9/26/2020 Earth - Wikipedia

Earth
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Earth is the third planet from the Sun and

the only astronomical object known to Earth
harbor life. According to radiometric
dating estimation and other evidence, Earth
formed over 4.5 billion years ago. Earth's
gravity interacts with other objects in
space, especially the Sun and the Moon,
which is Earth's only natural satellite. Earth
orbits around the Sun in about 365.25 days.

Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect

to its orbital plane, producing seasons on
Earth. The gravitational interaction
between Earth and the Moon causes tides,
stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis,
and gradually slows its rotation. Earth is The Blue Marble, the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken
the densest planet in the Solar System and by Apollo 17 astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
the largest and most massive of the four
Designations
rocky planets.
Alternative Gaia, Gaea, Terra, Tellus, the World, the Globe
Earth's outer layer (lithosphere) is divided names
into several rigid tectonic plates that Adjectives Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
migrate across the surface over many
millions of years. About 29% of Earth's Orbital characteristics
surface is land consisting of continents and
Epoch J2000[n 1]
islands. The remaining 71% is covered
with water, mostly by oceans but also Aphelion 152 100 000 km[n 2]
lakes, rivers and other fresh water, which (94 500 000 mi)
all together constitute the hydrosphere. The
majority of Earth's polar regions are Perihelion 147 095 000 km[n 2]
covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice (91 401 000 mi)
sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack.
Earth's interior remains active with a solid Semi-major 149 598 023 km[1]
iron inner core, a liquid outer core that axis
(92 955 902 mi)
generates Earth's magnetic field, and a
convecting mantle that drives plate Eccentricity 0.016 7086[1]
tectonics. Orbital period 365.256 363 004 d[2]
Within the first billion years of Earth's (31 558 149.7635 s)
history, life appeared in the oceans and Average orbital 29.78 km/s[3]
began to affect Earth's atmosphere and speed
(107 200 km/h; 66 600 mph)
surface, leading to the proliferation of
anaerobic and, later, aerobic organisms. Mean anomaly 358.617°
Some geological evidence indicates that
life may have arisen as early as 4.1 billion Inclination 7.155° to the Sun's equator;

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years ago. Since then, the combination of 1.578 69°[4] to invariable plane;
Earth's distance from the Sun, physical
0.000 05° to J2000 ecliptic
properties and geological history have
allowed life to evolve and thrive. In the Longitude of −11.260 64°[3] to J2000 ecliptic
history of life on Earth, biodiversity has ascending node
gone through long periods of expansion, Time of 2021-Jan-02 13:59[5]
occasionally punctuated by mass perihelion
extinctions. Over 99% of all species that
Argument of 114.207 83°[3]
ever lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates perihelion
of the number of species on Earth today
vary widely; most species have not been Satellites 1 natural satellite: the Moon
described. Almost 8 billion humans live on 5 quasi-satellites
Earth and depend on its biosphere and >1 800 operational artificial satellites[6]
natural resources for their survival.
>16 000 space debris[n 3]

Contents Physical characteristics

Mean radius 6 371.0 km (3 958.8 mi)[7]
1 Etymology
Equatorial 6 378.1 km (3 963.2 mi)[8][9]
2 Chronology
radius
2.1 Formation
2.2 Geological history Polar radius 6 356.8 km (3 949.9 mi)[10]
2.3 Origin of life and
Flattening 0.003 3528[11]
evolution
2.4 Future 1/298.257 222 101 (ETRS89)
3 Physical characteristics Circumference
3.1 Shape 40 075.017 km equatorial (24 901.461 mi)[9]
3.2 Chemical composition 40 007.86 km meridional (24 859.73 mi)[12][n 4]
3.3 Internal structure
Surface area 510 072 000 km2 (196 940 000 sq mi)[13][14][n 5]
3.4 Heat
3.5 Tectonic plates 148 940 000 km2 land (57 510 000 sq mi; 29.2%)
3.6 Surface
3.7 Hydrosphere 361 132 000 km2 water (139 434 000 sq mi; 70.8%)
3.8 Atmosphere Volume 1.083 21 × 1012 km3 (2.598 76 × 1011 cu mi)[3]
3.9 Gravitational field
3.10 Magnetic field Mass 5.972 37 × 1024 kg (1.316 68 × 1025 lb)[15]
4 Orbit and rotation
(3.0 × 10−6 M☉)
4.1 Rotation
4.2 Orbit Mean density 5.514 g/cm3 (0.1992 lb/cu in)[3]
4.3 Axial tilt and seasons
5 Habitability Surface gravity 9.806 65 m/s2 (1 g; 32.1740 ft/s2)[16]
5.1 Biosphere
5.2 Natural resources and land Moment of 0.3307[17]
inertia factor
use
5.3 Natural and environmental Escape velocity 11.186 km/s[3]
hazards (40 270 km/h; 25 020 mph)
6 Human geography
7 Moon Sidereal 0.997 269 68 d[18]
8 Asteroids and artificial satellites rotation period (23h 56m 4.100s)
9 Cultural and historical viewpoint Equatorial 0.4651 km/s[19]
10 See also rotation velocity
11 Notes (1 674.4 km/h; 1 040.4 mph)
12 References Axial tilt 23.439 2811°[2]
13 Further reading
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14 External links Albedo 0.367 geometric[3]

0.306 Bond[3]
Etymology Surface temp. min mean max
Kelvin 184 K[20]
287.16 K[21]
(1961–1990) 330 K[22]
The modern English word Earth
Celsius −89.2 °C 14.0 °C (1961–1990) 56.7 °C
developed, via Middle English,[n 6] from Fahrenheit −128.5 °F 57.2 °F (1961–1990) 134.0 °F
an Old English noun most often spelled
Atmosphere
eorðe.[24] It has cognates in every
Germanic language, and their ancestral Surface 101.325 kPa (at MSL)
root has been reconstructed as *erþō. In its pressure
earliest attestation, the word eorðe was Composition by 78.08% nitrogen (N2; dry air)[3]
already being used to translate the many volume
senses of Latin terra and Greek γῆ gē: the 20.95% oxygen (O2)
ground,[n 7] its soil,[n 8] dry land,[n 9] the ~ 1% water vapor (climate variable)
human world,[n 10] the surface of the world 0.9340% argon
(including the sea),[n 11] and the globe 0.0408% carbon dioxide[23]
itself.[n 12] As with Roman Terra/Tellūs 0.00182% neon[3]
and Greek Gaia, Earth may have been a
0.00052% helium
personified goddess in Germanic
paganism: late Norse mythology included 0.00017% methane
Jörð ('Earth'), a giantess often given as the 0.00011% krypton
mother of Thor.[33] 0.00006% hydrogen

Historically, earth has been written in lowercase. From early Middle English, its definite sense as "the globe"
was expressed as the earth. By Early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the earth was also
written the Earth, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is
sometimes simply given as Earth, by analogy with the names of the other planets, though earth and forms with
the remain common.[24] House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most
common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when
appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the (e.g. "the
atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth
are you doing?"[34]

Occasionally, the name Terra /ˈtɛrə/ is used in scientific writing and especially in science fiction to distinguish
our inhabited planet from others,[35] while in poetry Tellus /ˈtɛləs/ has been used to denote personification of the
Earth.[36] The Greek poetic name Gaea (Gæa) /ˈdʒiːə/ is rare, though the alternative spelling Gaia has become
common due to the Gaia hypothesis, in which case its pronunciation is /ˈɡaɪə/ rather than the more Classical
/ˈɡeɪə/.[37]

There are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth. From Earth itself comes earthly. From Latin Terra come
Terran /ˈtɛrən/,[38] Terrestrial /təˈrɛstriəl/,[39] and (via French) Terrene /təˈriːn/,[40] and from Latin Tellus come
Tellurian /tɛˈlʊəriən/[41] and, more rarely, Telluric and Tellural. From Greek Gaia and Gaea comes Gaian and
Gaean.

Chronology
Formation

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Artist's impression of the early

Solar System's planetary disk

The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5672 ± 0.0006 Ga (billion years) ago.[42] By
4.54 ± 0.04 Ga[43] the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved with the
Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which
begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A
nebula contains gas, ice grains, and dust (including primordial nuclides). According to nebular theory,
planetesimals formed by accretion, with the primordial Earth taking 10–20 million years (Mys) to form.[44]

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Ga.[45] A leading hypothesis is that it was formed
by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object, named Theia, hit Earth.[46] In this view,
the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;[47] it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its
mass merged with Earth.[48] Between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 Ga, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late
Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by
inference, to that of Earth.

Geological history

Hoodoos at the Bryce Canyon

National Park, Utah

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing.[49] Water vapor from these
sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets.[50] In
this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only
70% of its current luminosity.[51] By 3.5 Ga, Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the
atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.[52]

However, more recently, in August 2020, researchers reported that sufficient water to fill the oceans may have
always been on the Earth since the beginning of the planet's formation.[53][54][55]

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled to form a solid. The two models[56] that explain land
mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms[57] or, more likely, a rapid growth[58] early in
Earth history[59] followed by a long-term steady continental area.[60][61][62] Continents formed by plate
tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over the period of
hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have assembled and broken apart. Roughly 750 Ma (million

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years) ago, one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later
recombined to form Pannotia 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart 180 Ma.[63]

The pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma,[64] and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma.[65] High-
latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every
40,000–100,000 years. The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago.[66]

Origin of life and evolution

Life timeline
Ice Ages
0—
Quaternary Flowers Primates←Earliest apes
P Birds
Mammals
–h Plants Dinosaurs
Karoo a ←Tetrapoda
Andean
-500 — n Arthropod Mollus ←Cambrian
e
r
Cryogenian explosion
–o ←Earliest animals
Phylogenetic tree of life on Earth ←Earliest plants
z Multicellular
based on rRNA analysis -1000 — o
i life
Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating –c ←Sexual
reproduction
molecules about four billion years ago. A half
billion years later, the last common ancestor of all -1500 — P
current life arose.[67] The evolution of –o
r
photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be Eukaryotes
t
harvested directly by life forms. The resultant -2000 — e
molecular oxygen (O2) accumulated in the r
o
Huronian– z
atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet ←Oxygen crisis
solar radiation, formed a protective ozone layer (O3) -2500 — i
o ←Atmospheric
oxygen
in the upper atmosphere.[68] The incorporation of c
– Photosynthesis
smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the
Pongola
development of complex cells called eukaryotes.[69] -3000 —
True multicellular organisms formed as cells within A
colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by –r
the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by c
h
the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.[70] -3500 — e ←Earliest oxygen
Among the earliest fossil evidence for life is a Single-celled
–n life
microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old
sandstone in Western Australia,[71] biogenic -4000 — ←Earliest life
graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old H
–a Water
metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland,[72] d
and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion- e ←Earliest water
-4500 — a ←Earth (−4540)
year-old rocks in Western Australia.[73][74] The (million nyears ago)
earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained
in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing
fossils of microorganisms.[75][76]

During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 541 Ma, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has
been termed "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when
multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.[77] Following the Cambrian explosion, 535 Ma,
there have been five mass extinctions.[78] The most recent such event was 66 Ma, when an asteroid impact
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triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such
as mammals, which at the time resembled shrews. Mammalian life has diversified over the past 66 Mys, and
several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as Orrorin tugenensis gained the ability to stand
upright.[79] This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation
needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of humans. The development of agriculture, and then
civilization, led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that
continues to this day.[80]

Future
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity will
increase by 10%, and over the next 3.5 billion years by 40%.[81] Earth's increasing surface temperature will
accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle, reducing CO2 concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm for
C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100–900 million years.[82][83] The lack of vegetation will result in the loss
of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.[84] About a billion years from now, all surface
water will have disappeared[85] and the mean global temperature will reach 70 °C (158 °F).[84] Earth is expected
to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about 500 million years from now,[82] but if nitrogen is removed
from the atmosphere, life may continue until a runaway greenhouse effect occurs 2.3 billion years from now.[83]
Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.
[86] Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle in

one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.[87]

The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models predict that the Sun will expand to
roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi), about 250 times its present radius.[81][88] Earth's fate is less clear.
As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit
1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not
all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present
level).[81] A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to tidal effects and drag,
causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized.[88]

Physical characteristics
Shape

The summit of Chimborazo, the

point on the Earth's surface that is
farthest from the Earth's center[89]
[90]

The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and bulging around the equator
due to Earth's rotation.[91] To second order, Earth is approximately an oblate spheroid, whose equatorial

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diameter is 43 kilometres (27 mi) larger than the pole-to-pole diameter,[92] although the variation is less than 1%
of the average radius of the Earth.

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's center of mass is the summit of the equatorial Chimborazo volcano
in Ecuador (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi).[93][94][95][96] The average diameter of the reference spheroid is 12,742
kilometres (7,918 mi). Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these
deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the Mariana Trench
(10,911 metres or 35,797 feet below local sea level), whereas Mount Everest (8,848 metres or 29,029 feet above
local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.[n 13]

In geodesy, the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as
tides and winds is called the geoid. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at mean
sea level.

Chemical composition

Earth's mass is approximately 5.97 × 1024 kg (5,970 Chemical composition of the crust[98][99]
Yg). It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen Composition
(30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulphur Compound Formula
Continental Oceanic
(2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminum
(1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace silica SiO2 60.6% 48.6%
amounts of other elements. Due to mass segregation, alumina Al2O3 15.9% 16.5%
the core region is estimated to be primarily composed
lime CaO 6.41% 12.3%
of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%),
magnesia MgO 4.66% 6.8%
sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.[100]
iron oxide FeOT 6.71% 6.2%
The most common rock constituents of the crust are
sodium oxide Na2O 3.07% 2.6%
nearly all oxides: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the
important exceptions to this and their total amount in potassium oxide K2O 1.81% 0.4%
any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of titanium dioxide 0.72% 1.4%
the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, TiO2
alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda. phosphorus pentoxide P2O5 0.13% 0.3%
[101][100][102]
manganese oxide MnO 0.10% 1.4%
Total 100.1% 99.9%
Internal structure

Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical
(rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a
highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity. The
thickness of the crust varies from about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) under the oceans to 30–50 km (19–31 mi) for the
continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it
is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a
relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the
mantle occur at 410 and 660 km (250 and 410 mi) below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates
the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid
inner core.[103] Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the
planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.[104] The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.
Density increases with depth, as described in the table below.

Geologic layers of Earth[105]

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Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.

Depth[106] Component layer Density
km g/cm3
0–60 Lithosphere[n 14] —
0–35 Crust[n 15] 2.2–2.9
35–660 Upper mantle 3.4–4.4
660-2890 Lower Mantle 3.4–5.6
100–700 Asthenosphere —
2890–5100 Outer core 9.9–12.2
5100–6378 Inner core 12.8–13.1

Heat
Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat
produced through radioactive decay (80%).[107] The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-
40, uranium-238, and thorium-232.[108] At the center, the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C (10,830 °F),[109]
and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (52 million psi).[110] Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive
decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's
heat production was much higher. At approximately 3 Gyr, twice the present-day heat would have been
produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of
uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today.[107][111]

Present-day major heat-producing isotopes[112]

Heat release Half-life Mean mantle concentration Heat release
Isotope W kg isotope W
kg isotope years kg mantle kg mantle
238U 94.6 × 10−6 4.47 × 109 30.8 × 10−9 2.91 × 10−12
235U 569 × 10−6 0.704 × 109 0.22 × 10−9 0.125 × 10−12
232Th 26.4 × 10−6 14.0 × 109 124 × 10−9 3.27 × 10−12
40K 29.2 × 10−6 1.25 × 109 36.9 × 10−9 1.08 × 10−12

The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW m−2, for a global heat loss of 4.42 × 1013 W.[113] A portion of the
core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of
upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts.[114] More of the
heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final
major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the
oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.[115]

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Tectonic plates

Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into Earth's major plates[116]
tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each
other at one of three boundaries types: At convergent boundaries, two
plates come together; at divergent boundaries, two plates are pulled apart;
and at transform boundaries, two plates slide past one another laterally.
Along these plate boundaries, earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-
building, and oceanic trench formation can occur.[117] The tectonic plates
ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the
upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.[118]
Area
Plate name
106 km2
Pacific Plate 103.3
African Plate[n 16] 78.0
North American Plate 75.9
Eurasian Plate 67.8
Mountains build up when tectonic
plates move toward each other, Antarctic Plate 60.9
forcing rock up. The highest
mountain on Earth above sea level Indo-Australian Plate 47.2
is Mount Everest.
South American Plate 43.6
As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading
edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent
boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the oceanic crust back into
the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old. The oldest oceanic crust is
located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be 200 Ma old.[119][120] By comparison, the oldest dated
continental crust is 4,030 Ma.[121]

The seven major plates are the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, and
South American. Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the
west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused
with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 Ma. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos
Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/a (3.0 in/year)[122] and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/a (2.0–
2.7 in/year). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of
21 mm/a (0.83 in/year).[123]

Surface

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Current Earth without water,

elevation greatly exaggerated
(click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).

The total surface area of Earth is about 510 million km2 (197 million sq mi).[13] Of this, 70.8%,[13] or
361.13 million km2 (139.43 million sq mi), is below sea level and covered by ocean water.[124] Below the
ocean's surface are much of the continental shelf, mountains, volcanoes,[92] oceanic trenches, submarine
canyons, oceanic plateaus, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%,
or 148.94 million km2 (57.51 million sq mi), not covered by water has terrain that varies greatly from place to
place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. Tectonics and erosion, volcanic
eruptions, flooding, weathering, glaciation, the growth of coral reefs, and meteorite impacts are among the
processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over geological time.[125][126]

Present-day Earth altimetry and

bathymetry. Data from the
National Geophysical Data
Center.

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite. Less
common is basalt, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.[127] Sedimentary
rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and compacted together. Nearly 75% of
the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.[128] The
third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock, which is created from the transformation of pre-
existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant silicate minerals on
Earth's surface include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine.[129] Common carbonate
minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and dolomite.[130]

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to a
maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is
about 797 m (2,615 ft).[131]

The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil
formation processes. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.
[132][133] Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated 16.7 million km2

(6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.[134]

Hydrosphere

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Elevation histogram of Earth's

surface

The abundance of water on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other
planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water
surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m
(6,600 ft). The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with
a depth of 10,911.4 m (35,799 ft).[n 17][135]

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 × 1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The
oceans cover an area of 361.8 million km2 (139.7 million sq mi) with a mean depth of 3,682 m (12,080 ft),
resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332 billion km3 (320 million cu mi).[136] If all of Earth's crustal surface
were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km
(1.68 to 1.74 mi).[137][138]

About 97.5% of the water is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present
as ice in ice caps and glaciers.[139]

The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).[140] Most
of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.[141] The oceans are also a
reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.[142] Sea
water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir.[143]
Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño–Southern
Oscillation.[144]

Atmosphere

Satellite image of Earth cloud

cover using NASA's Moderate-
Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer

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NASA photo showing the Earth's

atmosphere, with the setting sun,
with the Earth's landmass in
shadow

The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi),[145] with a scale height of
about 8.5 km (5.3 mi).[3] A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon,
and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules.[145] Water vapor content varies between
0.01% and 4%[145] but averages about 1%.[3] The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between
8 km (5 mi) at the poles to 17 km (11 mi) at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and
seasonal factors.[146]

Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya, forming
the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.[68] This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic
organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O2
into O3. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land.[147] Other atmospheric
functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to
burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.[148] This last phenomenon is known as the
greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the
ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone
are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface
temperature would be −18 °C (0 °F), in contrast to the current +15 °C (59 °F),[149] and life on Earth probably
would not exist in its current form.[150]

Weather and climate

Hurricane Felix seen from low

Earth orbit, September 2007

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Lenticular cloud over an ice

pressure ridge near Mount
Discovery, Antarctica, November
2013

Massive clouds above the Mojave

Desert, February 2016

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-
quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km (6.8 mi) of the surface. This lowest layer is
called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air.
This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric
circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.[151]

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude
and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.[152] Ocean currents are also important factors in
determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial
oceans to the polar regions.[153]

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere.
When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface
as precipitation.[151] Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually
returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land
and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary
widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation,
topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.
[154]

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the
sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a
result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) per degree of latitude
from the equator.[155] Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately
homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial),
subtropical, temperate and polar climates.[156]

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:

Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the Scandinavian Peninsula has more moderate
climate than similarly northern latitudes of northern Canada.
The wind enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation
than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts
tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where
rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the
ocean.[157] In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are
milder.
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The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used Köppen climate classification system has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid
middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.[152] The
Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

Surface air temperature can rise to around 55 °C (131 °F) in hot deserts, such as Death Valley, and can fall as
low as −90 °C (−130 °F) in Antarctica.

Upper atmosphere

This view from orbit shows the

full moon partially obscured by
Earth's atmosphere.

Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
[148] Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these,

the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind.[158]
Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light
and thus is important for life on Earth. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km above Earth's surface, is a working
definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.[159]

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to
the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into
space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it
leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.[160] The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to
the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one.
Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to
have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.[161] Hence
the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on
Earth.[162] In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an
opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper
atmosphere.[163]

Gravitational field

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Earth's gravity measured by

NASA's GRACE mission,
showing deviations from the
theoretical gravity. Red shows
where gravity is stronger than the
smooth, standard value, and blue
shows where it is weaker.

The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth.
Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2 (32 ft/s2). Local differences in
topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's
gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies.[164]

Magnetic field
The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the
kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The
field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a
dipole. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field,
the magnetic-field strength at the surface is 3.05 × 10−5 T, with a magnetic dipole moment of 7.79 × 1022 Am2 at
epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.[165] The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the
magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes secular variation of the main field and field
reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred
approximately 700,000 years ago.[166][167]

Magnetosphere

Schematic of Earth's
magnetosphere. The solar wind
flows from left to right

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are
deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10
Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.[168] Because the velocity of the solar wind
is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the
dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.[169] Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere;
the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates.
[170][171] The ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but

with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,[172] and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by
high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but contained in the magnetosphere.[168][173]

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During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and
especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be
excited and ionized, causing the aurora.[174]

Orbit and rotation

Rotation

Earth's rotation imaged by

DSCOVR EPIC on 29 May 2016,
a few weeks before a solstice.

Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is 86,400 seconds of mean solar time
(86,400.0025 SI seconds).[175] Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th
century due to tidal deceleration, each day varies between 0 and 2 SI ms longer than the mean solar day.[176][177]

Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and
Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.0989 seconds of mean solar time (UT1), or 23h 56m 4.0989s.[2][n
18] Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean March equinox (when the Sun is at 90° on

the equator), is 86,164.0905 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.0905s).[2] Thus the sidereal day is
shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[178] The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from
the IERS for the periods 1623–2005[179] and 1962–2005.[180]

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial
bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the celestial equator, this is
equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent
sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.[181][182]

Orbit

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The Pale Blue Dot photo

taken in 1990 by the
Voyager 1 spacecraft
showing Earth (center
right) from nearly
6.0 billion km
(3.7 billion mi) away,
about 5.6 hours at light
speed.[183]

Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 150 million km (93 million mi) every 365.2564 mean solar
days, or one sidereal year. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a
rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to this motion, on
average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns
to the meridian. The orbital speed of Earth averages about 29.78 km/s (107,200 km/h; 66,600 mph), which is fast
enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about 12,742 km (7,918 mi), in seven minutes, and the
distance to the Moon, 384,000 km (239,000 mi), in about 3.5 hours.[3]

The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When
combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from
new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon, and
their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun
and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not
precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the
ecliptic), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt,
there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses.[3][184]

The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) in radius.
[185][n 19] This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant
Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational
perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way and orbits about 28,000 light-years from its
center. It is about 20 light-years above the galactic plane in the Orion Arm.[186]

Axial tilt and seasons

Earth's axial tilt (or obliquity) and

its relation to the rotation axis and
plane of orbit

The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°[2] with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards
the Celestial Poles. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface

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varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with summer in the Northern
Hemisphere occurring when the Tropic of Cancer is facing the Sun, and winter taking place when the Tropic of
Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun
climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate
latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the
winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true
west.

Above the Arctic Circle, an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six
months at the North Pole itself, a polar night. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with
the South Pole oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a
midnight sun, a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit of
maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned
with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer
solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the
spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.[187]

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo nutation; a
slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years.[188] The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's
axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800 year cycle; this precession
is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by
the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters
across Earth's surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed
quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the
Chandler wobble. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.[189]

In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3 January, and its aphelion around 4 July. These dates change
over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch
cycles. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%[n 20] in solar energy reaching Earth at
perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time
that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from
the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy
change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the
Southern Hemisphere.[190]

A study from 2016 suggested that Planet Nine tilted all the planets of the Solar System, including Earth, by
about six degrees.[191]

Habitability

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The Rocky Mountains in Canada

overlook Moraine Lake.

A planet that can sustain life is termed habitable, even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water
—an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain
metabolism.[192] The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt,
geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at
the surface.[193]

Biosphere

A planet's life forms inhabit ecosystems, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".[194] Earth's
biosphere is thought to have begun evolving about 3.5 Gya.[68] The biosphere is divided into a number of
biomes, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.[195] On land, biomes are separated primarily by
differences in latitude, height above sea level and humidity. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic or
Antarctic Circles, at high altitudes or in extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life;
species diversity reaches a peak in humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes.[196]

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA)
of all organisms living on Earth.[197]

Natural resources and land use

Land use in 2015 as a

percentage of ice-free
land surface[198]
Land use Percentage

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