A Book of Literary Talk

Understanding Poetry
&
A Collection of American Poetry

Writer
Rudy

Editor
Sri Ninta Tarigan

Cover Designer
Putri Niman Maharani Ndruru

ISBN
978-623-91049-6-2

Published by
UNPRI PRESS
ANGGOTA IKAPI

Hak Cipta di Lindungi Undang-undang

Dilarang memperbanyak karya tulis ini dalam bentuk dan dengan cara apapun Tanpa ijin dari penerbit

ii
 Acknowledgement

Literary appreciation has become more important and has continually conducted to support the
development of national culture, including poetry. The appreciation of poetry is expected to transmit
messages such as morality, critiques, admiration, etc. In other words, it is also the main objectives of
making poetry. It is undeniable that poetry cannot directly shift people‟s way of thinking or paradigm,
but at least it could be an instrument to fix behavior and reflection for poetry lovers. Therefore, poetry
must be pointed for certain purposes and benefits. It reflects the authentic values of humanity and
brings humans back to their roles as the most important element in life. I really appreciate and expect
that this book could help students in learning literature with ease.

Dian Syahfitri, S.S., M. Hum.

Dean of Faculty of Teaching and Education

Universitas Prima Indonesia Medan

i
 Preface

There are many people who have contributed their time and hard work to publish this book.
The special gratitude goes to the English language Education students from the Faculty of Teaching
and Education, Universitas Prima Indonesia (UNPRI) Medan. The support from the Faculty of
Teaching and Education UNPRI also plays an important part in this book. Special thanks also go to
UNPRI Press for all the effort to publish this book. Therefore, in order to improve the quality of the
writing, suggestions are welcome.

Literature is not something easy to explain. Many people, especially college students find it
difficult to describe the meaning of literature. Moreover, many of them are still not familiar with the
types of literature, particularly poetry. One of the causes is that there are not sufficient references or
sources which can effectively inform and guide them to understand. Many college students who study
literature often have to read a lot of references in order to know about literature and to be able to
figure out what a poem is. Poems become the main focus in this book because among the three
primary types of literary works, poems seem to be the type of literary works that people often consider
uneasy.

This little book presents a brief but clear explanation on literature as well as poetry –
American poems. Poems by American poets need to be collected for the values and spirit in the works
reveal the more various problems in human‟s life. Therefore, American poems are chosen to be
included in this book. Even if the poems collected in this book are still limited, it is expected that this
book will be useful to make the readers know more about the collection of American poems.
Specifically, the readers (especially college students of literature major) will be able to explain the
meaning of literature; to understand the definition and the features of a poem; and to be familiar with
works from some famous American poets.

As the point stated above, it is common to hear student‟s complaints about learning literature.
Many of them have difficulties in understanding literature, especially poetry. Therefore, the first
chapter of the book presents explanation about literature, so they students can learn more about
characteristics of literature; the roles of literature; and types of literary works; etc with ease.

The second chapter of this book covers essential knowledge about poetry. In this chapter,
students will understand better about the aspects of a poem and how they can interpret or analyze a
poem. The third chapter of this book contains the brief overview of American poems including the
eras of American literature from the the beginning of American literature to the era of modernism.
Students can be familiar with American poets from each era. This sections also includes a collection
of poems by American poets. Finally, the last chapter discusses about several literary theories
frequently used to analyze literary works.

Medan 2019
Rudy

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 CONTENTS

Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................... i
Preface ............................................................................................................................................ ii
Contents .......................................................................................................................................... iii

I. INTRODUCTION: LITERATURE .......................................................................................... 1

1.1. Definition of Literature ............................................................................................... 2
1.2. The Types of Literature ............................................................................................... 6
1.2.1. Prose ................................................................................................................ 8
1.2.2. Play .................................................................................................................. 10
1.2.3. Film (Movie) .................................................................................................... 13
1.3. The Aspects of Literature ............................................................................................ 15
1.3.1. Language 15
1.3.2. Aesthetic 18
1.3.3. Values of Life 18

II. THE CONCEPT OF POETRY ................................................................................................ 25

2.1. Poetry ......................................................................................................................... 25
2.2. Parts of a Poem ........................................................................................................... 28
2.3. Basic Elements in a Poem ........................................................................................... 29
2.4. Understanding Poems ................................................................................................. 35
2.4.1. The Way of writing and Theme ................................................................................ 37
2.4.2. Confusion, Fascination, and Enjoyment............................................................ 38
2.4.3 The characteristics of Sound ............................................................................. 40
2.4.4. Purpose ............................................................................................................ 40

III. A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF AMERICAN POEMS: SOME COLLECTIONS OF

AMERICAN POEMS ........................................................................................................ 43
3.1. The beginning of America Literature........................................................................... 43
3.2. African-American Poets .............................................................................................. 44
3.3. The Era of Romanticism ............................................................................................. 46
3.4. The Era of Modernism ................................................................................................ 55
3.5. Some Well-known Poems from American Poets ......................................................... 59
3.6. American Poets ........................................................................................................... 78

IV. LITERARY THEORIES ........................................................................................................ 80

4.1. Author‟s Point of View ............................................................................................... 82
4.2. Literary Works (Literary Text) .................................................................................... 83
4.3. Reader‟s Point of View ............................................................................................... 84
4.4. Sociological and Historical Perspectives ..................................................................... 85

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 88

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 I
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE

People may have different opinions when it comes to literature. As many people know,
literature is not something easy to deal with. Many will think that they are not smart enough to
understand literary works (Shannon, 2002:27). This means that many people, especially, students have
a difficulty in learning literature. There are some factors behind this. Many people consider that
understanding literature is complicated. Others may think that literature is not interested. Some think
that it is not essential to know about literature. Those reasons perhaps make people think that they
need to avoid literature. However, the true thing about literature is that it is interesting. So, the
perceptions above are not right.

Literature is not something difficult or something to be avoided. Therefore, anyone who

wants to study literature must know that in order to understand literary works, there are ways and they
are not difficult as long as we know the right techniques. Additionally, knowing literature can actually
be useful because there are advantages that people can get when they know or learn literature as
shown in the following table:
to know about history of certain places, people, societies, and countries
to understand humans‟ conditions
to learn social and cultural values
to know political situations
to get entertainment

1.1. Definition of Literature

Human‟s life is full of different kinds of conditions. Each condition experienced by an
individual has its own characteristics. It seems too complicated to describe the characteristics of
people‟s experiences. Therefore, people simply classify this condition as bad or good experiences.
When it comes to “bad” or “good”, feelings play an essential role in expressing the conditions. This
situation is suitable to help people understand what literature is. Even though, literature is commonly
heard or seen in society, there may still be many people who do not understand what literature is.

What is literature? Honestly, it is not easy to define what literature is. This is because
everyone has his or her own perception on what literature is. However, we need to seek for the right
definition. Encyclopedia America (1996: 559) records “Literature is one of the greatest creative and
universal means of communicating the emotional, spiritual, or intellectual concerns of mankind.” This
basic understanding tells that literature is used to communicate. The author has something to tell to
people so he or she creates literary works.

From time to time, it always creates gaps for people to define literature (Selden, 1985:21).
However, in terms of literature as a subject, one thing for sure that almost everyone can agree is that
literature not similar to other subjects. Shannon (2002:1) explains “Literature is different. In the study
of literature, students are often judged not on the memorization of facts or on the success or failure of

1
certain experiments but on the quality of their reading, interpretation and writing.” The idea above
emphasizes that literature is treated differently because it is unique. It has been said that people have
tried to define literature by seeking the meaning through different kinds of sources, however, they find
it difficult to get the precise definition of literature (Klarer, 2004:14). Therefore, people may describe
the definition of literature in his own versions. It is alright to have various kinds of definitions on
literature.

However, it is important to know that there are always certain basic principles in
conceptualizing literature. First of all, it is essential to note that literature has some points to notice. In
other words, something which is considered as literature must fulfill certain criteria. To get started
defining literature, this part presents some concepts on literature acquired from several sources.
Furthermore, literature according to Chapman (1982:67) is commonly known as a kind of writing by
an individual with some truths which people read to gain the meaning.

So, it is essential to know that one may understand certain literary works if he or she has read
the literary carefully. The next thing he or she does is to gives his or her interpretations. Finally he or
she can write out the results that has been interpreted.

Reading interpreting writing

The points above can show that literature is not simply judged by a set of fixed rules,
patterns, or formulas that are normally found in other sciences such as physics, biology, chemistry,
etc. For this reason, many people say that literature is subjective. Apart from that perception, one still
needs to understand and use basic aspects of literary techniques to interpret literary works.

There is an idea saying that literature is a written text which has words that are difficult to
describe and generally has themes on expectations, human‟s life, and social conditions (Bennett and
Royle, 2015:4). Additionally, Hudson (2003:10) explains that literature is about the condition and
experience of the person who writes it. The perspectives above let us see that literature is a form of
writing which aims at conveying the author‟s feelings and perception toward the conditions of life.

However, it is true that each society has its own background that is necessary to determine
the they way they perceive literature. America, for example, has its own features in literature which
makes it different from British literature. According to Bercovitch and Jehlen (1986:5) literature is a
medium to gather realities and principles which can be useful to reflect their own characteristics. So,
why do people create literary works? It is because, through literature, the creator (author) may inform
something to readers, criticize or convince the readers about the phenomena he or she wants to
convey.

1.2. The Types of Literature

Thus, it can be understood that the characteristic of a society can be reflected through its
literary works. However, when tracing the types of literature, people can see that literature has been

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used by many people since very long time ago. American Indians, for instance, had a story telling
tradition which played an important role in society. Each American Indian tribe had its own
uniqueness and stories. Before they knew how to write, they passed the stories from generation to
generation.

Ancient scripts found by archeologists may also be classified as a kind of literature. The
following graph shows that literature can be divided into some kinds

Prose:
novels,
short
Ancient stories
scripts,
letters,
Drama
documents

Literature

Oral
tradition:
story telling, Poems
legends,
myths

In general, there are three main types of literature – poem, drama, and prose. The term used to refer to
these three kinds is genre. As Klerer (2004:4) explained the term “genre” is known to show three
classic types of literature. Therefore, when people need to conduct a research, they must know that
their research object is literary works – prose, poetry and drama.

However, since the 21st century, it is obvious that film has also become significant. Film can
also be approached by using literary theories. For this reason, literary scholars may include film as a
new genre in literature. Nowadays literary scholars tend to classify the genre of literature as following:
Genres of Literature
Poetry
prose (narrative)
drama (play)
Film

1.2.1 Prose
Prose is usually in a narrative form. Some old kinds of narrative forms such as myth, legends,
history, epics, etc. are known as old literary text. In the modern era, one of the most popular types of
prose is novel. Another common kind of prose is short story. Klerer (2004: 12) categorizes prose as
followings:
Novel for education→ depicting the life of the main character from the child to adult
epistolary novel → the use of the first-person point of view
historical novel → mostly describing about history
satirical novel → focusing on the bad sides of society due to excessive of social complexity
science fiction novel → a medium to criticize social and political situations
gothic novel → mystery, violence and darkness
detective stories → investigating and solving crime
 However, in order to understand a prose, readers need to know and figure out the meaning
hidden behind the prose. There are several significant aspects – plot, characters, point of view, place
and time setting. By analyzing the four aspects above, readers can actually know what the prose
actually represents.

Some of well-known classical American novels are The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) by
Washington Irving, The Scarlet Letter (1850) by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) by
Harriet Beecher Stowe, Moby Dick (1851) by Herman Melville, Little Women (1869) by Louisa May
Alcott, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) by Mark Twain, The Great Gatsby (1925) by F. Scott
Fitzgerald, The Grapes of Wrath (1930) by John Steinbeck, Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret
Mitchell, Native Son (1940) by Richard Wright, The Old Man and The Sea (1952) by Ernest
Hemingway, Invisible Man (1952) by Ralph Ellison, Sula (1973) by Toni Morrison, and many more.
Many novels have been filmed by incredible film directors. Movies based on the story from novels
have successfully attracted people from all ages.

1.2.2. Play
A play is also known as drama. It can be understood as literary works to be performed by
actors on stage. Since it involves stage performance, it makes drama different from other genres of
literature. It requires actors to perform on the stage. A drama (play) can be tragedy and comedy.
Tragedy normally is related to failure, sadness, disaster, or death whereas comedy mainly concerns
with humors, success, and a happy ending.

There are some important elements in drama such as characters, plot, dialogues, action, stage
and audience. Those aspects are considered crucial for they are the materials that construct a drama.
There are some important terms such as “act” and “scene” in a play. A lengthy parts of a drama
(theatrical performance) is called “act”. An act may be classified into some “scenes”. So, when people
watch a play, they enjoy the plot. All of the events and actions are performed by actors on the stage.
The following scheme shows how a play starts and how it ends.

Ending:
The
beginning
Raising Climax Faling solving
problems

The diagram above shows that a play always includes five stages which starts from
introducing the characters, settings (time and place), and the starting point of conflict. This stage is
important to let the audiences know how everything begins. This point also gives the audiences the
first impression of the film. It is essential to attract the audiences‟ attention through
⦁ good-looking, well-dressed, and enchanting look of the characters
⦁ the eye-catching space such as romantic dining room, beautiful parks, etc.
⦁ the scenes showing certain eras for example the period of 19 th century with the classical atmosphere

4
 The second stage presents the conflicts which involved the main characters and their
opponents begin to rise. Audience can see something that triggers the conflicts or problems faced by
the main characters. The character makes a plan to overcome the conflict. However, things do not run
as what the main character has expected. He or she starts to face a lot of difficulties.

The third stage is called climax. It is the most important part because at this point, audiences
will feel the tense watching how the main character can cope with everything. This section is called
climax for the most people who watch the drama may agree that they will not leave their seats. This is
because they do not want to miss the best part of the drama.

The next is stage is falling. This is the stage when the audiences‟ tense starts decreasing. The
main character begins to see which way to take to survive or to save himself or herself. And finally,
this leads to the end which is determines what kind of ending audiences will see. The stages above are
also found in films.

There are some of famous classic plays or dramas from America, such as Our Town (1938)
by Thornton Wilder The Glass Menagerie (1945) by Tennessee Williams, Death of a Salesman (1949)
by Arthur Miller, Long Day’s Journey into Night (1956) by Eugene O‟Neill The Zoo Story (1959) by
Edward Albee, A Raisin in the Sun (1959) by Lorraine Hansberry, Angels in America (1991) by Tony
Kushner.

1.2.3. Film (movie)

Currently, film has inevitably become a part of literature. People will easily see the similarity
between film and prose because both can be considered as narrative. Film is the form of audio visual
whereas prose (novel) is in the form of text (verbal). It can be interpreted (analyzed) by using literary
techniques. For this reason, it can be included as literary works. Klerer (2004: 57) mentions that what
makes film different from a play (drama) is that film is may be repeated because it is stored into a
medium, whereas a play is to be performed on the stage.

Film tends to be narrative. Thus, people mostly think that the way of analyzing a film is quite
similar to the way they analyze a novel, however, the elements of film are different from novels even
if the pattern may look similar (Adi, 2011:57). As what is found in novel, character, for instance, plays
an essential role in a film – protagonist (the main character) and antagonist (an opponent or enemy).

Further, the point of view in a film is usually known as the eye of camera that the viewers
follow where the camera leads (Adi, 2011:58). So, it is important to know that with the advanced
technology, current films present astonishing and clear audio visual to audiences. For this reason,
Klerer (2004: 60) used the term „space‟, „time‟, and „sound‟ as the most significant aspects:
Space light effects, camera position, compositing, fixing up, film supply, standpoint
Time speed, duration, flashback, plot (which may look quite similar to a play)
Sound conversation, music, sound effect

The points above show that when analyzing a film, one need to find out those aspects. The complexity
of film may somehow make people see that film is important to study. Therefore, film studies can be
found in many colleges, especially in the United States. Films are popular to be studied in media
studies and it can be classified as popular literature.

From the genres of literature above, it is expected that people who learn literature especially
students, will understand better about literature. In order to know deeper about literature, this part also
shows some more essential things about literature. The ideas used to define literature above lead a
way to think of several essential keywords needed to understand what literature is. Perhaps, others
will add some more keywords to complete the definition of literature and that is acceptable. There are
essential keywords considered as the basic aspects to describe literature. This is a way to simplify the
explanation of literature. By this way, students will be more interested in literature.

1.3. The Aspects in Literature

There are three main points that people need to know when learning literature. By knowing
these aspects, one may understand literature better.

1.3.1. Language
As a means of communication, language undoubtedly plays a vital role in literature. Its role
in literature is to become a medium (Fowler, 1987: 130-132) to communication between the author
and the reader. Since language has an important role, language has become one of the basic
components in literature. This means that language is the most significant source to get a meaning of a
literary text. Since literature requires reading, many people fail to understand the meaning contained
in a literary works. The use of language – unique and different is always said to be its main feature,
for that reason, commonly, many people think that some ordinary or daily words used in writing may
not always be literature (Adi, 2011:16). This has a strong connection to the quality of reading.

Regarding this, Shannon (2002:13) agrees “Literary works should be read on literary and
figurative levels.” This tells that the language used in literature is not clear and explicit. In other
words, the main essential element of a literary text is language Hall (1997:1) explains “Language is
one of the „media‟ through which thought, ideas and feelings are represented in a culture.
Representation through language is therefore central to the processes by which meaning is produced.”
The use of language becomes the key for an author to create his or her writing.

It requires interpretation to understand the meaning. For example, if a poet says “The sea in
front of you has turned red”, he does not really mean that there is a sea in front of you. The sea he
means is not really red in color. He may mean something different by using “sea” and “red” to show a
certain meaning. It is also right to say that the use of metaphor and simile is a commonly found in
literature. It compares one thing to another which may share the same features reflecting a hidden
meaning (Gill, 1985: 278; Pulman, 1987:145-146). By this way, words in literature are used for
symbolization. This can help people understand that the language of literature is unique.

So, the language used in literature is different from language used in other studies or sciences
(non-literature). The language of literature is not absolute or fixed but it is universal. A poet may use
the word “flower” to describe a woman because the beauty of flower can be identical with a woman.

6
People may agree with this kind of comparison. Besides, its universal meaning, the language structure
in literature may be flexible which makes it different from other forms of writing such as text books,
academic documents, formal letters, etc. Thus, it is not easy to get the message conveyed in literary
works. Apart from the language, the meaning expressed in literature may depend on someone‟s
interpretation or the author‟s perspective.

1.3.2. Aesthetic
Another important keyword that describes literature is aesthetic. Rodway explains, aesthetic
is related to how people feel and how people appreciate about something created in order to show the
quality of harmony (1987:13-14). A poem, for instance, has a set of words arranged in the form of
stanza with some harmonious rhymes. It means that by having aesthetic values, literary works can
function to satisfy its readers. Because of its aesthetic values, literature with its special characteristics
is always different from other kinds of writings. The aesthetic value in literary works may be found in
the selected words (use to symbolize), the plots, the characters, and so on. A poem, for example, is
written in a unique way with certain poetic words to create certain rhymes when someone reads it.

1.3.3. Values of Life

Besides, the aesthetic values mentioned above, literature also plays a role to give an impact
readers‟ feeling. This means, the creator of literary works intends to touch his or her readers‟ feeling.
Feeling is something deep and difficult to explain. It is connected with someone‟s deep sense (Ross,
1987:91). It is created based on the author‟s feeling, experience, perception, and thoughts on certain
social phenomena. The presence of literary works is able to convey the author‟s ideas which may
influence a reader‟s perspective.

Since it is based on the author‟s experience and perspective on social issues, literature may
contain certain values of life. For instance, the words used in a poem may symbolize something that is
experienced by someone in society. It might be useful to inform, to warn, to guide, to advice, or to
teach someone about life. Literature tells facts in the form of imagination. It means that reality
contained in literary works will be obviously revealed if one knows how to interpret properly. So, in
other words, the meaning is implicit (hidden). However, if one reads it seriously and know the aspects
of literature, he can figure out that hidden meaning.

Therefore, literature is different from magazines, papers or text books because the author
frequently concerns with problems in society, culture, religions, and mind by expressing these issues
beautifully in their writing (Shannon, 2002:14). Thus, literature may also be considered as a medium
to convey values of life to readers. Since values of life are generally found in literary works, people
who analyze a literary text always include the discussion of life values – morality, humanity, ethics,
etc. in other words, literature is created by someone who experiences or observes something from his
or other people‟s life; consumed by someone; and it may be used to criticize about certain phenomena
in a society or a country. This means that literature is close to people.
 By knowing that there are certain values of life contained in literature, it is acceptable that
the values portrayed in literature can be seen in society. For example, an author of a novel has
observed a particular social phenomenon called drug abuse. He may think of creating a story about
some teenagers using drugs. Even if the characters are made up, the values behind the issue of drug
abuse among teenagers may still be a fact that can be seen in society in almost every country.

In a poem, for instance, a poet may use some words or phrases as symbolization. Words such
as graves, dark clouds, dry leaves, etc. may be well used to describe feeling of sadness, loneliness, or
death. The use of symbol is very common in literary works. Some may easily interpret certain
symbols because they are conventional symbols which are agreed by most people. In other words,
people may somehow agree with the meaning because there is a universal meaning in it. Everyone can
see the that words used by the poet are more relevant to the feeling of sadness rather than happiness.
No wonder, someone‟s emotion can be affected when he or she reads a poem.

The writer‟s intention (a poet, a novelist, or a playwright) is actually to convey his ideas or
feelings about something to the readers. Thus, it is a unique and beautiful way an author
communicates to a reader. Therefore, Long (2007:8) explains:
Literature is the expression of life in words of
truth and beauty; it is the written record of man‟s
spirit, of his thoughts, emotions, aspirations; it is
the history, and the only history, of the human

soul. It is characterized by its artistic, its

suggestive, its permanent qualities.

From the ideas above, people use literature (poem, prose and drama) to convey his feelings (anxiety,
disappointment, excitement, etc.) or perspectives (opinions and viewpoints) on certain phenomena. By
this way, the authors can let the reader understand the message in the literary works.

Therefore, the authors of literary works such as poetry, prose, and play or film use language
as the expression of art to convey values of life. For this reason, the analysis result of literary works
will be based on how good someone is in interpreting the hidden meaning. In doing this, normally, the
use of certain literary theories is applied to obtain a more complete analysis.

It is obvious that literature is a medium used by author to express their thoughts, emotions
and criticism. It is seen as a creative way to show one‟s feelings toward certain phenomena.
Therefore, literature is different from other studies or kinds of writing (non-literature) as shown at the
following table:
Literature Non-literature
The language is universal The language is absolute (fixed)
The result is based on the quality of interpretation The answer is almost always “right” or “wrong”
and analytical thinking
The fact is reflected in the imagination The reality fact
The meaning is symbolic (implicit) The meaning is clear (explicit)
The grammar of sentence is flexible Strictly fixed grammatical rules
The result is based on the quality of interpretation the answer is almost always “right” or “wrong”
and analytical thinking

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 One of the most common types of literature is poetry. It is believed to be the oldest type
among the other genres. A poem is unique because its form is different from the other kinds of literary
works. Its uniqueness makes it complicated to learn. However, people agree that the artistic value lies
in poetry has always been deep and emotional. It is not easy to create a poem. Thus, it takes
knowledge, methods and feeling to write a poem.

Apart from its beauty, poetry may be the most difficult for many students to understand. The
next chapter of the book presents more knowledge about poetry.
 II
THE CONCEPT OF POETRY

Poetry becomes the main important type in this book because students from literature
department often find it difficult to understand poetry. Therefore, this chapter is intended to help
students or anyone who are studying poetry to understand better. The word “poetry” is not a simple
word. It is not easy to define what poetry is. According to Strachan and Terry (2000:8) people can see
the evolution of the word “poetry” from time to time. This means the term has been defined
differently. Poetry is known as the oldest genre of literature.

2.1. Poetry
Poetry is a kind of literature which literary scholars must be familiar with. It is known for its
unique form that is different from other types of literature. It is not similar to other kinds of literature
because it is a particularly created word item. It is derived from a Greek word meaning to create or
make (Gill, 1985: 3). One of the famous American poets, Horace P. Biddle explains that poetry is an
old type of literature which can be used to learn about the past culture of human beings (1858:17).
However, it is always difficult to define poetry as it involves many aspects and contexts, so in other
words, it may not have an exactly clear definition of poetry and people may never give the complete
definition of poetry (Biddle, 1858: 17; Redmond, 2006:1; Pardede, 2016: 196).

Poetry can also mean a kind (type) of literature which is different from prose and drama. It is
a typical form of literature which portrays aesthetical and natural aspects of people‟s life (Pardede,
2016: 197). In addition, Alexander (1983: 56) points out that people use poetry to express happy or
sad situations, amusement, past life, or nature. Thus, many references define poetry as a literary genre.
Epics, lyrics, and dramatics were the types of poetry according to literary scholars in the past time
(Hale and Sterling, 1901: 25). In other words, poetry requires a poetic form of writing.

Poetic forms can be found in poems, songs, dramas, elegy, etc. Therefore, poetry can be
perceived as a particularly artistic way (style) to create a written form called a poem. The art of poetic
way (style) of writing is poetry. So, these kinds of writing are called poetry. Since many different
kinds of poetic written forms are categorized as poetry, therefore, poetry can also be perceived as the
collection of poems. A person who creates (writes) is a poet. Gill (1985: 6) explains that a poem can
be narrative, meaning the readers must find out the main problem by knowing the characters. A poem
may reflect someone‟s life, so the readers should be able to figure out the main thought of the poem.
Further, a poet can also create a poem used to argue about something.

A poem may simply tell a story. It is called a narrative poem. Based on the story, a narrative
poem is divided into epic, ballad, and romance. Each of them has its own characteristics. Epic, for
example, includes a hero as the character in the poem to narrate the story of human‟s life. Ballad is
similar to a song with simple words which describes a story. Whereas, romance is mostly about love,
battle, adventure, etc.

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2.2. Parts of Poem
It seems brief and simple, but in fact, it takes some time to figure out what actually the
meaning behind those poetic words. There are several parts of a poem that are commonly learned by
students from literature department. A poem may consist of some lines and it is generally known as
verse. The verse is metrically arranged to show the uniqueness of poetry.

On the other hand, the term stanza means a group of lines (similar to a paragraph). A stanza
may consist of several lines. “Couplet” is a stanza with two lines. A “quatrain” is a poem in four lines.
A “sextet” stanza consists of six lines and an “octave” stanza normally has eight lines. A poem with
fourteen lines is called “sonnet”. For example, in the first stanza of Robert Frost‟s poem entitled “The
Road Not Taken” (1916), there are five lines (verses) in a stanza. It is called “quintet”:
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;

There are some kinds of ways which a poet may use to create a poem. This includes the lines, the
stanza, the words, the structure, the rhymes, etc.

2.3. Basic Elements in a Poem

A poem with some well-arranged verses beautified by the rhymes is certainly not an easy
thing to create. For instance, a poet may repeat a certain words to emphasize something as found in
Emily Dickinson‟s poem, Wild Nights – Wild Nights! Besides, repeating certain words, a poet can also
contrast, for example, bleak green forest. Another common way used by a poet to write a poem is by
illustrating showing comparison. This is to say that word selection (diction) has an essential role in a
poem because it is normally briefer that other kinds of literary works (Thorne, 2006: 48).

A poem is made up by words. A poet will select the words based on his or her moods. For
this reason, a poet must select the words carefully. A poet commonly uses „metaphor‟,
„personification‟, „hyperbole‟, etc. to describe certain things, persons, or feelings. For example, when
a poet says “I live like a flower”. He uses flower to symbolize his life which may be colorful but will
fade away soon. “Poisonous words” may refer to bad remarks or words that are used to hurt
someone‟s feelings. In Robert Frost‟s poem “Design” (1922), there phrases “a dimpled spider”, “a
snow-drop spider”, etc. to show symbolization. A poet may use the same words over and over which
is called repetition, for instance, Emily Dickinson in her poem, she started with “Wild nights – Wild
nights!” Many poets use repetition in their poems to attract attention or to show that it is something
important. It is important to remember that word play a very significant role. Through words, readers
will figure out what the poem is about.

A poet may use „metaphor‟ in his or her poem. A poet uses a word or phrase to compare one
thing to another (not necessarily connected), for instance, when a poet write “Her words are like the
voice of angels”. He or she compares „words‟ that comes out from the girl‟s mouth sounds like angel‟s
voice. Another kind similar to metaphor is „simile‟. A poet may say “Her face is like a rose”.
 „Hyperbole‟ is also frequently used in poems. It is a way to define something in
exaggeration, for example: “his look is a cold as ice”, “I‟ve been calling her thousand times”.
Sometimes, a poet will also use „personification‟, it is applying human‟s behaviors or characteristics
to something, for instance: “the waves danced beautifully”, “The moon smiles at us.” A poet can also
apply human‟s five senses such as see, smell, hear, touch and taste) to objects, for example: “The
sweet smell of rain touched my nose”.

Another way way used by a poet is “metonymy”. A poet can use a name of something, place,
trademark, etc. to mean something (the two thing are associated), for example, “The happy news from
Hollywood”, “The old man with his Mercedes.”

In another occasion, a poet can use a word to show the opposite of what he or she conveys. It
is called “irony”. A poet may say “Her beautiful voice may break all the glasses in this room.”, “This
hardworking student never does his homework.”

Besides words, learners must also understand that the tone of a poem is significant. Every
poem has its own tone which is different from other poems. This is because tone is identical with the
poet. He or she creates the poem with a certain tone set based on his or her perception toward the
poem he or she writes. Some poem can sound formal (general) and some may sound casual
(communicative).

Sound is also one of fundamental elements of a poem. This is the point that makes a poem
beautifully unique, especially when someone reads it. The repeating of same sounds of a poem is
commonly known as rhyme. These sounds are found at the end of each line of a poem, for instance:
day, play, clay, way. It may form beautiful rhyme.

Further, when someone stresses particular syllables regularly, it will create “rhythm” and that
may somehow reflect someone‟s emotion (Gill, 1985:34-40). It can be sorrowful, disappointed,
delighted, etc. It may appear in the front, the middle or the end of the line of a poem. The most
noticeable rhythm is the repeating of sound (repetition) at the end. A poet can repeat the consonant
sounds (alliteration) or the vowel sounds (assonance).

For example the 4th stanza of the poem from Robert Frost “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy
Evening” (1922) has a repetition of sound A-A-A-A:
The woods are lovely, dark and deep,
But I have promise to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.

The poem above shows the repetition of sound at the end of the line – deep, keep, sleep, sleep. Some
poets may create another pattern of sounds. For instance, Phillis Wheatley, an African-American
female poet also used beautiful sounds in her poems.
In “An Hymn to the Evening” (1773) with the rhyme A-A-B-B:
Soon as the sun forsook the eastern main
The pealing thunder shook the heav‟nly plain;

12
 Majestic grandeur! From the zephye‟s wing,
Exhales the incense of the blooming spring.

The poem from Wheatley above is intentionally created to sound harmoniously – main, plain, wing,
spring. Another kind of rhyme pattern is found in Emily Dickinson‟s poem “I‟m Nobody! Who are
you?” (1891) with the rhyme A-B-A-B:
How dreary to be somebody!
How public like a frog
To tell one‟s name the livelong day
To an admiring bog!

The pattern above – somebody, frog, day, bog of the poem above can tell that there are many various
ways that a poet can use to create rhythms that he or she wants. Additionally, there is a poem without
any conventional rule of rhymes, called “free verse” Look at the following poem and take a look at the
rhythms:
Endless
2010
Rudy

Wake up early in the morning

knowing that you are alive.
Gazing out the window asking
yourself if the brand new days ever come.

Everything remains the same,

smells the same, sound the same.
Passion, glamour, delight, love, scare,
pain and ambition must be there

Time goes by and the world grows old.

Never know what will happen, good or bad.
Courage is to say you are glad and proud.
Never imagine the life is hard, wicked, and wild
Strong but weak, Tough but tender, Huge but tiny.
Sleep like a baby and sound like a melody.
Not much to do and to hope for, Boy!

Be sure that life will never be dark with joy.

Stand up and smile happily.

2.4. Understanding Poems

It is not easy to understand a poem. Students often find it difficult when their teachers ask
them to analyze a poem. There are actually some kinds of ways that one can use to analyze a poem.
However, this section shows some useful basic steps to understand a poem. However, when one
begins to read a poem, he or she must always understand that a poem consists of words which shows
symbols. They convey meaning.

symbol interpreted meaning

Thus, in order to figure out the meaning of a poem, one needs to concentrate on the the words used by
the poet to symbolize something.
 From the points discussed above, poems are strongly related to someone‟s feeling. The key
point lies on the feeling. There is an important question one must ask himself or herself when you
interpret a poem – how do you feel after reading the poem? This is the starting point to understand a
poem. There can be some more questions you can make in order to help you analyze a poem such as:
what is the main subject of the poem? how is the poet‟s feeling toward the poem? And so on. When
those questions appear in one‟s mind, it means he or she starts thinking what is behind the poem he or
she reads.

There are many perspectives that may come out because people have various interpretations.
Therefore, it is true to say that readers can have different responses. As the point mentioned by
Shannon (2002: 57) having a subjective reaction does not require references or other people‟s
judgment. Regarding this, it is important to note that a poet creates a poem based on what he or she
experiences, observes, or feels. This can be seen through the word choice a poet uses. Moreover, each
poet has his or her own way of writing.

2.4.1. The Way of writing and Theme

According to Shannon (2002: 65) by figuring out the way a poet uses in creating a poem and
the main theme of the poem. First of all, knowing “what kind of way or style used by an author (poet,
writer)” can help learners to see that poet A uses the style which is different from poets B or C. By
this way, learners can interpret the characteristics of each poet. In other words, by observing the word
selection (the use of words) to create a poem, a learner can assume that poet A is likely to use words
which contain certain meanings. Emily Dickinson‟s poems, for example, have many words such as
birds, sea, land, etc. Those words may indicate that the poet is interested in portraying nature and
environment to express her feelings. This may connect to “the theme of the poem”.

Each poem has a theme (topic or a subject). By observing the words used by a poet, one may
relate this to the subject that the poet focuses. The whole poem will reflect something that the poet
intends to convey such as social conditions, childhood, wars, or economic situations. For instance,
Phillis Wheatley is well-known for her poems on religions. This can be seen through the words she
used in her poems such as God, savior, mercy, preachers, etc. These words combined with other
words which can be assumed as praising and worshiping God. This way makes her poems sound more
religious. This simple interpretation is useful for learners to understand a poem better.

2.4.2. Confusion, Fascination, and Enjoyment

It is important to know the feeling expressed by the author. Gill (1985: 6-7) explains that in
order to understand a poem, one needs to know that a poem may be confusion, fascination, and
enjoyment. “Confusion” often appears when someone starts interpreting a poem. Mostly, people will
ask what this poem actually tells the readers People can be puzzled because the poem is confusing. So,
to start interpreting it, it is a good idea to know what makes you confused or why the poet chooses to
show confusing contrasts. This way can be used as a starting point of understanding a poem.

14
 A poem can also be interesting. This means that there is a part of the poem which can attract
or stimulate one‟s interest. This “fascination” may appear after reading a poem. One may question
what makes him or her interested in the poem. A poem may be fascinating because of the words, the
rhythm, the poet, etc. A poem may be fascinating to someone perhaps it describes how a person feels
or experience; a person may be interested in a poem because he or she thinks that the poet‟s thought is
unique; or a person may think that what the poet says is opposite to what he or she feels. Those points
can be considered as ways to start exploring more about the poem.

Another point to focus when someone needs to interpret a poem is “enjoyment”. This is
related to the part of poem that makes you enjoy. Someone who thinks that a poem is beautiful will try
to seek for what aspects that makes it beautiful. When a person thinks there is something about the
poem that pleases him or her, that is useful to help him or her understand the poem better. So, it is
essential to know the words (vocabulary) used by a poet. Additionally, Gill (1985:9) explains that a
poem is created because the writer‟s idea and emotion have been connected by something significant
that has occurred. As a result, this can bring an impact to the tone of the poem.

2.4.3. The Characteristics of Sound

Regarding the thoughts and feelings, a poem can be understood by knowing the sound
character of the poem. The character of sound is commonly known as tone. It is found in every poem.
In daily communication, people will produce different kinds of tones based on the conditions. The
tones may represent the feeling or mood of the speaker. Thorne (2006:49) describes tone as the stance
of the poet on the theme he or she is focusing.

Words used in poems can be useful to find out the tone. After reading a poem, one may
figure out what kind of tone the poem has. For instance, one may say, the tone of the poem “There‟s
been a Death in the Opposite House” by Emily Dickinson is sad. Somehow, one may say that the
tones of certain poem are “glad”, “scared”, “worried”, “pessimistic”, “optimistic”, “disappointed”,
“lively”, etc.

2.4.4. Purpose
Each poem is made by poet with a purpose. It is certain that every poet has his or her own
purpose to convey to the readers. By reading a poem thoroughly, knowing the aspects of poem, and
learning the word choice used by the poet, a reader may find out the purpose of the poet in creating
the poem. Some poets may write poem for themselves because writing poems can be a way for them
to express their feelings. Other poets may want to inform something to readers. Sometimes a poet may
also want to criticize something such as social conditions, rulers, perspectives, etc. One of the famous
African-American female poets, Phillis Wheatley, for instance, wrote poems to express her thoughts
about discrimination experienced by African-American people.

There may be advice that a poet needs to tell to readers. A poet may use his or her creativity
to produce poetic words to influence and convince the readers. Thus, by figuring out the purpose of a
poet, one may understand better about the poem he or she reads. It can also be a way to interpret the
poem. To interpret a poem, one may start by the way shown as following:
 team (topic):
knowing the words/
word choice

why is it tone: how is the

confusing? why is mood of the poet?
fascinating? what poem (see the words he
make you enjoy the uses)
poem?

find out the purpose

of the poet

A poet applies a common technique - words for symbolizing. Someone who intends to interpret a
poem must start with reading. Without thorough reading, one cannot understand what the words
symbolize. Look at the following steps:

1 Read the poem over and over until to understand (one may also read aloud to raise the
feeling)
2 Focus on the words used by the poet to describe a certain condition (poets use something to
symbolize what he/she wants to convey)
3 Start finding out what the theme/topic of the poem
4 Figure out what makes this poem confusing; what makes it interesting; and what makes it an
enjoyable poem?

16
 III
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF AMERICAN POEMS: SOME COLLECTIONS OF
AMERICAN POEMS

3.1. The beginning of America Literature

This part of the discussion is centered on the development of American literature before the
declaration of American independence on July 4, 1776. In general, American literature was formed by
the traditions, included myths, legends, stories and cultural songs of the native Americans (The
Indians). Before the coming of European people, there were no written literary works found in the
north of America even if there were about hundreds of local native Indian languages. This resulted the
various kinds of literary works in native American culture.

Each Indian tribe held its own beliefs and culture – praising gods, certain animals and plants
or holy men; the system of governing; the way of life; etc. This kind of difference was also a part of
oral tradition (literature). However, the oral traditions such as stories or myths of Indian society were
about praising the nature as the source for their spiritual and physical power. The main characters of
the stories could be animals or plants which were strongly connected to the tribe, group or individual.
Some stories were related to gods or rituals. Such an oral genre can be found in almost all kinds of
American Indian literature - myths, songs, verses, anecdotes, charms, historical legends, etc.

3.2. African-American Poets

The coming of immigrants from England to the southern part was because of the economic
opportunities. Most of them were poor farmers and merchants and slaves. There was a talented
African-American female poet, Phillis Wheatley who expressed her thoughts and criticism through
poems. She began writing poems at the age of twelve or thirteen (Davis et.al, 1991:11).

She wrote her poems with themes on religions, such as “To S. M., A Young African Painter
on Seeing His works”. She was the first African-American poet in to publish her literary works. She
also expressed the importance of human rights and her disagreement with racism in her poem “On
Being Brought from Africa to America”. One of her poems is “On Being Brought from Africa to
America” (1768):
On Being Brought from Africa to America
„Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land,
Taugh my benighted soul to understand
That there‟s a god, that there‟s a Saviour too:
Once I redemption neither sought nor knew.
Some view our sable race with scornful eye,
“Their colour is a diabolic die.”
Remember, christian, Negroes, black as Cain,
May be refin‟d, and join th‟ angelic train.

An African-American poet, Jupiter Hammon who was a slave in Long Island, New York was
famous for his religious poems and the book An Address to the Negroes of the State of New York
(1787) which may convince people to protect children from the slavery. Another African-American
male poet called George Moses Horton also wrote some wonderful poems. One of them is “George
Moses Horton, Myself” (1865):

George Moses Horton, Myself

(George Moses Horton)

I feel myself in need

Of the inspiring strains of ancient lore,
My heart to lift, my empty mind to feed,
And all the world explore.

I know that I am old

And never can recover what is past,
But for the future may some light unfold
And soar from ages blast.

I feel resolved to try,

My wish to prove, my calling to pursue,
Or mount u from the earth into the sky,
To show what Heaven can do.

My genius from a boy,

Has fluttered like a bird within my heart;
But could not thus confined her powers employ,
Impatient to depart.

She like a restless bird,

Would spread her wings, her power to be unfurl‟d,
And let her songs be loudly heard,
And dart from world to world.

3.3. The Era of Romanticism

The Romanticism movement which was first started in Germany was spread to England,
France and many European countries. It finally reached America in about 1820. The newly fresh
vision surprised intellectual and architectural society. However, American Romanticism took place
along with the period of national expansion and it shaped the character of American culture. This
period witnessed the strength of American national identity and idealism. The presence of American
Romanticism gave great contribution to growth of “American Renaissance”.

VanSpanckeren (1994) described that thinkers in the era of American Romanticism

concentrated on art as inspiration, spiritual natural dimension and aesthetics. Art can describe the
universal truth. The romanticism movement underlined the importance of artistic expression for
individuals or society. One of the most influential thinkers in the era of American Romanticism was
Ralph W. Emerson. His essay The Poet (1844) played an important role in this era. Self-development
became the main concern.

The era of American Romanticism focused on the combination of self and nature. Self-
consciousness was a way to see the world. It was essential to focus on social equity and to minimize
suffering. “Self” had a more positive feeling since it was no longer “ego-centric”. Romanticism was
suitable for many American writers and its spirit also contribute the American democracy –
individualism, self-pride, and inspirational imagination for ethical and aesthetical values.

18
 Water
(1867)
by
Ralph Waldo Emerson

The water understands

Civilization well;
It wets my foot, but prettily,
It chills my life, but wittily,
It is not disconcerted,
It is not broken-hearted:
Ill used, it will destroy,
In perfect time and measure
With a face of golden pleasure
Elegantly destroy.

Some elite poets also started to publish their literary works. Their literary works were the combination
of American and European culture. One of American elite poets was Henry W. Longfellow. However,
to some innovative and independent thinkers, the poems of elites were conventional. The elites were
the role models for “polite tradition” which was contradictory to the previous groups. However, they
had great influence to people. Longfellow included the past feeling which was misty, legendary, and
without history all together in American and European tradition. Some of his famous narrative poems
were “A Psalm of Life” (1838), “Evangeline” (1847), “The Song of Hiawatha” (1855), and “The
Courtship of Miles Standish” (1858).
A Psalm of Life
(Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)

Tell me not, in mournful numbers,

Life is but an empty dream!-
For the soul is dead that slumbers,
And things are not what they seem

Life is real! Life is earnest!

And the grave is not its goal;
Dust thou art, to dust returnest,
Was not spoken of the soul.

Not enjoyment, and not sorrow,

Is our destined end or way;
But to act, that each to-morrow
Find us farther that do-day.

Art is long, and Time is fleeting,

And our hearts, though stout and brave,
Still, like muffled drums, are beating
Funeral marches to the grave.

In the world‟s broad field of battle,

In the bivouac of life,
Be not like dumb, driven cattle!
Be a hero in the strife!

Trust no Future, howe‟er pleasant!

Let the dead Past bury its dead!
Act,-act in the living Present!
 Heart within, and God o‟erhead!

Lives of great men all remind us

We can make our lives sublime,
And, departing, leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of time;

Footprints, that perhaps another,

Sailing o‟er life‟s solemn main,
A forlorn and shipwrecked brother,
Seeing, shall take heart again.

Let us, then, be up and doing,

With a heart for any fate;
Still achieving, still pursuing,
Learn to labor and to wait.

The era of American Romanticism also included some female poets, one of them is Emily Dickinson.
She was interested in nature and found a lot of inspirations from it to write her poems. Living her life
as an unmarried woman, she read bibles, Shakespeare‟s works, and classical mythological works. Her
writing style was brief, imaginative, innovative and modern. She explored the hidden dark side of
human‟s thoughts, death dramatization, and graves. She also liked to include some simple natural
objects such as flower, bees, etc in her poems. Some of her popular poems were Because I could not
stop for Death” (1890), “I‟m Nobody! Who are you?” (1891), “Hope is “the Thing with Feathers”
(1891), and “A Bird, came down to Walk” (1891).
1
Because I could not stop for Death
(Emily Dickinson)

Because I could not stop for Death –

He kindly stopped for me –
The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
And Immortality.

We slowly drove – He knew no haste

And I had put away
My labor and my leisure too,
For His Civility –

We passed the School, where Children strove

At Reces – in the Ring –
We passed the Field of Gazing Grain –
We passed the Setting Sun –
Or rather – He passed us –
The Dews quivering and chill –
For only Gossamer, my Gown –
My Tippet – only Tulle –

We paused before a House that seemed

A swelling of the Ground –
The Roof was scarcely visible –
The Cornice – in the Ground –
Since then – it‟s Centuries – and yet
Feels shorter that the Day
I first surmised the Horses‟ Heads
Were toward Eternity –

20
 2
I’m Nobody! Who are you?
(Emily Dickinson)

I‟m Nobody! Who are you?

Are you – Nobody – too?
Then there‟s a pair of us!
Don‟t tell! They‟d advertise – you know!

How dreary – to be – Somebody!

How public – like a Frog –
To tell one‟s name – the livelong June –
To an admiring Bog!

3
Hope is the thing with feathers
(Emily Dickinson)

“Hope” is the thing with feathers –

That perches in the soul –
And sings the tune without the words-
And never stops – at all –

And sweetest – in the Gale – is heard –

And sore must be the storm –
That could abash the little Bird
That kept so many warm –

I‟ve heard it in the chillest land –

And on the strangest Sea –
Yet – never – in Extremity,
It asked a crumb – of me.

In the era of American Romanticism, writers were interested to put forward dark and mysterious
themes. VanSpanckeren (1994) mentions that tragedy was the most common aspect in the literary
works. It was the manifest of the social tragedy. One of the most well-known poets in the Romantic
period was Edgar Allan Poe. He combined the style of dark metaphysics with elements of realism,
parody, and satire. His popular poem “The Raven” (1845) described about the death. The horror
atmosphere was always very attractive to him. He explored people‟s mind in his writing. Poe believed
that mystery was an essential component in exotic writing. He also wrote another popular poem called
“Spirits of the Dead” (1827).
Sprits of the Dead
(Edgar Allan Poe)

Thy soul shall find itself alone

Mid dark thoughts of the grey tomb-stone –
Not one, of all the crowd, to pry
Into thine hour of secrecy:
Be silent in that solitude
Which is not loneliness – tor then
The spirits of the dead who stood
In life before thee are again
In death around thee – and their will
Shall then overshadow thee: be still.

For the night – tho‟ clear – shall frown –

 And the stars shall look not down,
From their high thrones in the Heaven,
With light like Hope to mortals given –
But their red orbs, without beam,
To thy weariness shall seem
As a burning and a fever
Which would cling to thee for ever:

Now are thought thou shalt not banish –

Now are visions ne‟er to vanish –
From thy spirit shall they pass
No more – like dew-drop from the grass:

The breeze – the breath of God – is still –

And the mist upon the hill
Shadowy – shadowy – yet unbroken,
Is a symbol and a token –
How it hangs upon the tress,
A mystery of mysteries!

3.4. The Era of Modernism

The vast modern culture wave at the beginning of 20th century expressed modern life through
art. People in modernism were more educated, more efficient, and more technology-oriented.
Experimentation became a widespread term among literary scholars. There was one of popular poets
in 1910-1920 called Ezra Pound. Besides his incredible imagism (using precise imagery and clear
daily conversation), he was also good at applying poetic approach in his literary works.

Pound‟s poems were popular for the clear precise imagery, fresh rhyme, and uniquely well-
arranged verses such as “In a Station of the Metro” (1913). His poem is unique because the pattern is
totally different from conventional poems. He was known for his imagist poems. An imagist poem
portrays something such as conditions, images, etc. by using common words. It is usually simple and
clear. The poem “In a Station of the Metro”, he only used 14 words to portray a situation of a station.
In a Station of the Metro
(Ezra Pound)

The apparition of these faces in the crowd:

Petals on a wet, black bough.
Another important poet in the period was T. S. Elliot. As a literary critic, he was known for his
formula about “correlative objective” which he applied in poem “The Sacred Wood” as a means of
expressing emotion through a set of objects, situations, and events which would become an certain
emotion formula. This formula was also found in his poem “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”
(1915), “The Waste Land” (1930), and “Four Quartets” (1943). In 1917, he wrote an imagist poem
“Morning at the Window”.

Morning at the Window

(T.S. Elliot)

They are rattling breakfast plates in basement kitchen,

And along the trampled edges of the street
I am aware of the damp souls of housemaids

22
 Sprouting despondently at area gates.

The brown waves of fog toss up to me

Twisted faces from the bottom of the street,
And tear from a passer-by with muddy skirts
An aimless smile that hovers in the air
And Vanishes along the level of the roofs.

The era of Modernism also included the name Robert Frost. He was famous for his writing on
traditional moments which aroused nostalgia. He used universal subjects in his literary works. He used
beautiful rhymes to attract readers.

Most of his poems are simple but they contain deep meaning such as “The Road Not Taken”
(1916) “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” (1923), “Nothing Gold Can Stay” (1923), etc.
1
The Road Not Taken
Robert Frost
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler. Long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth:

Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear,
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,

And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I –
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.

2
Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening
Robert Frost

Whose woods these are I think I know.

His house is in the village though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.

My little horse must think it queer

To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.

He gives his harness bells a shake

To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sound‟s the sweep
 Of easy wind and downy flake.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.

3.5. Some Well-known Poems from American Poets

Students who study poems need to know poems written by American classic poets. The
following poems were purposely gathered to show the various kinds of American poems.

To My Dear and Loving Husband

(1678)
Anne Bradstreet

If ever two were one, then surely we.

If ever man were lov‟d by wife, then thee;
If ever wife was happy in a man,
Compare with me ye women if you can.
I prize thy love more than whole Mines of Gold,
Or all the riches that the East doth hold.
My love is such that Rivers cannot quench,
Nor ought but love from thee, give
Recompence.

Thy love is such I can no way repay,

The heavens reward thee manifold I pray.
Then while we live, in love lets so persevere,
That when we live no more, we may live ever.

--

A Noiseless Patient Spider

(1891)
Walt Whitman

A noiseless patient spider,

I mark‟d where on a little promontory it stood isolated,

Mark‟d how to explore the vacant vast surrounding,

It launch‟d forth filament, filament, filament, out of itself,
Ever unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them.

And you O my soul where you stand,

Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space,
Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the sphere to connect them,
Till the bridge you will need be form‟d, till the ductile anchor hold,
Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul.

--

A Bird, Came Down the Walk

(1891)
Emily Dickinson

A Bird, came down the Walk-

He did not know I saw-
He bit and Angle Worm in halves

24
 And ate the fellow, raw,

And then, he drank a Dew

From, a convenient Grass-
And then hopped sidewise to the Wall
To let a Beetle pass-

He glanced with rapid eyes,

That hurried all abroad-
They looked like frightened Beads, I thought,
He stirred his Velvet Head.

Like one in danger, Cautious,

I offered him a Crumb,
And he unrolled his feathers,
And rowed him softer Home-

Than Oars divide the Ocean,

Too silver for a seam,
Or Butterflies, off Banks of Noon,
Leap, plashless as they swim.

--

A Dream Within a Dream

(1849)
Edgar Allan Poe

Take this kiss upon the brow!

And, in parting from you now,
Thus much let me avow-
You are not wrong, who deem
That my days have been a dream;
Yet if hope has flown away
In a night, or in a day,
In a vision, or in none,
Is it therefore the less gone?
All that we see or seem
Is but a dream within a dream.

I stand amid the roar

Of a surf-tormented shore,
And I hold within my hand
Grains of the golden sand-
How few! Yet how they creep
Through my fingers to the deep,
While I weep – while I weep!
O God! Can I not save

One from the pitiless wave?

Is all that we see or seem
But a dream within a dream>

--
 The Weary Blues
(1925)
Langston Hughes

Droning a drowsy syncopated tune,

Rocking back and forth to a mellow croon,
I heard a Negro play.
Down on Lenox Avenue the other night
By the pale dull pallor of an old gas light
He did a lazy sway ....
He did a lazy sway ....
To the tune o‟ those Weary Blues.
With his ebony hands on each ivory key
He made that poor piano moan with melody.
O Blues!
Swaying to and fro on his rickety stool
He played that sad raggy tune like a musical fool.
Sweet Blues!
Coming from a black man‟s soul.
O blues!
In a deep song voice with a melancholy tone
I heard that Negro sing, that old piano moan

“Ain‟t got nobody in all this world,

Ain‟t got nobody but ma self,
I‟s gwine to quit ma frownin‟
And put ma troubles on the shelf.”

Thump, thump, thump, went his foot on the floor.

He played a few chords then he sang some more-
“I got the Weary Blues
And I can‟t be satisfied.
Got the Weary Blues
And can‟t be satisfied-
I ain‟t happy no no‟
And I wish that I had died.”
And far into the night the crooned that tune.
The stars went out and so did the moon.
The singer stopped playing and went to bed
While the Weary Blues echoed through his head.

--

Lady Lazarus
(1965)
Sylvia Plath

I have done it again.

One year in every ten
I manage it –

A sort of walking miracle, my skin

Bright as a Nazi Lampshade,
My right foot

A paperweight,
My face a featureless, fine
Jew linen.

26
 Peel off the napkin
O my enemy.
Do I terrify? –

The nose, the eye pits, the full set of teeth?

The sour breath
Will vanish in a day.

Soon, soon the flesh

The grave cave ate will be
At home on me

And I a smiling woman.

I am only thirty.
And like the cat I have nine times to die.

This is Number Three.

What a trash
To annihilate each decade.

What a million filaments.

The peanut-crunching crowd
Shoves in to see

Them unwrap me hand and foot –

The big strip tease.
Gentlemen, ladies

These are my hands

My knees.
I may be skin and bone,

Nevertheless, I am the same, identical woman.

The first time it happened I was ten.
It was an accident.

The second time I meant

To last it out and not come back at all.
I rocked shut

As a seashell.
They had to call and call
And pick the worms off me like the sticky pearls.

Dying
Is an art, like everything else.
I do it exceptionally well.

I do it so it feels like hell.

I do it so it feels real.
I guess you could say I‟ve a call.

It‟s easy enough to do it in a cell.

It‟s easy enough to do it and stay put.
It‟s the theatrical

Comeback in broad day

To the same place, the same face, the same brute
Amused shout:
 „A mircale!‟
That knocks me out.
There is a change

For the eyeing of my scars, there is a charge

For the hearing of my heart –
It really goes

And there is a charge, a very large charge

For a word or a touch
Or a bit of blood

Or a piece of my hair on my clothes.

So, so, Herr Doktor.
So, Herr enemy.

I am your opus,
I am your valuable,
The pure gold baby

That melts to a shriek.

I turn and burn.
Do not think I underestimate your great concern.

Ash, ash –
You poke and stir.
Flesh, bone, there is nothing there –

A cake of soap,
A wedding ring,
A gold filling.

Herr God, Herr Lucifer

Beware
Beware.

Out of the ash

I rise with my red hair
And I eat men like air.
--

Fire and Ice

(1920)
Robert Frost

Some say that the world will end in fire

Some say in ice.
From what I‟ve tasted of desire
I hold with those who favor fire.
But if it had to perish twice,
I think I know enough of hate
To say that for destruction ice
Is also great
And would suffice.
--

28
 To Her Father with Some Verse
(1678)
Anne Bradstreet

Most truly honoured, and as truly dear,

If worth in me or ought I do appear,
Who can of right better demand the same
Than may your worthy self from whom it came?
The principal might yield a greater sum,
Yet handled ill, amounts but to this crumb;
My stock‟s so small I know not how to pay,
My bond remains in force unto this day;

Yet for part payment take this simple mite,

Where nothing‟s to be had, kings loose their right.

Such is my debt I may not say forgive,

But as I can, I‟ll pay it while I live;
Such is my bond, none can discharge but I,
Yet paying is not paid until I die.

--

The Slave Auction

(1854)
Frances Ellen Watkins Harper

The sale began – young girls were there,

Defenceless in the wretchedness,

Whose stifled sobs of deep despair

Revealed their anguish and distress.

And mothers stood with streaming eyes,

And saw their dearest children sold;
Unheeded rose their bitter cries,
While tyrants bartered them for gold.

And woman, with her love and truth –

For these in sable forms may dwell –
Gaz‟ on the husband of her youth,
With anguish none may paint or tell.

And men, whose sole crime was their hue,

The impress of their Maker‟s hand,
And frail and shrinking children, too,
Were gathered in that mournful band,

Ye who have laid your love to rest,

And wept above their lifeless clay,
Know not the anguish of that breast,
Whose lov‟d are rudely torn away.

Ye may not know how desolate

Are bosoms rudely forced to part,
And how a dull and heavy weight
Will press the life-drops from the heart.

--
 The Children’s Hour
(1860)
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Between the dark and daylight,

When the night is beginning to lower,
Comes a pause in the day‟s occupations,
That is known as the Children‟s Hour.

I hear in the chamber above me

The patter of little fact,
The sound of a door that is opened,
And voices soft and sweet.

From my study I see in the lamplight,

Descending the broad hall stair,
Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra,
And Edith with golden hair.

A whisper, and then a silence:

Yet I know by their merry eyes
They are plotting and planning together
To take me by surprise.

A sudden rush from the stairway,

A sudden raid from the hall!
By three doors left unguarded
They enter my castle wall!

They climb up into my turret

O‟er the arms and back of my chair;
If I think of the Bishop of Bingen
In his Mouse-Tower on the Rhine!

Do you think, O blue-eyed banditti,

Because you have scaled the wall,
Such an old mustache as I am
Is not a match for you all!

I have you fast in my fortress,

And will not let you depart,
But put you down into the dungeon
In the round-tower of my heart.

And there will I keep you forever,

Yes, forever and a day,
Till the walls shall crumble to ruin,
And moulder in dust away!
--

Nothing Gold Can Stay

(1923)
Robert Frost

Nature‟s first green is gold,

Her hardest hue to hold.
Her early leaf‟s a flower;
But only so an hour.
Then leaf subsides to leaf.
So Eden sank to grief,

30
 So dawn goes down to day.
Nothing gold can stay.

--

To a Waterfowl
(1818)
William Cullen Bryant

Whither, „midst falling dew,

While glow the heavens with the last steps of day,
Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue
Thy solitary way?

Vainly the fowler‟s eye

Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong,
As, darkly painted on the crimson sky,
Thy figure floats along.

Seek‟st thou the plashy brink

Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide,
Or where the rocking billows rise and sink
On the chafed ocean side?

There is a Power whose care

Teachers thy way along that pathless coast,--
The desert and illimitable air, --
Lone wandering, but not lost.

All day thy wings have fanned,

At that far height, the cold, thin atmosphere,
Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land,
Though the dark night is near.

And soon that toil shall end;

Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and rest,
And scream among thy fellow; reeds shall bend,
Soon, o‟er thy sheltered nest.

Thou‟rt gone, the abyss of heaven

Hath swallowed up thy form; yet, on my heart
Deeply hath sunk the lesson thou has given,
And shall not soon depart.

He who, from zone to zone,

Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,
In the long way that I must tread alone,
Will lead my steps aright.

--

Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town

(1940)
E. E. Cummings

anyone lived in a pretty how town

(with up so so floating many bells down)
spring summer autumn winter
he sang his didn‟t he danced his did.
 Women and men (both little and small)
cared for anyone not at all
they sowed their isn‟t they reaped their same
sun moon stars rain

children guessed (but only a few

and down they forgot as up they grew
autumn winter spring summer)
that no one loved him more by more

when by now and tree by leaf

she laughed his joy she cried his grief
bird by snow and stir by still
anyone‟s any was all to her

someones married their everyones

laughed their cryings and did their dance
(sleep wake hope and then) they
Said their nerves they slept their dream

stars rain sun moon

(and only the snow can begin to explain
how children are apt to forgot to remember
with up so floating many bells down)

one day anyone died I guess

(and no one stooped to kiss his face)
busy folk buried them side by side
little by little and was by was

all by all and deep by deep

and more by more they dream their sleep
noone and anyone earth by april
wish by spirit and if by yes.

Women and men (both dong and ding)

Summer autumn winter spring
Reaped their sowing and went their came
Sun moon stars rain
--

Still I Rise
(1978)
Maya Angelou

You may write me down in history

With your bitter, twisted lies,
You may trod me in the very dirt
But still. Like dust, I‟ll rise.
Does my sassiness upset you?
Why are you beset with gloom?
„Cause I walk like I‟ve got oil wells
Pumping in my living room.

Just like moons and like suns,

With the certainty of tides,
Just like hopes springing high,
Still I‟ll rise.

32
 Did you want to see me broken?
Bowed head and lowered eyes?
Shoulders falling down like teardrops,
Weakened by my soulful cries?

Does my haughtiness offend you?

Don‟t you take it awful hard
„Cause I laugh like I‟ve got gold mines
Diggin‟ in my own backyard.

You may shoot me with your words,

You may cut me with your eyes,
You may kill me with your hatefulness,
But still, like air, I‟ll rise.

Does my sexiness upset you?

Does it come as a surprise
That I dance like I‟ve got diamonds
At the meeting of my thighs?

Out of the huts of history‟s shame

I rise
Into a daybreak that‟s a wondrously clear
I rise
Bringing the gifts that my ancestors gave,
I am the dream and the hope of the slave
I rise
I rise
I rise.

--

3.6. American Poets

Students who study American literature must know that many classical poets from America
were influenced by English poets. Here is the list of some famous poets from American:
Name Poems
Allen Ginsberg “Howl”, “America”, “A Supermarket in
California”, “Sunflower Sutra”
Anne Bradstreet “Upon the Burning of Our House July 10th,
1666”, “To My Dear and Loving Husband”, “The
Prologue”, “A Letter to Her Husband, Absent
upon Public Employment”

Edgar Allan Poe “Alone”, “The Bells”, “The Raven”, “Spirit of

the Death”, “The city in the Sea”
E. E. Cummings “Sunset”, “Anyone Lived in a Pretty How
Town”, “I Carry Your Heart with Me”
Emily Dickinson “Because I Could Not Stop for Death”, “I‟m
Nobody! Who Are You?”, “A Bird Came Down
the Walk”, “Hope is the Thing with Feathers”, “If
I Should Die”
Ezra Pound “In a Station of the Metro”, “The Return”, “Hugh
Selwyn Mauberley”
Frances Ellen Watkins Harper “Songs for the People”, “The Slave Mother”,
“Bury me in a Free Land”
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow “A Psalm of Life”, “The Day is Done”, “The
Song of Hiawatha” “The Wreck of the
 Hesperus”, “The Village Blacksmith”
Langston Hughes “The Weary Blues”, “The Negro Speaks of
Rivers”, “I, Too”
Maya Angelou “On the Pulse of Morning”, “Still I Rise”

Walt Whitman “O Captain! My Captain!”, “I Sing the Body

Electric”, “I Hear America Singing”, “A
Noiseless Patient Spider”
William Cullen Bryant “Thanatopsis”, “To a Waterfowl”, “The
Embargo”
Phillis Wheatley “On Being Brought from Africa to America”,
“To his Excellency General Washington”, “To
the University of Cambridge, in New England”
Robert Frost “The road no Taken”, “Stopping by Woods on a
Snowy Evening”, “Mending Wall”, “Nothing
Gold can Stay”
Slyvia Plath “Daddy”, “Lady Lazarus”, “Tulips”
T. S. Elliot “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”, “The
Waste Land”, “Ash Wednesday”, “The Hollow
Men”

34
 IV
LITERARY THEORIES

Many students who study literature may find it difficult to use literary theories. This is
because they find it difficult to understand what theory is. This part discusses the kinds of common
theories used in analyzing literary works. Since they are frequently used for literary criticism, they
may also be called as literary theories. Shannon (2002:60) explains people who interpret literary text
may have their own theory of literature even if many of the theories they have are not academically
publicized. So, what is the function of literary theory? (Selden, 1985:2) More researches, academic
seminars and articles that keep developing have a great impact on the the way we understand and
interpret. In other words, the rapid growth of science and technology has brought an impact to the
development of literary theory.

Furthermore, a theory is required to figure out how far literature may impact or work more if
one starts observing and learning literary works and it may also be known as literary criticism
(Shannon: 2002:60). For example, a college student who learns how to analyze a poem, needs to know
what kind of theory he or she uses. By this way, he or she can obtain a more specific (detailed) result.
However, many students have not yet understood well about literary theories.

Discussion on literature always includes four important elements in literature. They are
author, literary works, reader, and society. Each item is named differently by literary scholars, for
instance, some of them use „addresser‟, „writer‟ or „creator‟ to refer to author; the terms „literary text‟,
„work‟, „writing‟ to refer to literary works; the terms „audience‟ and „addressee‟ to refer to reader;
and they use the term „reality‟ to refer society (social life). Look at the following table to know the
classification
⦁ author‟s feeling (emotion), ⦁ reader‟s point of view (perspective)
⦁ author‟s point of view ⦁ reader‟s response
⦁ the form literary works ⦁ social condition (context)
⦁ the text itself (without any aspects out of the ⦁ social practices
text ⦁ social needs
⦁ reality in society

These items have a strong impact on the emergence of literary theories.

4.1. Author’s Point of View

In order to analyze literary work, one can see it from the author‟s side. This means that
author as the creator plays an important role because he or she includes his or her thoughts and
feelings (Zulfahnur, 2014:14). In other words, he or she expresses what he or she thinks and feels in
his or her literary works. Since it is related to the expression of emotions (feelings), literary scholars
commonly relate this to expressive theory (expressive criticism). It is an old theory which has been
widely applied when people analyze literary works. It focuses on how the literary works are created
by the author who is the main essential point.

According to Selden (1985:4) one may use “romantic theories” to analyze (interpret) a
literary text in order to know author‟s thoughts and feelings. This theory also concentrates on the role
of emotional expressions, author‟s imagination as well as the beauty of nature expressed by the
author.

Expressive Theory
author's life
Romantic Theory
(feelings and ideas) Author -oriented Theory

Since research, science, and knowledge keep progressing, literary theory also develop from time to
time. However, „Expressive theory‟, „Romantic Theory‟ or „Author-oriented Theory‟ contribute to
the growth of literary theories.

4.2. Literary Works (Literary Text)

Another common theory that literary scholars apply is the theory based on the literary works
(text). The text itself is the most important point. Literary works It is known as „Formalist Theory‟ or
„Formalist Criticism‟ (formalism). Since it concentrates on the literary text, language of the literary
works becomes the primary focus (Selden, 1985:7; Shannon, 2002: 61). It includes the use of words
(diction), the phrase, sentences, sounds, etc. So, the language used in literary works is special and
different from the language used in daily conversations. In other words, the uniqueness of literature
lies in the form itself – the language.

literary works /text Formalist Theory

(the language) (Formalist Criticism)
Other aspects out of the literary text may not be included. This kind of theory is mostly used in
analyzing poetry.

4.3. Reader’s Point of View

Literary scholars also include reader‟s perspective in criticism. It is known as „Reader‟s

Response Theory‟ or „Reader‟s Oriented Theory‟. Its name tells that „reader‟ has the most essential
point in this theory. Reader‟s ideas, background, and experiences are significant to include in this
theory (Shannon, 2002: 63-64). This theory emphasizes the importance of reader‟s interpretation in
literary text (Adi, 2011: 177). Therefore, every reader may insert his or her own interpretation
relevant to the literary text.

Reader-Response Theory
reader's perspective
Reader-oriented Theory
(the response of readers) Reader-Response Criticism

By this way, readers may create the meaning from the literary text they read (Selden, 1985:108)

4.4. Sociological and Historical Perspectives

Another frequently used theory to interpret literary works is by observing aspects out the
authors, literary text, and readers. It is often called „sociological criticism‟. Some literary scholars
believe that literary works are created based on the needs of society, in other words, this theory sees
the impact of social communities (people in society) towards literary works (Shannon, 2002: 61-62;

36
Adi, 2011: 227). This means, people should think that literature (literary works) is produced by
society and it shows social phenomena and situations. It shows reality in society and this may include
the historical experience of society.

One of the most common theories in this context is „Marxist Criticism‟. The most significant
aspect in this theory is society and history (Selden, 2002:4).

social condition Marxist Theory

(society and history) Sociological Criticism

So, literary works, based on Marxist theory is influenced by people and social phenomena (Shannon,
2002: 62) for example, social status, social conflicts, etc.

Apart from the four common theories used in analyzing literary works, there are still some
other theories which may be applied. It is important to note that nowadays, many people have started
using theories from different kinds of disciplines such as psychological theories, cultural theories,
gender theories, etc. which are relevant and helpful in interpreting literary works. This condition
shows that many scholars, especially from humanities and cultural studies believe that most cultural
and social phenomena may be studied by using several kinds of theories (knowledge) from different
kinds of disciplines. This is known as „multi-discipline‟.

Literary studies is also a multi-disciplinary studies. Many researchers have seen the necessity
of multi-disciplinary way to analyze literary works. Currently, there are many multi-disciplinary study
programs such as Media Studies, Gender Studies, American Studies, Cultural and Literary Studies,
etc.
 V
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