory is more versatile than Rankine‘s in that it can take into account any shape
of the backfill surface, break in the wall face or in the surface of the fill, effect of stratification of
the backfill, effect of various kinds of surcharge on earth pressure, and the effects of cohesion,
adhesion and wall friction. it lends itself to elegant graphical solutions and gives more reliable
results, especially in the determination of the passive earth resistance; this is inspite of the fact
that static equilibrium condition does not appear to be satisfied in the analysis.

(v) Rankine‘s theory is relatively simple and hence is more commonly used, while Coulomb‘s

theory is more rational and versatile although cumbersome at times; therefore, the use of the
latter is called for in important situations or problems.

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Problems
1. A retaining wall, 6 m high, retains dry sand with an angle of friction of 30° and unit weight
3
of 16.2 kN/m . Determine the earth pressure at rest. If the water table rises to the top of the
wall, determine the increase in the thrust on the wall. Assume the submerged unit weight of
3
sand as 10 kN/m .

(a) Dry backfill:

φ = 30° H = 6 m

K0 = 1 – sin 30° = 0.5

(Also K0 = 0.5 for medium dense sand)

σ0 = K0γ.H

Thrust per metre length of the wall = 48.6 ×1/2× 6 = 145.8 kN

(b) Water level at the top of the wall

The total lateral thrust will be the sum of effective and neutral lateral thrusts.
2
Effective lateral earth thrust, P0 =1/2 K0 γ.H

=1/2× 0.5 × 10 × 6 × 6 kN / m.run

= 90 kN/m. run
2
Neutral lateral pressure Pw =1/2γwH

≈1/2× 10 × 6 × 6 kN/ m. run

≈ 180 kN/m. run

Total lateral thrust = 270 kN/m. run

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Increase in thrust = 124.2 kN/m. run

This represents an increase of about 85.2% over that of dry fill.

2. What are the limiting values of the lateral earth pressure at a depth of 3 metres in a uniform
sand fill with a unit weight of 20 kN/m3 and a friction angle of 35°? The ground surface is
level. If a retaining wall with a vertical back face is interposed, determine the total active thrust
and the total passive resistance which will act on the wall.

Depth, H = 3 m

3
γ =20 kN/ m
0
Ф=35

for sand fill with level surface.

Limiting values of lateral earth pressure:

= 0.271 × 60

2
= 16.26 kN/m

= 3.690 × 60

2
= 221.4 kN/m

Total active thrust per metre run of the wall

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Total passive resistance per metre run of the wall

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