Elementary Statics of 2 & Dimensions R.J.a. Barnard 1921
Elementary Statics of 2 & Dimensions R.J.a. Barnard 1921
Elementary Statics of 2 & Dimensions R.J.a. Barnard 1921
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MACMILLAN AND
LONDON
CO., Limited
MADRAS
THE MACMILLAN
CO. OF TORONTO
CANADA.
Ltd.
ELEMENTARY
STATICS
OF
DIMENSIONS
BY
R.
J.
A.
MACMILLAN AND
ST.
1921
CO.,
LIMITED
COPTRIOBT
OUABGOW
.
PREFACE
The reception me to write a
of
my
Statics
a similar
standard of
difficulty,
and I have followed the same principles as in that book. With reference to the contents I may mention the following
(i)
The introduction
of
examples on
friction early, in
(iii)
The insertion of a chapter on Shearing Stress and Bending Moments, The use of the methods of the elementary difEerential calculus in the chapter on Virtual Work, and of
the integral calculus for finding the centres of
mass
(iv)
of a
number
of geometrical areas
and volumes,
than usual,
(v)
It is
on vectors in
my
Dynamics,
will
make
a satisfactory introduc-
and its applications. As in my Dynamics, a number of the more difficult examples come from papers set at the Melbourne University. Nearly all the others have been constructed by myself for the book
tion to Vector Algebra
or for
my
classes.
R
DUNTROON,
March, 1921.
J.
A.
BARNARD.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
1
Foundations of Mechanics
Forces at a Point
-
II.
III.
Parallel Forces
39
-
IV.
Work.
Simple Machines
V. Couples.
Any Forces
-
in a
-
Plane
-
...
-
62
79
107
VI.
VII.
Connected Bodies
Graphical Statics of
-
119
135 147
X. Centres op Mass
XI. Virtual
-161
187
Work
Three Dimensions
-
200
209
215
XV. Vectors
in Space
^ -
238 246
247
Appendix
Answers
CHAPTER I
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS.
Before
dealing
it is
specially
with
Statics
as
one branch
of
Mechanics,
about Force, and these are most easily obtained from a consideration of dynamical questions.
It will
be
sufficient to give
a short
summary
of these ideas,
development to
III.
my
book on Elementary
Dynamics, Chapter
1. Position,
The
position of a point
lines, or
it is
generally measured
by
its
distances
If these
from points, or
earth
if
distances change,
;
at rest relative
to the earth.
2. Force.
Force
is
generally defined as
alters or tends
motion but two or more forces acting on a body may balance one another's effects in such a way that the body remains at rest.
Statics is that
relations
ELEMENTARY STATICS
A body is
said to be Rigid
forces acting
by
on
it.
if its shape and size are unaffected While no such body actually exists in
nature, the alterations in solids are small and will be neglected throughout this book, except where changes are specially mentioned, such as in the springs and strings of the next
paragraphs.
In simple experiments a force may be applied to a body by attaching a spring or string to it, and pulling the spring or string. The effect of the force depends both on the strength and the direction of the pull. Hence a force requires both magnitude and direction to denote it fully, and can be consequently represented by a straight line whose length represents the magnitude of the force according to some scale, and whose direction is the direction of the force. If the force is exerted by the medium of a spiral spring
(spring balance), the extension of the spring can be taken as
a measure of the
spring balance,
to the
force. For, if we take weights which balance on an ordinary balance, and hang them successively to a
we
same amount
and even
if
and that
if
hung
weight,
the elongation
is
various forces
be graduated to shew by marking the positions taken by the pointer for given weights hung on the balance. Spring balances thus graduated, and of comparatively small stiffness, so that a weight of a few ounces produces an
still
may
may
3.
on a body
it,
is
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
on the second.
This fact
is
3
of Action
called
Newton's
Law
and Reaction. For example, when a heavy body rests on a horizontal table, the body presses down on the table, and the table presses upwards on the body with exactly the same force. A verification of this law in certain cases may be made by means of the If twoi of these are hooked together and spring balances. then pulled, it will be found that the two register the same force, shewing that they exert the same force to one another. As a general rule, the bodies acting and re-acting on one another are in contact, as in the above cases, but all bodies also act on one another by gravitational attraction, and in this case
the two reacting bodies pull one another without contact.
is
when one
Weight.
The attraction which the earth exerts on a body results in the body having weight. Weight is the force with which a body presses on a horizontal plane on which it is at rest, or the force with which a body at rest, and supported at one point (for example by a string), will exert on its support.
On
less
is
slightly
than the force with which the earth attracts the body
130).
(see
However,
it
is
not
if
we
by a
;
slightly different
if
body
in other words,
we
downward
force
weight.
will
2),
on the body,
to
above (Art.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
5. Transmissibility of
Force.
The
that a force
may
its line of
on a body
is
the same at
we have a block
it
and push
the same.
6.
Besides the
Transmissibility
Force,
Statics
is
This
The
(I)
facts
may
If
two
forces
P and
same
line in the
same
and
if
In particular,
if
and convergely,
if
two equal forces act on a body in opposite same line, the body can remain at rest a body remains at rest under the action of two forces only, the forces must be equal, opposite, and in the same
straight line.
(11)
If
two
^
Fio.l.-ParaUelogram
of forces,
-^ ^
direction
and magnitude by
lines
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
the diagonal of the parallelogram of which
OA and OB
are
adjacent sides.
The
line,
first of
same
may
of forces.
Experimental verifications
statements
may
be
made
A
'
I
hQ(WjymnrsT!nmnw
Fig.
2.
O
of
|n^^nn^nn^mnn^ HTfirtrwriTSTM
^_^S
1
Equilibrium
two
forces.
For example, first attach two spring balances to a small ring and pull them. The other ends may be fixed to two points A and B, It will be found when the ring is at rest that the
spring balances are pulling in opposite directions,
pointers
is
exerted
by
or
The other part of the first statement may then be verified by having two spring balances pulling side by side in the same direction, and
one
pulling
in
the
opposite direction.
To
it is
allelogram of forces,
only necessary
last
fix-
to
modify the
arrangement by
on a Ci
FlQ.
3.-
drawing board.
rest
-Parallelogram of forces.
When
the ring
comes to
mark
P,
off
lengths
Q, R,
OH, OK, OL, proportional to shewn by the springs, and draw the
6
parallelogram
ELEMENTARY STATICS
OHMK.
Then
it
will
be found that
OM
is in
the
same
and
line as
represented by
OH
to
Tension of a String.
a string
forces at the
the string
is
two ends and remains at rest, the be the same, provided the weight of negligible, for the string is then acted on by only
is
pulled from
will
two ends
two
forces
Pt-yFia.
4.
H-.-*P
P<--tFio. 5.
H---J-P
Instead of the whole string, we may take any portion AC, and say that for the same reason the portion AC is pulled by equal forces at the two ends. In other words, at C the portion BC is pulling at the portion AC with a force P, and for the same reason the portion AC is pulling at the portion CB with the same force P. So that at any point C of the string we have the portion on either side of C pulling at the other portion, and these pulls are the same at all points along the
string.
This force P
is
Fig.
6.
forces.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
The same
result applies to a weightless string passing
round
may
and having weights attached at the ends, as The pulleys are in a vertical plane, and
knotted at
we have
three
forces P, Q, R, acting at
parallelogram of forces
8.
the
Units of Force.
all
In
the Statics
it is
no
difficulties
about units
may
We
CHAPTER
II.
FORCES AT A POINT.
9.
Two
Forces.
is
We
only and at
these forces
line.
it is
must be
and
in
In such a case
common
use.
When
at a point
and
are in equilibrium,
we can
by the parallelogram
of forces.
them
tion
and magnitude by
OA
and OB, the resultant of these two must be represented by OC in the figure, and must
balance R, or R can be reFig.
7.
Equilibrium of three
presented
forces.
in
direction
and
be
magnitude by CO.
forces P,
Q,
R,
may
magnitude and
direction,
FORCES AT A POINT
namely
9
'point
and magnitude hy
{that is, in order
round
the triangle as
in equilibrium
and conversely,
must be
parallel.
also that
if
must
all
meet
in a point or be all
For
if
any two
of
them, say P and Q, meet in a point O, Q acts through O, and can only be
if
through O.
We
plane
;
two
we can
use other
methods
expressed
of dealing in
trigonometrical
form
is
Lami's
is
For
if
in Fig. 8
the angle
between
/3 is
and
R,
is
^COA = 180-/i,
z.OCA = 180-oc,
L OAC = 180 - 7
also
;
A=A=_?_OA
AC
CO
Fig.
8.Lami's theorem.
10
ELEMENTARY STATICS
OA
sin (180
and by trigonometry,
AC
CO
sin (180
-a)
.
sin (180-^3)
-y)
OA
sinoc
AC
sin fd
CO
sin
Q
sin^
sma
A
siny
particle P, of weight 4 lbs., is supported by a Examples. 1. string attached to a fixed point O, and is pulled from the vertical by a horizontal force of 3 Ibs.-wt. ; find the angle the string will make -nath the vertical, and the tension of the string. vertical. Let T be tension in Ibs.-wt. Draw PN horizontal and Then is a triangle of forces, for the force 4 is parallel to ON,
ON
ONP
is
is
along PO.
There-
0\
PN^3. 0N~4'
.-.
tan<9=f; 4
.-.
e=3652',
5.
also
TPO
.-.
4~ON~4'
T=51bs.-wt.
a string 17 inches long are attached to two points 13 inches apart in the same horizontal, and a weight of 4 lbs. is
2.
The ends
of
attached to the string 5 inches from one end. Find the tension in each portion of the string. At the point C, where the weight is attached, there are three forces acting ; the two portions of the string are pulling at the knot with forces which we have denoted in the figure by T^ and Tj, and the weight is pulling with a force
of
lbs.
Since the sides of ABC are 5, 12, and 13 inches, the triangle is right angled at C, and if C A makes an angle 6 with the horizontal, CB makes an angle 6 ynth the vertical.
We
can
now
FORCES AT A POINT
First solution, by the Triangle of Forces.
forces,
11
get a convenient triangle with its sides parallel to the three draw AD parallel to CB, and CD vertical ; then ADC has its sides parallel to the three forces, following round the triangle in the direction ADC A. The forces Tj, Tj, and 4 are therefore proportional to CA, AD, DC. Now the triangle ADC is similar to CAB.
To
CA^AD^DC,
12"
12
.-,
5 ""is
'
13'
lbs.-wt.
Tt=^ = 3-69
To = 7^ = 1-54 ^ 13
48
and
lbs.- wt.
forces are
4,
sin 90'
T2 _ 4 cos^ = 1'
cos^:~13'
5
but
12
sin 6
"13
and
48
T,'~13 lbs.-wt.,
20 T2 "13
=
lbs.-wt.
3. A string of length 24 inches has its ends fixed to two points 20 inches apart in the same horizontal line, and a weight of 6 lbs. is hung from it by means of a small hook. Find the tension of the
string.
(Neglect friction
difference
between this and Example 2 is that the hook can slip along the string, and the two portions of the string form one continuous string with the same tension throughout. In Example 2, the two portions being knotted to the third were equivalent to
The
two quite distinct strings with different tensions. As the tensions are the same, either Lami's Theorem or the parallelogram of forces shews that the two portions make equal
'
12
ELEMENTARY STATICS
angles with the vertical, and therefore the weight hangs from the middle point of the string. The solution can then be completed as in Example 2. .'P Thus, in the figure CAD is a triangle of forces.
T^_6_.
" 12
.-.
2^44
lbs.-wt.
7 = 4^ = 5-43
Vll
4.
A weight
of 10 lbs.
is
supported
by two strings, which make angles of 30 and 60 with the vertical. What
are the tensions of the strings
5.
?
A
A
weight of 20
supported by two strings of lengths to two points 5 feet part in the same horizontal. Knd
lbs.
is
a fixed point
lbs. is supported by a string AB attached to and is pulled aside from the vertical b}' a horizontal force. If AB makes an angle 30 with the vertical in its final position, find the horizontal force and the tension of the string.
weight of 20
A,
7.
Solve Example
6,
supported by a string 5 feet long, from the vertical by a horizontal force of 3 lbs. applied to it ? Find also the tension of the string in the final position, and the amount the weight has been raised by the
8. If
a weight of 10
how
10.
A A
body
of weight 12 lbs.
is
make
11.
angles 40
vertical.
picture is supported sjinmetrically in a vertical plane by a wire passing over a nail. If the wire is attached to fixed points A, B, at the same level in the picture, shew that the shorter the length of the wire the greater wiU. be its tension.
A picture weighing 5 lbs. is suspended symmetrically by a 26 inches long passing over a nail 5 inches above the line joining the points on the picture to which the wire is attached. Find its tension.
12.
^vire
13.
A weight of 2 lbs.
in
is himg by a ring from a string passing over the same horizontal Une, and supporting
FOECES AT A POINT
13
weights of 1| lbs. at each end. Find the angles the Inclined portions of the string make with the vertical. Will the result be affected if one of the pegs is placed at a higher level than the other ?
supports weights of 5
two smooth pegs on the same level and at each end. A weight of 6 lbs. is now hung to it midway between the pegs, and the point of attachment Find the distance between the of this weight moves down 3 inches. pulleys, and find the depth of the middle point below them when
14.
W =8.
What happens
if
W = 10
lbs. ?
15. If three forces, of magnitudes 3, 4, 5 Ibs.-wt., are in equilibrium, find by the triangle of forces the angles between each pair.
16. If three forces, of magnitudes 5, 6, 7 Ibs.-wt., are in equilibrium, find by the triangle of forces the angles between each pair.
12. Resultant
and Components.
is
The
forces
force R, which
equivalent in
its
P and Q,
is
and P and
Q are called
the Components of R.
A force can be replaced by two components in an infinite number of ways thus, if OC represents the force, and Ox, Oy are any two lines through O, it is only necessary to draw CA, CB parallel to Oy and Ox to get the components OA, OB in these two directions.
;
of
components
is
resolutes in
two
directions,
14
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Let Pi and P^ be the resolutes.
P,
Then, in the
.
figure,
P
Pg
OA OC
OBAC
Pcos^,
P
Pi
OC ~ OC
=
+
Psin ^;
>
sin ^
(1)
(2)
P2
also
(3)
and
(1)
P2 zr
Pi
= :=nr = tan OA
AC
.
6.
(4)
and
(2)
angles
are given
(3)
and
(4)
When
the components
make
anj'^
angle
a.
with one
Using
we have from
Fig. 14,
FIO. 14.
Po sin OC
Pi
+ Pgcosoc'
FORCES AT A POINT
all
15
They should
reduce to
(l)-(4) if
a. is
resolute of
a force
in any direction
and
The following theorem is very important The algebraic sum of the resolutes of two
direction.
forces in a given
same
Fig. 15.
OL
is
is
Ox of
is
Pj
LN=AK = OM,
and
the resolute of
direction,
while
ON
the
resolute of P in the
same
and
ON = OL+LN = OL + OM,
which proves the theorem.
Examples.
1.
two
Ibs.-wt. in force on
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces, each of 6 lbs., at an angle of 120 with one another.
forces of respectively 6
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two and 8 Ibs.-wt., which make an angle 60 with one another.
3.
16
15.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
More than Two
Forces.
To
proceed by steps.
Thus,
if
more than two forces we can OA, OB, OC, OD, represent four
can be combined into a
OA and OB
single force
finally
OH, then
OH
and OC into a
single force
OK, and
for
OK and OD
of forces.
and
so
on
any
number
All that
graphically,
to
draw from O a
from
A,
line
OA
to represent P, then
AH
R,
representing
Q,
HK
representing
S.
and KL representing
If
Then OL
will
there
in
equilibrium,
result
Fig. 17.
known
namely.
If a number of jorces acting at a -point can he represented in direction and magnitude hy the sides of a polygon taken in
FORCES AT A POINT
order, the forces are in equilibrium
;
17
and
taken in order.
forces
however, that when there are more than three whose directions are known, the relative magnitudes cannot be deduced by the polygon of forces, as it can when there are only three forces, for different polygons may have
Notice,
their sides in given directions
and
as, for
example,
not
if
all
in one plane.
For example,
a tetrahedron,
ABCD
represents
and
repre-
in
Fia. 18.
The
figure
all
ABDC^
is
called a
Skew
not being
in one plane.
number of
apply
of dealing with a
number
of forces is to
FlO. 19.
for
any number
of
Hence,
if P,
Q, R,
etc.,
are
any
forces acting at O,
B
K
18
ELEMENTARY STATICS
and making angles a, /3, y, ... etc., with a line Ox, and if the resultant is F, making an angle 6 with Ox, and if X, Y are the resolutes of F along and perpendicular to Ox, then
X = F cos ^ = P
and
If
cos a. +
sin
Y = Fsin d = P
.*.
We can now
number
The forces are in equilibrium if the sums of any two different directions separately vanish.
For
if
the resolutes in
the
sum
Ox
is
zero,
Fcos^=0,
and
or
either
F=
61
= 90,
it is
that
is
to say,
if
if
Similarly,
is
the
sum
Oy
zero,
the resultant,
existing, is
perpendicular to Oy.
pendicular
It is seen
is
from
this that it
angles.
forces
Examples.
figure.
1.
marked
in the
FORCES AT A POINT
It
is
19
3 5 7 6 4
0 20 80 130 230
10
0-9397 0-1736
00
0-3420 0-9848 0-7660 - 0-7660
3-0
0-0
-0-6428 -0-6428
-2-5712
2-4857
- 3 0640
Total
101356
of the resolutes X and Y along Ox and Oy, best to find the angle 6 first, and then R by the equations
R
it
=sec^.
being more convenient to find R in this way, using logarithms, than by the equation
R=v/X^TY^,
unless tables of squares are available. Notice also in finding ^ to be careful which quadrant the resultant is in. This can only be settled by thinking of the signs of X and Y separately. In the above example, for instance.
10-1356
tan
.-.
2-4857
^=76
13',
being in the
are positive.
first
third),
because both
X and Y
R = Xsec ^ = 10-43.
2. A body of weight 6 lbs. is supjwrted by two strings, one of which makes an angle 60 with the vertical, and exerts a pull of 8 Ibs.-wt. What is the direction and pull of the other ?
3.
Two
a third force of 6
which is 6 lbs., balance Find the magnitude of the second force and
20
ELEMENTARY STATICS
and magnitude
of the four
>4
Fia. 22
5.
Fig. 23.
forces in the
6.
Find the direction and magnitude of the resultant of the diagram (Fig. 23).
If
and Q.
^P
Fio. 24. 7.
Fig. 25.
Find P and Q.
18. Friction.
is one of the most frequently occurring forces in Whenever two bodies are in contact, and forces are acting on them tending to make one move the other, friction
Friction
Nature.
about
friction
may
^1
FORCES AT A POINT
horizontal or inclined at
in the diagrams.
21
etc.,
any
angle,
and weights,
as
shewn
Fia. 26.
Fig. 27.
A represents a weight to which a string, passing over a pulley and carrying a scalepan B, is attached. In the diagrams the scalepan and weights in it are treated as one body, and all the forces acting on A and B are marked. The pressure exerted on by the plane has been replaced by two resolved parts, R in Fig. 26, R' in Fig. 27, perpendicular to the plane, and F in
the string
acts
in
it.
T
;
is
on B
The tension of shewn in the way it acts on A and also as it is the combined weight of scalepan and weights
F') is
the friction.
If
at first move, shewing that the pull of the string causes friction
to
But if the weights in B are increased, a when the bodies move, shewing that the no longer able to balance the tension. Thus we
maximum value to the friction that can be brought into play in any case.
So long as the bodies do not move, we have from the general
equations of equihbrium in Fig. 26,
w = T = F; w = T = F'+Wsina,
sum
22
acting on A
is
ELEMENTARY STATICS
zero.
till
friction
= W cos oc.
we continue the experiments, varying the weight of A by it, we find that the maximum
normal reaction, and that
the ratio
maximum
friction
normal reaction
is
the
same on the
and depends
of the
maximum
friction
and
/* is
a constant
friction.
The value of varies greatly for different pairs of materials. For smooth blocks of wood /z may lie between 0-25 and 0-50. For wood on glass, betwteen 0-20 and 0-40. But there is no limit to the values /u may assume in different cases it may have any value from zero upwards. The beginner must be careful to notice that the coefficient
;
maximum friction to the normal component of the reaction, not of the maximum friction to the weight. The normal reaction may be quite different from the
of friction
is
weight.
Also
it is
certain value
friction
FORCES AT A POINT
it
23
less
may
than that
maximum.
When
them, or
= 0,
This bodies
However,
in
many examples
is
supposed
are asked
to act.
be affected
For example,
if
we
what
keep a
inclined plane,
also
that
is
we know that such a plane does not exist, but we if we calculate the force on the supposition
know
that there
no friction, then if that force is applied the body will rest on the plane without any friction being brought into play.
19.
Angle of Friction.
the
When
a
maximum
makes
maximum
max.<FlG. 28.
is
given by
tan0 = -,
R F and when - has R
generally denoted
its
is
greatest.
is
called the
by
A.
the
maximum
angle
'
24
ELEMENTARY STATICS
we have
tanX =
Also
a body
is
is tilted
will
be on the point of
begin to slide
when the
;
for
the resultant reaction must balance the weight, and the forces
are as in Fig. 29, and
by geometry
X = a.
Fig. 2
^
I
of friction
tan X.
20.
a string passes round a fixed peg and there is no between the peg and the string, the peg is said to be smooth, and the tension of the string is the same throughout, but if the peg is not smooth the tension will not necessarily be the same on both sides of the peg. For example, if two
friction
When
weights, each
W, hang by
of a small weight
on one side
may
move, and in this case the tension of the string on one side will be W, and on the other +w. The term Smooth Pulley, which is often used (but rather incorrectly), must be understood in Statics in the same sense
FORCES AT A POINT
as a
25
smooth peg, namely a body whicli will let a string pass it without any friction being exerted, in which case, however, the pulley would not be turned round by a pull
round
in the string.
31.
If
is
Smooth
is
Joints.
a bar
spoken of as
smooth,
it is
equivalent to saying
through the fixed point. For the joint may be considered as formed by a pin running through the bar, the hole in the bar being slightly larger than the pin. This, the usual kind of
joint, is called
a Pin Joint. Suppose the bar touches the pin at one point A only
then,
Fig.
30. Rough
joint.
Fig. 31.
Smooth
joint.
if
The resultant
26
ELEMENTARY STATICS
if
reaction will not therefore act through the centre of the pin,
but
it
would do
so.
The difference between the cases when there is friction at a joint and when there is not, will be seen better after deaUng with moments of forces in Chapter V.
22.
Summing up
we
find that
when
its
theorem,
(ii)
'
resolving in
two
directions.
of resolving is usually
may
The work
examples.
Examples.
of the chapter
may
be illustrated by a number of
1.
end A against a
vertical wall,
uniform rod AB, weighing 2 lbs., rests with one and is kept at rest by a string BC attached to a point C in the wall above If the rod makes an angle 60 with A.
the wall, find the tension of the string and the reaction at A, supposing there and compare the length is no friction of the string with that of the rod. There are three forces, the reaction R, the weight 2 lbs., and the tension T. R is horizontal because there is no friction, the weight is vertical, and T must pass through their point of intersection, for, since there are only three forces and two of them meet in a point, the third Hence, passes through the same point. in the figure, if BN is perpendicular to CA, CNB is a triangle of forces, the
;
FORCES AT A POINT
weight being parallel to CN, R parallel to NB, and we have by geometry,
since
.'.
27
is is
O
A
BC
.'.
is
CN.
Let
:.
AB =2a AN=a,
CN
=2a,
NB=av/3,
Hence
CB = VCN2 + NB2=aV7. T ^ R ^ 2
CB~NB~CN
T _ R
:.
7 = ^7 =2-65
R=v^3 = l-73
lbs.-wt.,
lb8.-wt.,
CBv^
BA~^3
:nA2-33
= 1-53.
by a smooth
S. A uniform rod AB, weighing 4 lbs., is supported hinge at A, and is held at an angle of 60 with the dowTiward vertical, by a force acting at B perpendicular to the rod. Find the magnitude of this force and the magnitude and direction of the force at A. Notice particularly the difference between this example and the last. In Example 1 the end of the rod rested against a smooth vertical wall, and therefore the reaction there was perpendicular to the wall. In the present example the rod is smoothly hinged at A, and therefore all we know at first is that the reaction passes through A in some un-
known direction. With the letters of the figure, the weight and the unknown force P meet in a point O. The third force must therefore pass
through O, and consequently acts along If AD is vertical, DOA will be a OA.
triangle of forces, and we will first calculate the lengths of its sides.
Fig. 33.
28
Let
ELEMENTARY STATICS
AB=2o:
.-.
DB=2aN/3;
.-.
D0=a\/3
also
.-.
OB =aV3
OA=a\/7:
-^ =_^=i
o-s/S
.-.
ov/7
4a'
given by
OAB='^ =0-866;
OAB=4054'.
lbs., hangs in a curve with the and the tangents at the ends making an angle 30 with the horizontal. Find the tension at the ends and
3.
flexible chain,
weighing 40
level,
The chain hangs symmetrically, and the tensions at the two ends can get these tensions by thinking of the chain are the same. as a whole, and noticing that we have three forces acting on ther chain, namely, the reactions of the supports, each T (the same as the tension there), and the weight of 40 lbs.
We
'.
Resolving vertically,
2T8m30=40
.-.
T=401bs.-wt.
FORCES AT A POINT
29
To get the tension at the lowest point we can consider half the chain by itself (Fig. 35). If we notice that the part AC is at rest and acted on by the reaction T, a horizontal pull T' due to the portion CB, and its weight of 20 lbs. ; resolving horizontally,
..
Tcos30=T',
T'
The
solution
may
body, of weight 100 lbs., is 4. to be pulled up an incline of 3 (vertical) to 4 (horizontal) by a force parallel to the plane. Find the least force if the coefficient of friction is J. There are four forces acting, so we resolve in two directions, the most convenient being parallel and perpendicular to the plane. Perpendicular to the plane,
Fig. 36.
R = 100cosa. = 100x4=80,
F=JR=20.
Parallel to the plane,
P = F + 100
5.
sin a.
=20 + 100
x f
=80
Ibs.-wt.
body of weight is to be pulled up a plane of inclination a. by a force making an angle 6 with the plane. If the angle of friction is A, find the force, and find what 6 must be, so that the required
force
may
Fig. 37.
We may proceed by resolving as in Ex. 4, but we can get the result very easily by replacing the normal reaction and friction by the resultant reaction S, which, when the body is on the point of moving,
30
acts
ELEMENTARY STATICS
forces only,
an angle A with the normal. We then have three and can use Lami's Theorem. We have then
P
sin (180 -a.
W
sin
-A)
sin(90 + a + ^)
(90+
A- ^)'
P
8in(a.
^
+ A)
'
cos(a.+ ^)~co8(^- A)
p^^8in(oL+A)
C08(^-A)*
Hence, for different values of that is, when ^ = A,
or
0,
is
least
when
cos (^ - A)
is
greatest,
is
at right angles to S,
and
Pi.=W8in(a. + A).
When two
by a
string it
is
generally
force.
The student
on each body,
acts
for each
rest on two smooth inclined 6. Two bodies of weights W, planes placed back to bsick, and of inclinations a. and /3, being connected by a string passing over a smooth peg at the top of the planes. Find the ratio of the weights.
Fig. 38.
The
forces are as
marked on the
figure.
W,
For
similarly,
:.
W/W'=
sin a/sin
/8.
FORCES AT A POINT
7.
31
fixed,
CD are equal portions of a string, whose ends A, D are are hung at B and C, such that AB is and weights W, horizontal, and BC, CD make angles of 30 and 60 respectively with = 10 lbs., find and the tensions in the three the horizontal. If
AB, BC,
D/
If the tensions are T, Tj, Tg, as in the figure, then T, Ti, balance at 0. at B, and Tj, Tj,
W balance
T
120
__Ti_
"sin 90'
10
sin 150'
T,
at C,
sin 60'
sin 150
"sin 150
whence
Notice that the lengths of the portions of string do not affect the
results.
8.
its
planes of inclinations
vertical.
and
the
j3.
ends on two smooth Inclined Find the angle it makes with the
The
reactions
at
ends of the rod act perpendicularly to the planes, acting at the the weight middle point of the rod (since it is uniform) is vertical. As there are only these three forces, the figure
is
to be
drawn with
their
Fia. 40.
lines of action
meeting in a
32
point.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
vertical,
6 can be
From
the triangle
sin
=CG/G A.
Similarly,
cot
a.
-cos^=sin^cot/3+cos^,
2 cos
or
and OB are two straight lines. Forces acting along them 9. are represented in magnitude by h.OA and k.OB. Shew that their resultant is {h+k)OG, where G is the point which divides AB in the ratio k h.
:
OA
Take G so that AG/GB=A/A:, and draw L.OM parallel to AB, making OL = AG and OM=GB, so that OGAL and OGBM are parallelograms. Then the force h.OA can be replaced by components h.OL and A.OG, and A; OB can be replaced by k OM and k OG. Now, since LO/OM = kjh,
.
. .
h.LO*-k.OM,
and the
left
forces
we
arej
with a force
+ i) OG.
sufficient degree of
FORCES AT A POINT
33
Art. 22,
For example, if we wanted an approximate solution of No. 1, we have only to draw the figure on a fairly large scale
and measure off the sides of the triangle AOC. Thus, draw first the vertical AN, and AB at an angle 60 with it. Make AN and AC each = 2 inches; draw NB horizontal, and finish off the figure as in the diagram. Then the sides AO, OC will represent the reaction and tension on the scale of 1 Ib.-wt. to the inch and the angle ACB can be measured off by a protractor.
Examples.
is
1.
weight of 100
lbs.
just pulled
if
Find P
up the plane by a
100
Fig. 42.
The angles between the directions of the three forces acting are known, and the magnitude of one (the weight) is known. Hence we can draw a triangle with one side AB 2-5 ins. long (say) to represent the weight of 100 lbs., and the angles BAG, ABC 45 and 55. Or draw diagram 42 accurately first and then a triangle with -its sides parallel to W, P and S. Then AC will represent P on the same scale of 1 in. to 40 lbs. weight. Also BC will represent the resultant reaction. The normal reaction and friction can be got by drawing BD perpendicular to the plane and CD parallel to it, when BD will represent the normal reaction and DC the friction.
Scaling these
off,
we
find
CA =207, BD
=1-46,
DC = 1-03, BC = 1-79
hence
P=82-8.
=58-4. =41-2. Resultant reaction =71-6.
Friction
Normal reaction
B.E.S.
ik
34
2.
ELEMENTAKY STATICS
A
rod AB of length 4 ft. and weight 15 lbs. is supported by strings attached to a point C and of lengths 2-5 and 3-5 ft. respectively. Find the tension of the strings and the angles they
two
make with
the vertical.
II
Here the sides AB, BC, CA of the triangle are given, and if D is the middle point of AB, CD will represent the vertical, since the weight acting at D must also act through C where the other two If now E is the middle point of BC and DE is forces intersect. drawn, DEC being a triangle of forces, the ten.sions and weight are Scaling off, we find CD =2-3, and as this in the ratio DE, EC; CD. represents 15 pounds DE and EC represent 8-2 lbs. and 11-4 lbs. Also the angles ACD, BCD, ADC, which the strings and rod make with the vertical, can be read off with the protractor and are 48, 43, 71 approximately.
3.
inclinations 40
heavy rod rests with its two ends on two smooth planes of and 70. Find the angle it makes with the vertical.
Fig. 44.
The
drawn so that the reactions at A and B and middle point of AB) meet in a point. By
FORCES AT A POINT
geometry the angle
35
AOC =40, BOC =70. Hence we must construct the figure by taking any fine AB for the rod and on AC describe a segment containing an angle of 40 and on BC a segment containing 70. If these segments meet in O, OC represents the vertical and the angle OCB can be read off, and is about 67.
EXAMPLES.
rod AB, of weight 20 lbs., is supported in a horizontal 1. position by a smooth hinge at A, and a string at B, making an angle 45 with the vertical. Find the tension of the string and the magnitude and direction of the reaction at A.
2. A rod AB, of weight 10 lbs., is supported at the end A by a smooth hinge, and is held at an angle of 60 with the downward vertical, by means of a string attached at B, and making an angle 30 with the rod. Find the tension of the string and the reaction at A in direction and magnitude. 3. A rod AB, of weight 5 lbs., is supported by a smooth hinge at A, and rests against a smooth peg at B. If AB makes an angle of 30 with the vertical, find the pressure at B, and the reaction
at
A
4.
in
magnitude and
direction.
is
Solve Question 3, if the peg, instead of being at B, quarters of the way along from B to A.
5.
three-
at
rod AB, of weight 10 lbs., is supported by a smooth hinge bj' a string at B passing over a pulley at C vertically above A and carrying a weight of 5 lbs. at its end. If AC=AB, find the angle B makes with the vertical and the direction and magnitude of the reaction at A.
A and
6. A rod, 40 inches long and weighing 8 lbs., rests with one end against a smooth vertical wall, and to B is attached a string which is tied to a point in the wall 24 inches above A. Find the length and tension of the string, the reaction at A, and the angle the rod makes with the wall.
7. thin rod, of length 21, rests with one end pressing against a smooth vertical wall, being supported by passing over a smooth peg at a distance c from the wall. Shew that it must make an angle with the wall given by sin*^ =c/i.
8. A rod AB, of weight W, is supported with one end A against a smooth vertical wall, and by a string attached to it at C and to a point in the wall. If AC =i AB, shew that the length of the string is also JAB, and if the rod makes an angle 6 with the wall, find the
36
ELEMENTARY STATICS
and radius r, rests on a smooth plane 9. A sphere, of weight of inclination a., being kept at rest by a horizontal string attached to the sphere and to a point in the plane. Find the length and tension of the string, and the reaction at the point of contact.
sphere, of weight 3 lbs., rests in the angle between two 10. planes, one of which is vertical and the other inclined at an angle of 30 to the vertical. Find the pressures on the planes.
11.
OL,
p.
sphere, of weight W, rests on two planes of inclinations Find the pressures on the planes.
12. Two spheres, of weights \N,\N', rest one on each of two planes placed back to back of inclinations a., a.', being connected by a string which runs horizontally from one to the other. Shew that
W tan
13.
OL
tan
a.'.
rod, of weight 6 lbs., rests with its ends on two smooth planes of inclinations 30 and 60. Find the angle the rod makes with the vertical, and find the pressures on the planes.
14.
A
A
40 and 70.
rod rests with its ends on two smooth planes of inclinations Find the angle that it makes \\ith the vertical.
15. ABCD is a string, and equal weights C, and BC remains horizontal, while AB, with the horizontal. Find the tensions.
16.
circle,
small ring, of weight W, can slide on a smooth vertical is attached to the highest point by a string which subtends an angle 2. at the centre. Find the tension of the string.
and
17. pull a
Whet
body
is the least force parallel to the incline which will of weight 100 lbs. up an incline of 30 if the coefficient 0-2 ?
it
plane slopes at 5 (vertical) to 12 (horizontal). Find the 18. greatest and least forces parallel to the plane which can act on a body of weight 26 lbs. on the plane without its moving, if the efficient of friction is 0-25.
19.
body
(in
any
friction is 0-75.
20. Find the least force required to move a body of weight 20 along a horizontal plane if the coefficient of friction is 1 '0.
11
21. Find the least horizontal force required to move a body weight 50 lbs. up an incline of 30 if the coefficient of friction is 0-5. 22.
11
weight 120
Find the least horizontal force required to move a body of lbs. up an incline of 25 if the coefficient of friction is 0-3.
FORCES AT A POINT
23.
is
37
running
A,
Shew that the least force necessary to stop a body from down a plane of inclination a., when the angle of friction must be applied at an angle A with the plane (A<ol).
24. What force, applied at an angle of 15 to the plane, will be required to drag a body of weight 140 lbs. up an incline of 35 if the coefficient of friction is 0-5 ?
25. A wheel, of radius r and weight W, is to be dragged over a rectangular block of stone of height ^ ( r), by means of a horizontal force applied at its centre. Find the magnitude of the force when the lowest point of the wheel is at a height k above the ground, and find the smallest force P required. =50 lbs. Examine the case when r =30 inches, A = 18 inches,
<
26.
string.
Equal
particles are
hung from a
series of points
on a weightless
Shew that if di, 6^, ... are the angles the successive portions make with the horizontal, tan 6^, tan 6^, ... are in A.P., and that
-~
lie
on a parabola.
block, of weight W, rests on a rough horizontal plane. If the coefficient of friction piston presses down upon it with force P. is /x at each contact, what is the least horizontal force required to draw out the block ?
at a point which 29. AB is a weightless rod carrying a weight divides the rod in the ratio a: b. It is supported by strings at the ends, making angles a. and /? with the vertical. Shew that the rod makes an angle 6 with the vertical given by
{a
+ b) cot
=b
cot
f3-a cot
a.,
and
30. A weight w rests on a rough horizontal table, the coefficient of friction being fi. To it are attached two springs which pass over pulleys and carry weights at the end of each. The strings each make an angle a. with the horizontal. If an extra weight is added to one of these, shew that in limiting equilibrium
W =fi{w - 2W sin
31.
weight w, slides on a smooth vertical circular wire of radius a, being attached to the extremity of the horizontal diameter by a string of length a/2. Shew that the tension is approximately
ring, of
0-9w,
and
38
ELEMENTARY STATICS
A
weight of 100 lbs. is supported on a rough plane of inclina32. tion 30, by a rope at an inclination 45 with the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction is 0-25, find the greatest and least tensions of the rope consistent with equilibrium.
33.
AB,
ABC is a triangle, and D is a point in BC. Forces AC have a resultant R along AD. Prove that P/R=CD.AB/BC.AD. 34. A ring C slides on a string whose ends are 2 ft.
P, Q, along
apart,
AB
making an angle 30 with the horizontal. Shew that in the position of equilibrium the two portions of the string make equal angles with the vertical, and if the length of the string is 2 \/3 ft., shew that
these angles are 30.
Solve the follatving questions graphically
35.
:
rod AB, of weight 20 lbs., is smoothly hinged at A, and is held at an angle 50 T^ith the upward vertical by a string attached to B and to a point above A and making an angle 20 with the vertical. Find the tension of the string and the reaction at A.
36. A rod AB, of length 2 ft. and weight 10 lbs., is supported by a smooth hinge at A and by a string attached at B which passes over a smooth pulley at C verticall}' above A, and supports a weight of 5 lbs. at its end. If AC is 4 ft., find the angle the rod makes with the vertical and the magnitude and direction of the reaction at A.
AB is a smooth rod fixed at an angle 40 with the horizontal. small ring of weight 15 oz. can slide on AB and is attached by a string 3-5 feet long to a point If CA=4 ft. vertically above A. find the tension of the string and pressure of the rod.
37.
sphere, of weight 15 lbs., is kept at rest on a plane of inclina38. Find tion 18 by a horizontal string attached to its highest point. the tension of the string.
39. A rod, of weight 3 lbs. and length 2-3 ft., is hinged at one end to the lowest point of a fixed vertical circle of radius 2 ft., and the other end rests on the inside of the circle. Find the reactions
at each end.
weight C, of 100 lbs., is hung by two wires attached to points ft. apart, B being 2 ft. above A. If the lengths of the wires are 4 and 5 ft. respectively, find their tensions.
40.
A and B 6
41. A ring C, of weight 2 lbs., can slide on a string 5 ft. long, whose! ends A and B are 4 ft. apart, and the end B is 1 ft. above A. Find the tension of the string and the lengths of AC, CB in the position
of equilibrium.
CHAPTER
III.
PARALLEL FORCES.
have seen how to deal with forces acting at one work on the parallelogram of forces. If two forces are parallel we cannot directly apply the parallelogram
25.
We
law, t)ut
we
law
is sufficient,
case also.
Q
is
act at points
of a body.
The
effect
on the body
not altered by
introducing two forces, each X, at A and B, in opposite direcforces at A can now be compounded and those at B into a single force T, so that the original forces P and Q are equivalent in their action to the forces S and T. S and T, if produced, will meet in general at a point
The
39
40
(there
is
ELEMENTARY STATICS
an exceptional case to be noted
first
later),
and
conseis,
This
and T at O into components in their original directions thus S is replaced by P and X parallel to the original P and X, and T by Q and X. The two X's now cancel again, and leave a single force P + Q parallel to the original P and Q.
however, most easily done by
resolving S
;
jP
/O
^
FlO. 46.
It is
is
and
this
best given
by
C where
it
AHK
is
similar to
AGO.
similarly
.'.
dividing,
(1)
the steps
A
(i)
X^
AN
B
(iv)
B
(ii)
X
(iii)
O
(v)
O
(vi)
Fia. 47.
PARALLEL FORCES
The beginner should
that the forces in the
follow these figures,
first
41
and notice
carefully
R balances two
parallel forces
P and Q,
it
must
by(l)
p
=
AC'
ion
P+Q R BC + CA "AB
~ CA " A^ BC = ?A = AB"
R
<^>
In these results
are
it
on the
and
in
most cases
it is
convenient to take
AB perpendicular
(2) in
to the forces.
:
We may
express
words thus
This
is
one point.
27. If
AB = a
AC = x,
P AC
.
and
then, since
=Q
CB,
Pa;=Q(a-x),
x=P
All the
Qa Q +
if
/q\ \o)
above
P and
are in opposite
will
directions, provided
and Q.
42
Example.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Find the magnitude, position and direction of the
:
i12
'0
I I
i8
'0
I
a12
'O
I
'0
Uo
111
10
I 1
Is
>
(ii>
T12
(iii)
l"-9
(v)
(vi)
Til- 99
(iv)
Fig. 48.
If parallel forces
P and P + y act
in opposite directions at a
-(P + p)a
P+p
P,
P-(P + ?)
and the smaller f
is
is,
V
is
V
;
the larger
off,
p=0, the
and the
will also
forces cannot be
This
Fig. 49.
method
P and
and opposite, S and T are and opposite, and no progress has been
made by
28. Couples.
Two
equal, parallel
and opposite
forces,
being incapable ol
being replaced by a single resultant, are said to form a couple. The properties of couples will be discussed in the next
chapter.
PARALLEL FORCES
43
Examples. 1. Find the magnitude and position of the resultant of the following pairs of parallel forces in the same direction
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
10 lbs. and 6 lbs., 8 inches apart, 8 lbs. and 4 lbs., 20 inches apart, 5 lbs. and 4 lbs., 100 inches apart.
in Question (1),
2.
4. A beam AB, 16 feet long and weighing 120 lbs., rests on two supports, one 1 foot from A, and the other 3 feet from B. Find the pressure on each support.
rod AB, of length 6 feet and weight 15 lbs., can turn in a about a smooth pin 30 inches from the end A. The rod is kept at any inclination to the vertical by a vertical string passing downwards from A. Find the tension of this string and the
5.
vertical plane
reaction at A.
5, the string can bear a maximum tension of the greatest extra weight that can be hung at the centre of the rod without breaking the string ?
6. If, in
Question
20
Ibs.-wt.,
what
is
7. A rod AB, 5 feet long and of weight 20 lbs., is supported by a smooth hinge at A, and by a vertical string at C, where AC is 18 inches. Find the tension of the string. If the maximum tension the string can bear is 40 lbs., find the greatest extra weight that could be hung at the centre of the rod
A man
carries
a weight of 25
long, resting
on
his shoulder,
the weight of the stick, find length of the stick projecting in front of his shoulder 2 ft. 6 ins.
29.
lbs. at one end of a stick 3 ft. 6 in. and holds the other end. Neglecting the pressure on his shoulder when the
is (i)
ft., (ii)
Moments.
Moment we can
of a force.
define the
Moment
from
the
44
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Thus, in the figure the
moment
iX
of
P about X
is P.
XN.
FlO. 50.
If
the force
is
in Ibs.-wt.
in feet, the
if
moment
Thus,
is
10 Ibs.-wt.
and XN 6
5
Ib.-wt.-ft.
ins.,
the
moment
The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to turn a body about the point. Thus, if a rod was hinged at X and the
force P acts
on
it,
the tendency to
make
and
it
magnitude
of P
Note that a force has no moment about a point in its line and conversely, if the moment of a force about a given point is zero, the force must pass through the point or be itself zero. Also, if the moment about X is not zero,the force
of action,
Moments may be
being the
moment
moment
of a force
V8
FlO. 51.
As
usual,
may
one
is
then negative.
is
of a
given force
it is easiest
PARALLEL FORCES
45
to consider in which direction the force would turn a body about a hinge placed at the given point. Thus, in Fig. 51, if the moment of P about X is taken as positive, then the
moment
of
is
moments
of R
and S
are negative.
30. If
we take any
and
Now PsinO
therefore,
If,
we
replace P
by
its
resolutes along
and perpendicular
FW.
to AX, the resolute along
5.^?.
AX
has no
AX has
This
Moments, which
about any point
forces about the
may be regarded as a special case of the Principle of may be stated in general in the following way
is
sum
same
point.
Case
I.
The sum
For two forces meeting at a point. of the moments of P and Q about X in Fig. 53
= P. AX sin a + Q. AX sin /3 = AX (P sin a+ Q sin ^) = AX X sum of the resolutes perpendicular to AX = AX X resolute of resultant perpendicular to AX
.
= moment
of the resultant
about X.
By
Chapter
number
of forces.
46 Case
II.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
For two
parallel forces.
AR=P+Q
AQ
C
Fig. 54.
If
R in Fig. 54
X,
is
and through
XACB
of P
drawn perpendicular
to the lines of
Sum
of
moments
and
about X
= P.XA + Q.XB = P(XC - AC) +Q(XC +CB) = (P + Q)XC + Q CB-P AC = R. XC = moment of R about X,
.
.
AC
since
BC ^=
have a resultant.
if
any system
of forces
at
all
of the resultant
about any
point
31.
If
equal to the
sum
of the
moments
Moment
forces
of a Couple.
two
form a couple, as in
;|^P
sum
of their
moments about X
= P.AX-P.BX = P.AB.
B
This shews that the sum moments about any point
of the in the
this
plane
is
the
same,
is
and
called
YP
Fig. 66.
quantity
P AB
.
the
Moment
of the Couple.
PAKALLEL FORCES
32. Composition of
47
any number of parallel forces, it is compound them two at a time. If at any stage we have two equal and opposite forces, we can leave one of them for a time and combine the other with another force and so on, so that finally we can reduce the whole system to a single force or to a couple. But the following method, by the Principle of Moments, is much easier.
get the resultant of
To
only necessary to
33. Algebraic
jJa
^1
Fig. 56.
acting at distances
from O.
or
2P,
be
Pl^l+P2^2 +
P3^3
+ "-
^^
^P^-
Hence,
the resultant
is
R = 2P, I Rx = l.PxJ
.
(4)
-_^Px
2P =
2Px = 0.
and
48
Special cases
(i)
ELEMENTARY STATICS
If
3Px = 0, but IP
is
result-
If i'P
= 0, but ^Px
is
satis-
fied
reduce to a couple.
For
if
be equal.
for
moment
lines,
Hence they must act along zero. and therefore form a couple.
1.
different straight
Prove that if the sum of the moments about two are separately zero, and AB is not parallel to the forces, the forces must be in equilibrium.
Examples.
points
A and B
2. Prove algebraically that if 2P =0, and the sum of the moments about one point is zero, the sum of the moments about any other
point
is
zero.
a system of particles in one straight line, of weights Wj, Wg, Wg, etc., are at (fistances x^, x^, Xg, etc., from a point O
If
by
point
at a distance x from
given by
This point
is
Mass
(or
Centre of Gravity)
of the weights.
Thus,
if
by a pressure
is
rod
bit
each
little
be regarded as acted on by its own weight, and these forces will have a single resultant passing through the Centre
may
PARALLEL FORCES
of
49
is
Mass
mass
of the rod.
If
the rod
is
is
uniform (that
to
say
its
if
centre
will
the rod
may
If
we
mass
of a rod is at a certain
point G,
of the rod
may
be considered
is
placed
does not affect the position of the centre of mass of the rod.
will
Chapter X.).
1. A plank AB, 10 ft. long and weighing 50 lbs., on two supports, one at A and the other 2 ft. from B. If a man of weight 150 lbs. stands on the plank 3 ft. from A, find the pressure on the supports.
Examples.
rests
>KP
QA
<-t
W^
Y
150
i 50
Fig. 57.
Taking the
man and
.-.
supports.
taking
moments about
A,
Qx8-150x3-50x5=0;
.-.
P + Q = 200
;
and
Q=87-5; P = 112-5.
uniform rod, 5 ft. long and weighing 6 lbs., has weights 5 attached to it at distances 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ft. from one end A. Find at what point it can be supported by a single force.
2.
1, 2, 3, 4,
Here
R =1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6=21,
50
ELEMENTARY STATICS
x= 71/21
or 3-38
3.
ft.
=3-38,
from
A.
in
1
forces
(i)
(ii)
2, 2,
(iii)
2,
6, 6,
along a rod.
as before, 6, - 1 as before.
ft.
-1
4.
long, forces 2,
-3, -4,
6,
-1,
moment.
horizontal rod, 18 ins. long and weighing IJ lbs., has a weight of 2 lbs. hung at a point 12 ins. from one end. If the ends are supported by spring balances, find the reading of each.
6. A plank, 20 ft. long and weighing 60 lbs., rests on two supports, one at A and the other 3 ft. from B. If a weight of 40 lbs. is placed on the plank 6 ft. from A, find the pressure on each support. 7. A imiform horizontal beam, 20 ft. long and weighing 2 cwt., supported at its ends, and carries loads of 3, 2, 5, 4 cwt. at distances Find the pressures on the supports. 3, 7, 12, 15 ft. from one end.
8.
is
rod AB, 10
ft.
is
lbs.,
long and weighing 6 lbs., is supported at A load of 1 lb. is suspended at B, and 5 lbs. ft. and 6 ft. from B. If the pressure on the where is the other support ?
Find the magnitude and line of action of the resultant of parallel forces 3, 5, 8 in one direction, and 7 in the opposite, acting at points A, B, C, D in a straight line, where AB = 1 ft., BC =3 ft.,
CD =4
10.
ft.
plank, 15 ft. long and weighing 30 lbs., rests on supports, one at one end A, and the other 2| ft. from B. A boy walks along the plank, which just begins to tilt when he is a foot from B. Find the weight of the boy.
11. A uniform bar AB, 4 ft. long, is free to turn in a vertical plane about a hinge at A. It is supported at any angle with the horizontal by a vertical string attached to a point of the rod 18 inches from A. Find the greatest weight that can be hung from B without breaking the string, supposing the string cannot support a tension of more than 16 Ibs.-wt. 12. A ladder, 40 ft. long and weighing IJ cwt., has its centre of mass 16 ft. from one end. It is being carried by two men, one of whom supports it at the heavy end, while the other supports it 4 ft. from the light end. How much of its weight does each support ?
PARALLEL FORCES
35.
51
The Balance.
we have
and we
is
The
:
essential parts
may
A
Fig. 58.
aiiX^
A
A and B themselves The mass G is below the
-The
balance.
AB beam
line
represents the
beam
of the balance,
being the points from which the scale pans hang freely.
is
constructed so that
its
centre of
AB.
The beam
is
a point C.
right angles to
pointer rigidly attached to the beam and at AB moves over a fixed scale D, to shew whether The suspension at C is formed of a the beam is horizontal. knife-edge (or wedge) of steel or agate, fixed to the beam
and pointing downwards, and resting on a fixed plate of steel or agate on the pillar of the balance. At A and B similar knifeedges, fixed to the beam, project upwards, and the scale-pans hang from planes which rest on these knife-edges.
By
when
weighing operation
the knife-edge at
finished the
beam can be
raised so that
C no longer rests on its plane, and at the same time the planes at A and B are raised off their knife-edges.
52
ELEMENTARY STATICS
for the scale-pans
The
is
scale
may
be a millimetre
horizontal.
scale, usually
is,
is
HB
G
and
will
C, H,
if
In this case,
the
equal weights
remain horizontal, and the pointer rest at the middle of the scale [i.e. at the 100).
beam
come
to
it is
an exact
Nor
to rest.
is it
come absolutely
On
come
actually
oscillates
about
this position,
of rest has to be
36.
We
of the
the inclination
and
let
Q = the weights
a = the length
A;
arm
(that
is,
AH = BH =a).
PAKALLEL FORCES
The beam
P
is
53
downwards at A and B, downwards at G, and the vertical upward reaction at C. Using the principle that the sum of the moments about any point is zero, take moments about C.
+ S, Q + S,
W,
vertically
Q+S
'^P+S
Fig. 59.
Now
.'.
AN.
moment
Also the
The moment
W
W
is
V^{k + l) sin d.
Attending to
we have {P + S){acos6-ksui0)
signs,
:.
therefore
= (k + l) sin 6 + {Q + S) (a cos6 + k sin 6) sind{{P + S)k + {Q + S)k + \N(k + l)} = cos0{(P + S)a-(Q + S)a} ;
(P
54
ELEMENTARY STATICS
From
this result it will
be seen that
if
beam remains
which
is,
beam
will
take a
not horizontal.
the centre of mass of
h and
the
beam and
beam
when equal
avoided by
This
is
The
- Q) may be taken
which
is
as a measure of the
therefore
(5)
(P
+ Q4-2S)A;-}-W(A;-f-0'
will
always be small in any case of weighing, and tan 6 same as the circular measure of Q,
and therefore will also be proportional to the number of divisions on the scale moved over by the pointer from its standard position. Thus the sensitiveness may be denoted by the number of divisions in the displacement of the resting
point for a difference of weights of
1
milligramme.
sensitiveness diminishes as
however k = 0, that
line,
is
to say,
if
are in a straight
and
is
is
This condition
beam with
Usually
PARALLEL FORCES
is
55
load allowed
is
slightly
maximum
The
make the
possible, it will
that
I
it
is
make
small,
These conditions,
make
beam is
horizontal
and
in weighing, the
beam
..\X--'a'--
A
38.
A
Fig. 60.
Double Weighing.
of the
arms be
a, a',
of the
horizontal
when
beam
acts at a distance
X from C.
Then
Sa+Wa; = SV.
in S requires
(1)
in S' to
make
the
(2)
56
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Now
From
place P in
S',
and balance
it
(S
(1)
(1)
and and
(2),
(3),
From
From
and the
these equations
ratio of the
we can
for
arms
P2
= QQ'
(4)
and
In any ordinary case
is
--^ = a/I' a Q ^| Q
Q
and Q' are very nearly
equal,
(5)
and
it
mean
for the
For where
let
Q'
=Q+
tf,
w is very small
P = s/QGl'
compared with Q,
= Q+w/2 = ^t^;
also
a' /a
= -Jq'/Q. = Jl + w/Q = 1 + 2Q
very nearly
2Q
^r
39. Steelyards.
The Common
or
or
Roman
hook attached at one end to carry the body, whose weight is required. The rod is graduated, and a weight w can be moved along the rod, and its position when the rod is horizontal
gives the weight of the body.
PAKALLEL FORCES
Let
57
S = weight
a = distance
X = distance
R = weight
of
from
C,
,
of rod,
AT
X
llllllllllllllllllllllllll
A
wh-s
Fig. 61.
is
equiUbrium,
(S+W)a = w:r + R6
Suppose now that
is
altered to W',
x' to get
again
then we have
(S+W')a =
Hence,
W+
R6,
(W'-W)a=w(a;'-a;).
if
as equal to
we take equal changes in W, say, think of W' a pound for various values of W, then x' -x will
In other words, the graduations are
all
The
If its
by putting
W=
0,
distance from
is o^q,
Xi^
we have
= {Sa-Rb)/w,
58
ELEMENTARY STATICS
(1)
can be written
Wa=w(a;-a;o)
x-XQ = Walw.
CB =
I,
is
But if a weight w' can be hung from B, and if we compare two cases, first when w' is not present, and secondly when it is, and suppose w to be in the same position in each case, and if also Wj is the weight of the body in the second case, we have
AB = 30in.,
AC=
.-.
lbs.,
CB = 28
1 lb.
Now,
if
we hang a weight
of
that
w'
= l,
we have
or the steelyard will
= 28, W^ - W = 14,
1
a = 2,
14 to 28
lbs.,
and a
2-lb.
lbs.
weight hung at B
to 42
lbs.,
weigh anything
from 28
and
so on.
is
and
to cause the
II
to be
much
form
of weigh-bridge,
and
PARALLEL FORCES
40.
59
The Danish
Steelyard.
of steelyard is the
A much
Danish,
where the rod is weighted at one end and is supported by a movable fulcrum, and the weight is given by the position of
the fulcrum.
uT
HZ
W+S
Fig. 62. The Danish steelyard.
beam
from
a;
A, of the
= distance
is
= weight
(S+W)a; = P(a-a;);
.-.
Pa = (S+W-f-P)a;.
If
now
is
changed to
W,
fulcrum to
x',
we have
Pa = (S-|-W'-f-P)a;', Pa/a;=S+W + P, Pa/a;' = S+W'+P,
Pa(---) = W-W.
\x
X /
Of course, as
this equation.
increases,
x diminishes, as
will
be seen from
60
li
ELEMENTARY STATICS
W* is
another weight, and x" the corresponding value of
x,
Paf --r7Vw'-W".
\X
X }
Therefore,
if
W - W = W - W",
X
x'
a;'"
or in other wbrds,
if
harmonical progression.
Examples.
1.
body appears
when placed
in one scale-pan of a balance, and to weigh 51-577 gms. when placed What is its true weight and the ratio of the arms? in the other. Also compare the true values given by equations (4) and (5), Art. 38,
(6)
and
(7).
three knife-edges of a balance are in one straight line. The length of the balance arm is 20 cms., the mass of the beam is The angular deflection for a change of a centigram in the 100 gms load is 001 of the radian. Find the distance of the centre of mass of the beam from the central knife-edge.
3. A uniform rod AB, of weight w, c^n turn about a fulcrum at a point whose distances from the ends are a and b If a body is hung from A it balances a weight hung from B, and if hung from B it balances a weight hung from A. Find the weight of the body
The
in
If
terms of o = 12 ins., 6
W W, W,
= 10
a, b.
ins.,
W = 15
oz.,
W=
a balance when unloaded is a body is being weighed the resting point is at 130 when the weight in the scale-pan is 26-87. When the weight is 26-88 the resting-point is 18. What is the true weight to the nearest
4.
The
at 96.
When
?
milligram
5.
The beam
of a balance
is
The pointer scale is divided into millimetres. If the weight of the beam is 200 gms. and 1 gm. moves the pointer through one division, shew that the distance of the centre of mass of the beam below the knife-edge is 3/16 mm., the three knife-edges being in one line.
6. If the arms of a balance are a and a', and the weights of the scale-pans S and S', other letters being as in Art. 36, prove that
tan^ =
Pa - Qa'
{P
+ Qi + S+S')k+\N(k+l)
PARALLEL FORCES
7.
61
steelyard the rod AB is a imiform beam of length lbs., and the fulcrum is 4 ins. from A. The scale-pan is weighted so as to be of weight 10 lbs., and the moving weight is 1 lb. It is graduated to quarters of a pound. Find the distance between the graduations, the greatest weight that can be weighed, and the position of the zero.
In a
common
36
ins.
and weight 3
CHAPTER
WORE.
41.
IV.
SIMPLE MACHINES.
When a man or engine lifts a body vertically, he is said do work, the amount of work being measured by the product Thus, if a of the weight raised, and the height it is raised. bricklayer takes a hod of bricks weighing 70 lbs. up a vertical ladder 40 ft. high, he is said to do 70 x 40 ft.-lbs. of work. The work does not depend at all on the time taken to raise the weight. It does not matter whether the man takes 2 mins. or 10 mins. over it, the work done is the same, but the
to
work
is different.
More
work tohen
is
its
foint of
the pro-
application
measured by
duct of the force into the distance the point of application moves
W
it
slides
down an
incline,
is
is
true
is
straight or curved in
any way.
63
remains
A to
direction,
is
always making an
s
work done
cos
or P cos 6
s,
which
is
If
ment
if
nitude
The work done by the resultant of two forces {constant in magand direction) is equal to the sum of the amounts of work
B
if
P and
are
the two
forces acting
and the particle is displaced from A to B, the sum of the amounts of work ^P fig. 66. done by P and Q is AB. Pcosa + AB. Qcos/3 = AB(Pcoso(.-f QcoS|8), if a., 13 are the angles P and Q make with AB, but P cos a + Q cos j8 = sum of resolutes of P and Q along AB = resolute along AB of the resultant of P and Q .'. the above amount of work is equal to the work done by the resultant. The same result evidently holds for any number
on a
particle,
of forces
meeting at a point.
64
48.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
A
similar
theorem
is
that the
force in
is
sum of the amounts of two successive displacements equal to the work done by the
^P
For
if
I
is
AB,
BC
are the
two displacements, AC
is
the resultant
displacement, and with the letters of the figure the total work
done
in the
two displacements
P.AM+P.BK = P.(AM+BK)
= P AN = work done
.
44. Virtual
Work.
if
a particle
is
in equilibrium
particle is
of forces,
and the
any direction while the forces remain constant magnitude and direction, the total work done is zero,
A P.
Fig. 68.
The same
by a number
itself.
of
the rod
is
displaced either
parallel to itself or
made
65
...
Xj^,
x^,
x^,
from a
we have
that
2P=0
and
but
if
2Pa;=0,
the rod
is
and
if
the rod
is
same
direction, the
of the rod
and
in the
Pi^i sin 6
+ PgOig sin ^ +
. . .
= sin dlPx
0.
saying
that
the
total
work
the top of an incline, one of the bodies (Q) resting on the incline and the other hanging
vertically,
Fig, 69.
is
no
..
friction
between
and the
plane,
and
the inclination be
find,
by the principle of Virtual Work, the Q when they remain at rest. The forces on each body are as marked. Now, suppose P displaced downwards a distance x, Q will move up the same distance. The total work done for each body is zero. The tension does positive work on Q and an equal amount of negative work on P, the work done by R is zero, as the displacement is perpendicular to R hence the total work done by gravity on the two bodies is zero, or as it is commonly expressed, the work done
wish to
relation
We
between P and
B.E.S.
66
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Q..
by gravity on P is equal to the work done against gravity by Now Q moves a vertical height of x sin ex..
.'.
.'.
The
Virtual (that
to examples.
is
We
will
machine
is
an apparatus
in
which work
is
done on
is
^y\
"N
work done by the machine at another part. The force applied to do work at the first part is generally called the Power. The force exerted by the second part of the machine overcomes an external force called the Weight or Resistance. Thus, in the example above, the inclined plane may be regarded as a simple machine in which P is the power and Q is the weight. Take as another illustration a system of pulleys,
represented
diagrammatically
in
Fig.
70,
but
y
^ J
spoken of as
is
which
the weight
attached,
movable.
In each block
string
at
first
neglect
x,
friction.
We
will
raised
distance
will
The
total
work
67
and
non-existent, the
is
equal to
n portions of the string pulling at the lower block, and the work done by these is Tx x n, These there? while the work done against T by P is T x nx. fore cancel, and we have to consider only the work done by P and on W, and these are Pnx and Wa; .*. Pnx Wx by
P, for there are
;
/.
W = nP.
In
all
unchanged and the tension is the same throughamounts of work done by and against the tension cancel one another, and can be omitted altogether, and the same applies to rigid weightless connections. We will illustrate by further examples of machines, but will first define some frequently used terms.
string remains
out, the
a force
of the
W,
the ratio
If,
W/P
is
Advantage
x,
machine.
while P
displaced a distance
is
is
no
friction
weightless,
then,
by the
principle of work,
"p-y'
or,
advantage
is
equal to the
displacement
If there is friction,
Px
will not be equal to Wy, but Wy<Px, work done by the machine than is put
mto
it,
or energy
is
The
ratio
W -
68
is
ELEMENTARY STATICS
then called the Efficiency.
efficiency is unity,
The mechanical advantage can be anything from As a simple example take the system
illustrated,
of pulleys already
calling
W
lifted.
the
total
weight
of
the
ratio is n,
if
moving and
is
there
no
of
100
lbs.
could be lifted by
But
in
practice the force required to raise the weight of 100 lbs. will
was found to be 40 Ibs.-wt. work are done, P goes down 4 ft., and 160 ft.-lbs. of work are done by P. The ratio j^g = | In other words f of the work is the efficiency of the system. done on (or energy supplied to) the machine is utiUzed, the
be greater than 25 Ibs.-wt., say
it
In
lifting
1 ft.,
100
ft. -lbs.
of
48.
wheel
W to be raised
force
is
attached to one
end
axle.
of
The
P
it
is
applied tangentially
to the wheel.
In this case
radii of the
is
best to
consider
If
the
b,
a distance
2x6..
and
rises
a distance
The displacement
69
The
Differential
diffe-
two portions of the axle of different radii bi and &2j ^^^ ^^^ weight, instead of being tied to the rope, is slung on it by a ring, so that the rope can unwind from the smaller axle, and wind up on the larger.
In this case, in one rotation of the wheel
the rope
is
7r(6i
- 63)
displacement
ratio
2a
61-62
50.
The
pulley
by
side,
one a
little
larger
An
Fig. 73.
as in the figure.
The chain is pulled by a force P, and prevented from slipping in the grooves by projections engaging the chain.
70
Example.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
If the
h,
prove that
^z-
The Screw
Press.
is
is
moved by
Fig, 74.
FlQ. 75.
plate
the screw.
If the pitch is
jp
and a force P
is
each do work
p
is
^ira,
neglecting friction,
P iira = W;p,
.
'
f
.
is
operating,
it
as the
fact,
In
71
(in
wiile
its
Lifting Jack
is
of the
angle with the axis of the screw, so that bevel wheels are
required to cause one to actuate the other.
52.
Cogged Wheels.
B,
each
axis.
Suppose
Fig. 76.
A and w on B, and a and h are the radii are attached. which P and A will make n revolutions, while B makes m.
there are teeth on
of the wheels to
Example.
53.
If
ratio is nalmh.
Work done by
a Variable Force.
we have
amount
of
may be
represented as follows
and the
placement.
72
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Draw a graph
representing
the
horizontal axis,
and the
of application
is
at A, MjPi
is
the force
when
and
so on.
A M,M^
application
Suppose we want to fiiid the work done as the point of moves from A to B.
We
will
is
represented
s,
ABDCA between
To prove
this,
A and
B.
short intervals
by
number of and draw ordinates to meet the graph, and CKj, PKj
into a large
,
AB
...
if
made
short
is
enough.
which
the distance,
is
nearly equal to
CAxAMj,
is
or
is
nearly repre-
nearly represented
be represented nearly by the area bounded by CA, AB, BD, and the series of steps CKiPiKgPg-.. The shorter the little intervals (or the more numerous they
73
more accurate
itself.
become, and
coincidence
also
represented
work
will
be accurately
of the
ft.-lbs. of
54. Springs
The only
force
is
case
we
shall
where a
spiral spring or
We have
to
when an
at one end
and a weight is hung at the other, the string is found increase in length, and the extension of the string is prois,
This
is
The extension
same material
is
also
in-
proportional to
where P
I
is
the force
is
the length
when
unstretched.
If
we
call s
the extension,
we can
Pi
therefore write
where E
Modulus.
is
is
called
Young's
74
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Writing this as
P=
-,- s,
we may
or
also write it
P = Xs/l P = ks,
is
String,
When A = 1 and s = l
section to
that P
= E,
if
or E
is
numerically
double
its
natural
length,
it
previously, or Hooke's
Law
cease to hold.
The extension
same law
in so
but we
may have
we only
55.
Work done
s
a String or Spring.
the
string
is
when
elongated an
force-
amount
above
its
natural length
is ks, if
we draw the
FlQ. 78.
space graph
to a length
it is
s,
a straight line, and the work done in stretching] where ON = s and AN = ks, is
^0N.AN=^Jb2 = |P5,
if
is
springs
may be
called
75
Roberval's
for weights
Balance
to 7 lbs.,
is
very
extensively
used
for
small
up
is
not required.
FiQ. 79.
Roberval's Balance.
It consists of a framework of four jointed rods, of which CD, EF are capable of rotating about fixed knife-edges at A
and
parallelogram,
As the balance moves the bars continue to form a CE and DF, which carry the scale-pans always remaining vertical, and consequently the scale-pans move through equal distances. Hence, if there is equilibrium when weights P and are in the scale-pans, the principle of work
B.
shews that
P = W.
No work
amount
It
is
a whole, for
done by or against gravity by the framework as any portion of one side rises exactly the same
falls.
in the pans.
apparatus.
In the
common
balance,
immaterial.
76
57.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Weighing Machine.
shewn
D
in the figure.
G
f
H
Fio. 80.
Quintenz'3 Balance.
is
A,
B
is
EF
E
placed.
C, D, F,
are joints.
rests on a fulcrum fixed to AC. Now, if the bars move, C and D will move the same say X downwards.
distance,
E and H
F and
will
move a
distance -r
AH
AC
x.
G will move a
AH
if
distance
BD
- x.
will
RO
BD' E and F
Therefore
r. =zrir,
AC
distance, '
and therefore the whole platform moves the same If we call the distance the platform moves x',
distance.
Q moves down a
distance
x',
K moves up a distance
x',
i
W,
and therefore
if
a weight P at K
is
required to balance
W = ^P. BG
77
it
distance,
placed.
does
the load
is
is made with KB = 10 BG, and is then Decimal Balance. The work done by the parts of the machine is not taken into account in the above theory.
called a
EXAMPLES.
1. In the system of pulleys in which a single string passes round the tAVO blocks, there are six portions of the string between the two. What is the displacement ratio ? If the efficiency of the apparatus is 30 per cent., what energy has to be supplied to raise a weight of 150 lbs. 20 ft. ?
the lower block contains two pulleys and weighs 2 lbs. three, what would the mechanical advantage be in raising a 20 lb. weight if there were no friction, and what energy is wasted in raising it 10 ft. if a force of 6 lbs. is actually required ?
2. If 3.
fixed pulley
and a
single
for raising
If the efficiency is
how much
4. A man suspends himself by standing in a bucket at one end of a rope, and pulling at the other end. If is the weight of the man, and of the bucket, find the tension of the rope and the pressure of the man on the bucket.
painters seated on a plank haul themselves up by of a block and tackle at each end of the plank. If each man weighs 10 stone, and the plank and lower blocks weigh a cwt., each block, find the pull each man and there are three sheaves must exert, and his pressure on the plank, neglecting friction.
5.
Two
means
6. The handle of a winch has a radius of 18 ins., and the drum 6 ins. in diameter. Fmd the force on the handle necessary to Explain how gear wheels may be give a pull of 2 cwt. on the rope. used, so that the same force on the handle would give a pull of
is
half a ton.
7. A bucket of weight 50 lbs. is raised by a windlass whose dimensions are as in Question 6. What force would be required if there were no friction ? What is the efficiency if the force actually required is 12 Ibs.-wt. ?
78
ELEMENTARY STATICS
The 8. An ordinary winch is used to lift a weight of 112 lbs. length of the handle is 20 ins., and the diameter of the barrel of the winch is 8 ins. What force on the handle would be required to raise the weight if there were no friction ? If a force of 30 lbs. is actually required, find the energy wasted on account of friction in raising the weight 20 ft.
9. In a differential wheel and axle the two parte of the axle are of radii 4 and 5 ins., and the force is applied at the end of an arm 18 ins. long. To raise a weight of 2000 lbs. a force of 96 lbs. What is the efficiency ? is required.
10. In a differential wheel and axle the two parts of the rope is slung make an angle 2a. with one another, on which the weight and a, b, r are the radii of the two parts of the axle and of the wheel. Prove that (6 - a) sec o., Pr = J
neglecting friction.
11. The handle of a screw press is 20 ins. long, and the screw advances \ in. in each complete revolution. Find the pressure exerted by the press when a force of 12 Ibs.-wt. is applied at each end of the handle. Find also the work done in a complete revolution of the handle (neglect friction).
12. long,
screw press be if the handle is 2 ft. force of 10 Ibs.-wt. applied at each end of the handle causes a pressure of 5000 Ibs.-wt. to be exerted by the press (neglect
will the pitch of the
What
and a
friction) ?
screws of pitches p and p' are cut on the same cylinder. works in a fixed nut, the second on a nut that can move longitudinally, but is prevented from turning. The driving force the resistance acts on is applied at the end of an arm of length h the movable nut. Find the ratio of driving force to resistance.
13.
Two
The
first
14.
body
in
to the plane.
work done
pulled up a rough incline AB by a force P parallel Shew that the work done is equal to the sum of the pulling the body by a horizontal force along an equally
is
rough horizontal plane equal to the base AC, and then vertically from C to B.
15.
lifting it
weight of 260
ft.
lbs. is
pulled
up a plane
of length 13
if
ft.
and
height 5
(i)
(ii)
the co-
(iii)
when the force is parallel to the plane when it is horizontal when the least possible force is used (see
CHAPTER
ANY FORCES
58. Couples.
V.
IN
ONE PLANE.
We
parallel
and opposite
forces
We
therefore speak of
two such forces as forming a Couple. The distance between the two
forces
is
called the
Arm
of the couple
of either force
the
arm of the couple is called Moment or Torque of the Couple. We shall find that the moment is
^^'
'~
*^"p-
magnitude
length of the
arm
by
which
their
moment. The effect of a couple on a body may be seen by placing a rod on a horizontal table and applying two forces by means of spring balances to any points in the rod. If the rod is held
fixed until the forces are
made
always begin to
and the magnitude of the effect produced depends on the moment of the couple. Further, two forces, as in
79
80
Fig. 82, will
ELEMENTARY STATICS
make
the body rotate in the positive direction of
make
it
it
rotate in
We
As usual
FlO. 82.
Fig. 83.
call the positive one if we are The direction of the moment of a couple may be represented by a curved arrow as in the figures. The
curved arrow
may
also
59.
Theorems on Couples.
tJie
The algebraic sum of the moments of about any point in its plane is constant.
forces of a couple
tP
Fig. 84. Fig. 85.
Thus,
if
O
is
is
any
point, the
.
sum
.
of the
moments abou
i
in Fig. 84
P OB - P
OA
is
= P.
and in
Fig.
AB,
P.OA + P. AB
= P.AB.
Thus the algebraic sum of the moments of a couple about any point is what we have defined as the moment of the couple
ANY FORCES
As a
couple
special case
is it
IN
ONE PLANE
81
may
equal to the
moment
also only
moment
of a couple.
it may be noticed that two equal and opposite forces same straight line may be said to form a couple of zero moment, and conversely the moment Pa of a couple can only
be zero
if
either
a=0
line,
and
P = 0,
in
all.
to
one couple
whose moment
is the
sum
Case
(i).
When
all parallel.
P,
and
A can be combined into a single force R, These single forces will be equal, parallel and opposite, for they are both resultants of P and Q at the same angle. Hence the two couples are equivalent to
The
forces P, Q, at
so can the P
and
Q at C.
a single couple.
B.E,S.
82
Also the
ELEMENTARY STATICS
moment
of this resultant couple
of
R at A
about C of P and
at
(Art. 30)
P+Q
tP
YP+Q
FIO. 87.
Case
(ii).
When
parallel.
A and C are equivalent to a single force P + Q at some point E and parallel to P and Q, and Hence the couples are similariy for P and Q at B and D.
In Fig. 87, P and
at
Also the
moment
of the
= 8um
of the twc
forces P
+Q
of
and
F.
P + Q at E
= sum of moments
and similarly for the
about
O
of
of
P at A and
F.
Q at C,
moment
P+Q at
= algebraic sum of moments of the four original = sum of moments of the two original couples.
Hence two couples
plane balance.
forces
of equal and opposite moments in For they are equivalent to a single couplfl
ANY FORCES
of zero
IN
ONE PLANE
83
equilibrium.
61.
By
we have the
result that
Any
12lh.i.iJjf'.
SibS.wt.
Fig. 88.
It follows, as
we have
moment
arm
is
neither
of
magnitude or direction
part of
From
number
it
couple whose
moment
is
the algebraic
84
ELEMENTARY STATICS
62. Couples in Parallel Planes.
Though
it
we
will
may
any
without altering
-Q^x
We will first
and opposite
planes balance.
*^'- ^-
The
forces of
one couple
may
be
altered so as to
other.
make them
will
The arms
P's at
A and B represent one couple, and the P's at C and D represent another of equal and opposite moment, all the forces being parallel and AB parallel to CD. Then ABDC is a parallelogram, and the forces at A and D are equivalent to 2P at its centre O, and the forces at B and C are equivalent to 2P at O in the opposite direction. Hence the
Let the
four forces balance, or the original couples balance.
in the
same
Forces
2, 3, 2,
which
3 Ibs.-wt. act along the sides AB, etc., AB is 5 ft. and BC 4 ft. Find the
2. Solve the same problem as in Example 1, but with ABCD a parallelogram, whose angle ABC is 120, .the lengths of the sides
being as before.
3.
Forces
?
1,
-2,
3,
1,
in order of
-2, 3 Ibs.-wt. act along the sides taken ft. What is the resultant
couple
63.
We
parallelogram law
require only
required.
We
shall,
required also.
ANY FORCES
We
can
IN
ONE PLANE
and a couple
85
and Couple.
force
in
now
see
how
to
compound a
let
one plane.
Let P be a force at O, and
forces
acting at
A and
B.
We
%Q,
"O'
Fia. 90.
any other
of the
same moment.
of
Thus we can
shift
the couple,
turn round the forces, and alter their magnitudes until they
are each P,
and one
them
acts at
arm
in order to
unchanged.
at
We now
The
side
on which the
resul-
tant
lies
couple.
may
he replaced
h
91,
if
to begin with,
Fig. 91.
forces at
86
ELEMENTAKY STATICS
and now one force at O and the force at A form a couple whose moment is Pa, if a is the perpendicular from O on the line of action of P. Thus we are left with a force at O equal and parallel to the original force, and a couple. The moment of the couple may be written P OA sin 0, where 6 is the angle between P and OA.
.
Examples. 1. Forces 2, 3, 2 act along the sides AB, BC, CD of a rectangle, in which AB is 5 ins. and BC 4 ins. Find the resultant force in direction and magnitude, and find where its line of action cuts AB.
2.
in a square position.
BD
Forces are represented in magnitude and position by AB, CD, ABCD. Find the resultant in magnitude and
3. ABCD is a parallelogram in which AB is 6 ins., BC is 4 ins. and the angle A is 60. Forces 5, 3, 5 Ibs.-wt. act along CD, DA, AB. Find where the resultant force cuts AB.
65. Composition of
We
forces in a plane.
Q, R acting at A, B, C,
etc.
"4 t^"
^R
^r
by
%
Fig. 92.
We
at
O and
replace P
is L,
by an equal
Similarly
force
O and
moment
say.
is
and at couple M, and so on. In the figure the couples are represented by the curved arrows with the magnitudes of their moments against them. Notice in the figure N will be negative if L and M are positive. We have now a number of forces at O, and a number of couples. We can reduce these by the former methods. Thus
replaced
Q at O
ANY FOECES
the forces at
IN
ONE PLANE
*
87
may happen
left
(i)
Hence we are
together with
with
(ii)
a single force or
zero,
(iii)
a couple or
(i)
(iv) zero.
Now,
if
we have
:
and
(iii),
we can
further reduce
them
to
a single force
(i)
(ii) (ii)
and
and
(iv) also
(iii)
and
(iv)
result that
any system
of forces
whatever
of
system there
is
in
the
sum
of the
For,
first,
point.
of
the forces of a
when a
replaced
by a
parallel
and equal
force
and a couple,
the
sum
Also in combining
sum
of the
unaffected,
and
so it
is
Nor secondly,
is
the
moment about any given point affected, by a force and a couple is performed
by the addition of two equal and opposite forces in the same straight line, and the total moment is left unaffected, and the
88
ELEMENTARY STATICS
is
same gram
by the paralleloand obviously also in combining couples by the simple addition of their moments. Thus, in other words we may say when we reduce the forces
true (by Art. 30) in combining forces
law,
to in
any
direction
is
equal to the
sum
of the resolutes of
equal to the
moments
When
the force
a single force at A
is
O may
be,
chosen.
The same
apply to the
number
The
single force at
is
to
two
equilateral
side,
p=the
between
parallelogram, so that
(i)
p = ^.
;
we then have
and couples as
in (o).
ANY FORCES
IN
ONE PLANE
89
For example, the force 3 along BC is equivalent to 3 at A and a couple 3^ in the direction marked. These forces and couples compound next into the forces and couples shewTi in {b). Now the two 3's at an angle 120 are equivathus we lent to 3 along the bisector of the angle between them get the forces as in (c), and finally as in (d).
;
Thus we
(ii)
at
A and a couple 5p or ^
couples,
:
5a\/3
If
in the
we replace the forces by forces at B and same way the following successive steps
.3
we have
Fig. 95,
The single resultant is 1 and parallel to BC, and its position is got by noting that its distance from A will be 5p, for the force at A and couple can be represented as
(iii)
Fig. 96.
and we are
left
We can otherwise
way
If
:
1 at a point H, where AH=5p. get the position of the resultant in the following
a point on the line of action of the resultant, the sum of of the original forces about X must be zero, since moment of the resultant about X is zero. Suppose that the resultant cuts AB at a point X at a distance x from A. We write down that the sum of the moments about X is zero.
is
the the
moments
3(a-)-2- + 3(a-a;)-2
\/3
\/3
.^
;
a^/3 g
ars'S
x=5a.
90
ELEMENTARY STATICS
thus giving a point on the line of action of the resultant. It will be found that this agrees with the result obtained above, that the resultant acts at a distance 5p from A.
2. Shew that if three forces act along the sides of a triangle and are proportional to the sides, they are equivalent to a couple. Let the forces be ka, kb, kc. Replace ka by an equal force at A now have three and a couple. forces at A parallel to the three sides of the triangle taken in order and proportional to them, and also a The forces at A are in couple. equilibrium by the triangle of forces, and therefore the original forces reduce to a couple whose moment is
We
fci
AN =2ifc X area
of the triangle,
forces represented in direction, magnitude and sides of a polygon, taken in order, are equivalent
to a couple.
4.
Shew that
if
moments
of a
about three points not in the same straight forces must be equivalent to a couple.
line are
5. Shew that if the sums of the moments of a system of forces are the same about two different points, the forces are either equivalent to a couple or have a resultant parallel to the line joining the
two
6.
points.
Li each of the following diagrams (each of which is a square 5 in.) reduce the forces to (i) a single force at A and a couple, (ii) B (iii) O and when reduced to a single resultant, find where it cuts AB
of side
7.
Forces -2,
1, 4,
ANY FORCES
8.
IN
ONE PLANE
91
Forces P, 2P, - P, 2P act along the sides AB, etc., of a square Shew that the forces P->/2 along each of BD and CA. reduce to a couple, and find its moment.
ABCD, and
We
reduced either to
or or
(fe)
(c)
be seen (from Art. 65) that for this to occur, the single force
must be
We
may
be in equilibrium.
three
conditions
equilibrium,
conditions
may
as follows
is
in equilibrium if the
sums
of
and
the
sum
may
must
By
^ gj^gl^ fo^^g^
a couple,
nothing at
all.
If
(1)
we have
if
The
the sums
any two
is
of the
two
directions,
which
impossible.
92
(2)
ELEMENTARY STATICS
The forces cannot reduce to a couple, for a couple has a moment, not zero, about every point in its plane, the forces must reduce to nothing at all.
definite
.'.
The sums
of the
points
A and B
The sums
will
of the
same
We
If
the
sum
moments about A
is zero,
may
But
if
A,
B,
straight line the resultant force cannot pass through the three,
and
all.
fol-
draw a diagram and mark all the forces, then write down the three equations obtained by (i) Equating the sums of the resolved parts in two different
lowed wiU be to
first
to zero.
From
three
if
the question
is
capable of solution.
In selecting a point
noticed that
if
moments about,
it
may
be
that force
will
not appear
ANY FORCES
in the equation of
IN
ONE PLANE
93
two
Examples.
at A,
Fig. 99.
of the reaction at A is at first unkno^vn and simplest to represent it by horizontal and vertical components
Y.
X and
'
verticaUy,
60
.-.
T=25\/3=43-31bs.-wt.,
X=25v/3,
Y = 30.
Ibs.-wt.,
The
and
resultant reaction
is
6 ^- =
2v/3
horizontal,
43'.
2. A ladder rests against a smooth vertical wall with the lower end on a horizontal floor, the coefficient of friction at the floor being 0-5. Find the greatest angle the ladder can make with the vertical. Find also the greatest angle if the wall were not smooth, but there were a coefficient of friction of 0-4 at the upper end.
=
94
Case
(i).
ELEMENTARY STATICS
When
the wall
is
Let
and
Resolving vertically,
horizontally,
=W
=0
;
moments about
Hence
A,
R=W,
.-.
W an e =\N COB d
:.
S =W/2
tan
.-.
= 1;
19=45.
Fig. 100.
Fio. 101.
Case (ii). When there is friction at the wall with a coefficient 0-4, the forces are as in Fig. 101.
Resolving vertically,
horizontally,
R+|S=W;
S-h=0;
+ ?S 2a cos
.
(1)
.(2)1
moments about
A,
S 2a sm
.
=Wa cos 9.
(3)1
From
and
(2),
S = ^2 W,
R=^W.
Substitute in
(3),
| sin
.".
+ J cos d
.-.
cos 6
^sin0=cos0;
tan
.-.
= 4; 0=38
40'.
ANY FOECES
IN
ONE PLANE
95
3. A thin rod of length 21 passes over a horizontal peg, and one end A presses against a vertical wall at a distance a from the peg. If there is no friction at the peg, what is the least coefficient of friction at the wall if the rod makes an angle 6 with the horizontal ?
Fig. 102.
Suppose the end A on the point of moving upwards, the forces are then as in the figure, and we have R = Ssin 6 horizontally, (1)
(i)
;
vertically,
moments about
A,
(2)
.(3)
From
(3),
S=W-cos2^.
a
(1),
R=W-cos2^sin(9.
a
(2),
aR=W-cos'^ ^ a
_ ?COS^^-CT
W;
'^~icos*^sin6' (ii) If the end A was on the point of motion downwards, the friction is upwards, and it is only necessary to change the sign of R in (2) ; hence we get _ a -Icoa'd
^~lcoa^daia9' shew that if a =Z cos' 0, the rod will remain at rest without any friction at A, if a<Zcos'^, there is friction at A, acting downwards, keeping the end A from moving up, if a>Zcos'^, there is friction at A, acting upwards, keeping the end A from moving down.
Hence the
results
96
4.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
A
full reel of
cotton of radius a is kept at ret mth the axis of inclination a, by holding the thread, which comes off horizontally and tangentially from the middle bf the reel. If the weight is W, find the tension and friction, and find the least coefficient of friction for which the reel will rest in this way.
horizontal
on a plane
Fio. 103.
The
F+
cos
ot.
=W sin
a.
(1)
R=Wcosa. + Tsina.;
moments about the
centre,
(2)
.*.
u by
'
c F=^-; 1 +cosa.
(3)
^Wtan^c;
2
1
a.,
also
by
(2),
r=
w cos
.-.
a.
+ J^^^^^^!^
T COS CC
=W
F/R=tan|,
least as great as
must be at
tan ^.
70.
Friction.
may
by means
Thus, suppose
AB
is
weight
if
W,
the
of a
man on
it,
Then,
is
ANY FORCES
friction there
IN
ONE PLANE
97
can be combined into a single force, which makes an angle not greater than X with the vertical. Similarly, if
A' is the angle of friction at B, the resultant reaction there
makes an angle not greater than A' with the horizontal. Draw APQ at an angle X with the normal AMN, and BQN at an angle X' with the normal BPM. Then the resultant
;|^'S
Fia. 104.
Fig. 105.
reactions at
MNQP
or along
sides.
We
rest.
PQMN.
Limiting equilibrium will occur when the vertical through
K passes through Q.
friction
If
If it passes to
the
A,
left of
sufficient
falls.
Further,
it will
supplied in an infinite
number
of ways.
For
if
we
take any
98
point
ELEMENTARY STATICS
X in PQNM, and on the vertical tlirough K, we would have equilibrium if the resultant reactions at A and B passed through X, and given the position of X we know the directions of these resultant reactions, and knowing the weight we could find the reactions and their normal components and the fricBut X can be tion at -A and B. taken in an infinite number of positions. Hence we have an
W+W,
infinite
number
.of
solutions for
said to
be
indeterminate.
If
we proceed
limiting)
unknowns
is
it will
^the
each end.
have in general
an
infinite
number
of solutions.
Examples. 1. A rod AB, weighing 10 lbs., is supported by a smooth hinge at A, and has a weight of 10 lb.s. hanging at B. It is kept at an angle 6 with the downward vertical by means of a horizontal force P at B. Find P and the components of the
reaction at A,
when
(i)
(9=45;
(ii)
(9=30.
in direction
and magnitude
J
rod AB, of weight 10 lbs., is supported by a hinge at A,' and carries a weight of 30 lbs. at B. It is tied back by a string attached at a point C in the rod, to a point D vertically above A. If AB = 3 AC, find the tension and reaction if the rod and string both make angles 45 with the vertical.
3. A rod AB, of weight 10 lbs. and carrying 20 lbs. at B, ifl supported by a hinge at A and by a string attached at B, and to a point vertically above A. If the rod makes an angle 60 with, the downward vertical, shew that the shorter the string the greater the
ANY FORCES
tension.
(
IN
ONE PLANE
99
If the string cannot bear a tension of more than 34 6 =20\/3) Ibs.-wt., find the largest angle it can make with the
vertical.
supported by a hinge at A, and back by a string attached at a point C to the rod, and to a point D in the vertical through A. If the string makes an angle 6 with the vertical, and the rod makes an angle </>, and AB =2a, AD =6, find the tension of the string and
4.
W,
is
carries a weight
W'
at B.
It
is
tied
6. A beam AB, of weight 4 cwt., is supported at A and carries a weight of 2 tons at B. The beam is held by a rope attached at B and to a point vertically above A. If the beam makes an angle 40 with the upward vertical, and the rope makes an angle 70 with the
rope attached to the lower end, find the tension of this rope.
ladder 15 ft. long, weighing 100 lbs., rests against a smooth 8. wall and on a smooth horizontal plane, being kept from slipping by a horizontal rope 9 ft. long attached to the lower end and to the wall. Find the tension of the rope when a man weighing 150 lbs. is (i) h'alf way up, (ii) at the top.
9.
wall,
A ladder of weight 100 lbs. rests against a smooth vertical with the lower end on a horizontal floor, where the coefficient
is 0-4.
of friction
horizontal.
10. If the ladder in Question 9 is 15 ft. long and is placed at an angle 60 with the horizontal, how high can a man of weight 150 lbs. climb it without its slipping ?
ladder rests against a vertical wall and on a horizontal the coefficients of friction being respectively 0-5 and 0-4. Find the limiting position of equilibrium.
11.
floor,
12. A ladder rests at an angle 45 in limiting equilibrium against a vertical wall and a horizontal plane. If the coefficient of friction is the same at both ends, find it.
100
ELEMENTARY STATICS
A
ladder rests in limiting equilibrium at an angle 6 with the 13. If the coefficients of friction at horizontal against a vertical wall. the upper and lower ends are respectively /x and /x', prove that
tan^ =
14.
l^.
ladder of weight 100 lbs. rests between a smooth wall and being prevented from slipping by a rope attached to the foot of the wall, and to a point in the ladder. If the rope is perpendicular to the ladder and the ladder makes an angle 60 with the horizontal, find the tension of the rojjc and the reactions at the ends. Find also the tension when a boy weighing 100 lbs. is at the top of the ladder.
smooth
floor,
15. A rod of weight 10 lbs. rests with its ends on a smooth horizontal plane and on a smooth plane of inclination 60. It is kept at rest at an angle 30 with the horizontal, by a horizontal string attached to the lower end. Find the tension of the string and the reactions at the ends of the rod.
16. A rod is in limiting equilibrium, resting horizontally with its ends on two inclined planes at right angles, one of which makes an angle a. ( <45) with the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction fi is the same at both ends, prove that cos a. - sin a.
M=
cosoL+smoL
-a..
and that
A =45
=cot A =90
2a.,
-2a..
weightless rod of length I is placed between two rough 18. If /x is the coefficient vertical posts at a distance d apart less than I. of friction, what is the lowest point of the rod at which a weight can be hung without the rod slipping down ?
19. An equilateral triangle is formed by three uniform rods rigidly attached to one another at their ends, and is suspended on a rough horizontal peg, the angle of friction between peg and rods being A. Find the range of possible equilibrium positions, excluding those in which the peg is at a vertex of the triangle.
cotton reel, partly emptied, rests on a rough plane inclined 20. at an angle a. to the horizontal. The end of the thread is held so that it comes off parallel to the plane. If the radius of the reel is a and the radius of the cylinder formed by the cotton is h, find the least coefficient of friction necessary to prevent it from sliding
down.
ANY FORCES
A
IN
ONE PLANE
101
circular disk of weight W, whose centre is C, ia weighted 21. at one point A on the circumference by a weight W'. It rests in, equilibrium in a vertical plane on a rough plane inclined at an angle a. to the horizontal. Find the angle CA makes with the horizontal, and find the least coefficient of friction in order that it may rest in this way. Examine the case when =W', a. = 30.
uniform gate, 5 ft. high by 6 ft., weighs 150 lbs., and is supported by two hinges placed respectively 6 ins. from the top and bottom of the gate. If all the weight is borne by the lower hinge, find the reaction at each hinge.
22. 23. A square plate ABCD, of weight W, rests in a vertical plane, being supported by a hinge at A and resting against a smooth peg at If AB makes an angle 6 with the vertical, find the reaction at B. A, and the pressure on the peg.
rod AB, of length h, is supported in a horizontal position string attached to the end B, while A rests against a rough If the string is attached to the wall at a height h vertical wall. above the rod, shew that the coefficient of friction must be at least as great as hjh,
24.
by a
pole, of weight 300 lbs., is being raised by a rope attached 25. to one end, the other end of the pole being on the ground. If the pole slips when it makes an angle 30 with the horizontal and the rope is perpendicular to the pole, find the coefficient of friction and the tension of the rope at the time.
71. Other
Forces
may
can be reduced
B.
C on the
line of action of
Hence components along CA and CB. any number of forces can be reduced to one set through A, and another set through B. These can be compounded into two forces through A and B respectively.
Fio. 107.
102
ELEMENTARY STATICS
may be
reduced to
tliree forces acting
Fig. 108.
Any
force P
(or sides
cut
AC
in D.
Join BD.
DB and
DC.
The
force
DB can
BA
and BC. Thus P is replaced by three and so for any number of forces.
Example. Prove that in this case the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium are that the total forces along AB, BC, CA should separately vanish.
Methods of Compounding
Forces.
. .
whose positions
coordinates
y
YiA
are
given
by
their
_^p
^'
relative to axes
Ox and
and
Oy, and
^^
make
^
FIG. 109.
components
Xi and Yj parallel to
Ox and
O^.
Now
YjL
can be replaced by
Vj at
O and
a couple ViX^.
ANY FORCES
Xj can be replaced
IN
ONE PLANE
- Xi^/i.
103
by
Xi at
O and
a couple
Hence
P^ is replaced
by
Xj along Ox,
Yi along Oy,
and a couple
Y^x^ -
Xi?/i.
all
the forces,
we have
2X
2Y
and a couple
If If
2{yx-Xy).
2X =0, 2Y =0, and 2(Ya; - X^) =0, we have equilibrium. 2X=0 and 2Y = 0, the forces reduce to a couple.
In other cases they reduce to a single force. We can find the equation of the straight line along which the resultant force (when there is one) acts as follows.
2Y,
Xv
-N
srv^-xj^;
Fig. 110.
The
is i, n,
total
If ^,
t]
is
moment
=0.
104
ELEMENTARY STATICS
EXAMPLES.
at is hinged at C and carries a weight D. The rod is tied back by a string AB attached to a point A vertically above C. Prove that the tension of the string is
1.
A weightless rod CD
WZBin(A + B)/6
if
I
8in A,
of
the
rod AB, of length 21 and weight 2. presses against a smooth vertical wall at A, passes over a smooth peg at a distance h from the wall, and is held by a string attached at B and perpendicular to the rod. If the rod makes an angle a. with the upward vertical, find
the pressures at the wall and the peg, and the tension of the string.
8. A rod AC, of weight W, can rotate in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis at B, which divides the rod into portions of lengths a and b. The end A abuts on a smooth vertical w^fll at a distance h from B. If a downward force P is exerted at C, find the pressure at A and the reaction at B.
4. A bracket ABC consists of a uniform rod bent at right angles at B and of weight w per unit length. It is screwed to a vertical wall at D in AB, and B is above A. Supposing the bracket to touch the wall at A only, but AB to be practically vertical, and a weight to be placed on BC at E, find the tension of the screw and the pressure on the wall. Neglect friction, and take AB=a,'BC=b,
W,
AD=c, BE=d.
cubical block of stone, whose edges are 2a ft. and weight on a horizontal plane and is to be turned over by a horizontal force applied at the middle of one of the upper edges and perpendicular to that edge. Find the least coefficient of friction that this may be done without the block slipping, and find the force P exerted when the block has been turned through any angle 6.
5.
lbs., lies
on a rough plane (the a force P in a vertical plane bisecting four edges, and P makes a fixed angle above the horizontal. P being gradually increased, the block at last slides without overturning. Shew that the line of action of P must intersect the base within a distance ajfj. tan from the centre of the
cubical block of edge 2a standing 6. coefficient of friction being /i) is pulled by
base.
7. A soUd circular cylinder of weight W, radius r, and length standing on a rough horizontal plane, is tilted by a force P applied at the bottom edge at right angles to the base. Assuming the cylinder not to slip, shew that when the inclination of the base to the
21,
horizontal
is 6,
ANY FORCES
8.
IN
ONE PLANE
A
105
A sphere is resting on a rough horizontal plane. pressure applied at a point the radius to which makes an angle a. with the vertical. If equilibrium still subsists, find the direction of P, and shew that P cannot be greater than
P
is
a.
tan ^
9.
is
greater than
/x.
ABCD, of weight W, rests with its plane side AB below DC, these sides making an angle a. with the horizontal, and is supported by a rough peg at the middle point of AB and with the side CD pressing against a smooth peg P. Find the reactions at the pegs, and if the angle of friction (A) is less than a, prove that the distance of P from the middle point of CD cannot be greater than BC sin a. sin A/2 sin (a. - A).
rectangular board
vertical
and the
square plate of edge 2a stands in a vertical plane with two 10. sides horizontal, the lower of which rests on a rough peg at a distance d from a rough vertical wall against which an upper corner of the plate presses, the vertical side through this corner being otherwise just clear of the wall. Shew that if the coefficients of friction are
the same at the two contacts, they cannot be less than
11. A rod AB rests with one end on a rough horizontal plane, and passes over a smooth peg at a height h above the plane. Shew that if the rod makes an angle d with the horizontal, the least
coefficient of friction is
I
of the rod
is 21.
12. A drawer, of breadth 2a and depth (from front to back) 26, has two symmetrically placed handles 2d apart. Shew that (neglecting the weight of the drawer) the drawer cannot be pulled out by one handle if the coefficient of friction between the drawer and its guides is greater than hid. 13.
rectangular
window frame,
counterpoised
,3
and
of weight
W,
is
W by weights, each -
ft.
wide and 2
ft.
6
,
ins. high,
attached
to cords passing over pulleys and attached to the upper corners of the frame. What is the least coefficient of friction necessary that if one cord breaks the frame may not fall ?
14.
A vertical
W,
can
slide in
two
fixed
horizontal rings A, B, of slightly greater diameter, at a distance d apart. The bar is to be raised slowly by a vertical force P at a
106
ELEMENTARY STATICS
friction
distance c from the axis of the cylinder. Assuming a coefficient of /x at the contact with each ring, prove that
-w/(.-?r).
Explain what happens
15.
if
2//c>rf.
is in contact with a vertical wall and a If horizontal floor, the angle of friction being X. at each contact. the weight of the ladder acts at a distance hi from the middle point downwards, prove that the limiting inclination 9 to the vertical is
A ladder
of length 21
cot~^(cot 2X.
If
-k cosec 2A).
the coefficient of friction is J, prove that the ladder will slip at any angle if the centre of mass is more than one- tenth of the length from the lower end.
gasalier with two straight arms, each of length a in a line at 16. right angles to the descending tube of length I, is hanging out of plumb from the joint at the top. horizontal force P, applied at the lower end of the descending tube, brings the gasalier plumb. Find the weight at the end of the arm that would do so.
plate can turn in its plane, which is horizontal about an cord passes round two smooth pegs in the same line as O, and the ends are attached to two fixed points A and B outside the plate and in the same plane as it. The strings run from A and B perpendicular to AB. AB=a, B0=&^ couple L is applied to the plate so as to strain the string. Find its tension.
17. axis O.
18. zontal.
rests at
lower end
friction
an angle 65 with the horiis 40 Ibs.-wt., find the and normal reaction at the
19. A rectangular box is tilted up so that the two long bottom edges rest one against a smooth vertical wall, and the other on a rough horizontal floor, and the bottom makes an angle f^ with the If the breadth and height are 26 and 2h respectively, shew vertical.
that
it is
on the point
of slipping
if
tan
a.
=2/i
-h-r-
CHAPTER
VI.
CONNECTED BODIES.
73. In very many questions we have to deal with two or more bodies pressing against one another or attached to one another in some way, and it is often necessary then to consider the equilibrium of each. The reactions between the bodies have to be marked in accordance with the law of Action and
Reaction,
reactions
that
is
to
say,
the
be
equal
magnitude
but
in
opposite directions.
on top
of the other
vertical sides,
two in a box with horizontal base and whose distance apart is greater than twice the
The
and the lower ones pressing on the upper with the same The sides of the box press against the lower ones with force S, and the base presses on the cylinders with force T. If the plane through the axis of the upper and a lower cylinder makes an angle a. with the horizontal, we have
force R,
force.
:
(i)
W = 2Rsina. W + Rsina = T;
S=Rcosa.
107
(1)
(ii)
horizontally,
'
108
ELEMENTARY STATICS
forces
As the
is
on a cylinder
all
In
fact,
unknowns
R, S, T.
R=
W
2 sin a.
2
'
3W T=
S = -^ cot a.
When
by a
string, it follows,
by the
string
reasoning of Chapter
by the
on each body is the same, provided the weight of the string is negligible, and there is no friction between the string and any surface with which it is in contact.
74. Jointed Rods.
is
that of two
by a pin
good
a pair of com-
together
a joint
by a
is
single nail.
Such
joint.
called a pin
We
call
Fio.
A and
C, the
ii2.-Pm
joint.
The
forces
between these
may
be expressed as actions
On
j>
A,
B,
due to B and C.
C A
A. B.
,
may be
represented
by a
single
O and
a couple.
CONNECTED BODIES
109
In the present chapter we will deal with the case when we have other forces acting on the rods, such as their weights, but the pin can be regarded as weightless, and the only forces
acting on
it is it
In this case
all
may
we have only
we do not have to consider the effect of their weight), and we try to alter the angle between the two by applying forces to them (as in opening or shutting a pair of compasses),
that
it will
motion.
due to
Thus, if, for simplicity, we think of A and the pin C as fixed, and A and B not directly in contact, and try to turn B round by a force P, there will be pressure between B and C such that at each point of the circumference of C there is a normal reaction and friction. It will be seen at once that if there were no friction, the resultant reaction would pass through the centre
no
of the pin,
ELEMENTARY STATICS
and the
slighest force P
In
not necessarily
to a
moment
moments
is
called
we
Fig. 114.
hang
vertically,
but
if
friction
may
a
O and
W, and
we
see that
W, and
Also the
till
even
when placed
on
it.
CONNECTED BODIES
and the
to the
total
111
moment, when
it
just begins to
move,
is
equal
maximum
may
friction couple.
we
will
pins
76. In solving
it is
best to
from one another, and mark the reactions on each. As the direction of the reaction will not usually be known at first it is best to mark two resolutes (generally horizontal and
vertical) of each reaction,
only
mean
that
it
C
Fig. 115.
X'
X'
The reactions at A and B will be symmetrical at C put in the two components of the reaction as shewn. The forces thus act on the body to which the ends of the arrows are attached. (There is
;
no
smoothly jointed.)
(I)
Take each rod separately. For AC, vertically, Y-IO + Y horizontally, X + X'=0; moments about C, Y 2a 8m30 = X 2a cos 30 + 10a sin 30
;
.
.
(2)
(3)
112
For BC, verticaUy,
ELEMENTARY STATICS
(4)
Y + Y' = 10. The other equations for BC are the same as for AC. Hence we have four equations for four unknowns. From (1) and (4) we get Y'=0, Y = 10,
(3)
and
then gives
X 2o 1^ = 10a
.
x J,
X=5/N/3=2-891b8.-wt.,
We
force at
as
we have
and
the
its
V^ + 100 = 10-41,
73 54'. The reaction at C is horizontal and acts in the opposite direction to that drawn in the figure ; in other words, the rod AC pulls at BC, and BC pulls at AC, as is obvious must be the case.
77. Frequently
considerations
of
work.
matter we
that
that
the reaction at C
For Newton's Law of Action and Reaction requires that the vertical components on the two rods should be in opposite directions, as shewn in the figure, but symmetry requires that these components should
horizontal.
components being zero. We can and we have only three unknowns and only have to use the equations for one rod.
by the
vertical
It is
rod.
We
But
this
may
be awkward, and
it is
an equation containing one of the unknowns only, and so find it and continue with other equations, selecting them so that In doing this each, new equation contains one new unknown. it is frequently advantageous to form equations for two or
CONNECTED BODIES
113
more rods treated as one body, the reactions between these rods then not coming into the question.
2. Thus, take the example above, modified only by making one rod 20 Ibs.-wt., and the other 10.
Fig. 116.
There
is
reactions
We
Take moments about A for the two rods together, then Xg, Y3 do not come into the equation Xj, Yj, X2 have no moments about A
;
.-.
Yi+Y2 = 10+20,
Yi=^;
vertically for
A B,
for
Y3 + 10
:.
= Yj = ^
= Y,
Y8=f
.
moments about C
Xi
.
AC,
2a
sin 30
XiV3 + 5=2/,
;
15 5 ^ Xi=^=2V3=4-33 Ibs.-wt.
horizontally for AC,
Xi+X8=0,
X3--|\/3"=-4-33;
B.E.S.
114
ELEMENTARY STATICS
X,= -XB+gv/3=4-33.
The 3. Two equal uniform rods are jointed at one end of each. joint is not smooth, and if one is kept fixed the other can just be raised to an angle of 45 in the vertical plane without its moving when released. The rods are placed in a vertical plane with their ends resting on a rough table, the coefficient at the table being 0-5. If the same couple is always required to move the joint, find the
greatest angle to which they can be separated without sUpping.
Fig. 117.
no.
118.
Fig. 118 represents the Fig. 117 represents the given data. limiting position in the problem. In Fig. 118 the forces are symmetrical, and we will only have to form the equations for one rod.
From From
Fig. 117,
\Na sin 45 = L.
horizontally
R p
"9
=W
~^
'
moments about C,
W ^
cos
2a cos ^
$-and=
v/2'
'
CONNECTED BODIES
a'^
\/2
.-.
115
v/2
cos(^+45)=cosl20;
.-.
^+45 = 120;
^=75.
.-.
Two rods, AB, BC, are jointed at B, and attached to fixed C in the same vertical, A being above C. If BC is horizontal, and AB makes an angle 30 with the vertical, and the weights
4.
points A,
are 20
5.
lbs.
and 10
Solve the same question as No. angle 60'' with the vertical.
6.
except that
BC makes an
AB, BC are two rods jointed at B, and of lengths 3 ft. and and weights 15 and 20 lbs., supported at two points A and C in the same horizontal line. If AC =5 ft., find the reactions at A, B, and C.
ft.,
7.
6,
except that
AC
is
vertical
with A above B.
8. Three rods, AB, BC, CD, of equal weight and equal length 2a, are smoothly hinged at B and C and supported at points A and D in the same horizontal line. If AB and CD make angles a with the horizontal, find the reactions at A and B. 9.
8,
A and D not in the same horizontal. If a, (i, y are the angles the rods make with the horizontal, prove that tan a, tan (i, tan y are
in A.P.,
10.
and
find the
Three rods, AB, BC, CD, of lengths 2a, 26, 2a, but of equal weight, smoothly hinged at B and C, rest symmetrically in a vertical plane with AB, CD, on two smooth pegs E, F, in the same horizontal. If AE=3EB, prove that AB, CD must make angles 30 with the horizontal, and so also does the reaction at B. Find the reactions.
11. Three rods, AB, BC, CD, are of equal weight W, and AB, CD are of equal length. They rest, as in Question 10, over two pegs E, F at a distance 2d apart in the same horizontal. If BC is of length 2a, and AB makes an angle 6 with the horizontal, prove that the length of AB is ^{d -h)sec^B, and that the reaction at B makes an angle tan~^ {I cot $) with the horizontal, and find the reactions at B and E.
W at
and
rod AB, of weight w, is hinged at A and carries a weight It is kept at an inclined position by a weightless rod CD jointed to it at a point C, and to a fixed point D vertically below A. Shew that the thrust in CD is
12.
B.
(2W+m;)AB.CD/2AC.AD,
find the reaction at A.
116
ELEMENTARY STATICS
13. Two rods, AB, BC, of equal length, but of weights 20 and 30 lbs. are smoothly hinged together at B and connected by a string AC. They stand in a vertical plane with A, C, on a smooth -horizontal plane. If ABC is an equilateral triangle, find the tension of the string and the reaction at B.
14. AB is a rod 20 ft. long and weighing 40 lbs., capable of turning smooth weightless in a vertical plane about a smooth hinge at A. ring D slides on the rod and is attached by a string 6 ft. long to a point C, 13 ft. vertically above A. Shew that in the position of equilibrium the string is perpendicular to the rod, and find its tension and the reaction at A.
length
and 15. If a rod supported as in Question 14 has a weight 21, and the ring, instead of being weightless, has a weight w,
but
CD =o,
CB, of the same length, but of weights W, 2W, are smoothly jointed at C, and stand in a vertical plane with their ends on a rough horizontal plane. The coefficient of friction /x being the same at A and B, shew that the greatest angle the rods can make with one another is 20, where tan 6 =5/^/3. In what way do the rods begin to move when limiting equilibrium
16.
Two
rods, AC,
is
passed
17.
CB are two rods smoothly jointed at C and fixed to points If the weights of the rods are in the A, B in the same vertical. ratio cot A : cot B, shew that the reaction at C is horizontal and is the total weight of the rods. equal to sin A sin B/2 sin C, where
AC,
square board ABCD, of weight W, rests with one edge AB on the ground, and is supported by a weightless rod EF hinged to the board at a point E, and resting on the ground at F, EF being in the vertical plane bisecting AB. If AB=a and E is at a distance 6 from AB, find the thrust in the rod and the pressure of the square on the ground when the square makes an angle a with the ground, and EF an angle 6. Find also the least coefficient of friction, supposed the same at each contact, for it to remain in this position.
18.
rests with one edge AB on a 19. A cubical block of weight smooth horizontal plane, and the base maintained at an angle 2tt with the plane by a smooth roller of radius r between it, and the plane with its axis parallel to AB. Equilibrium is maintained by two horizontal forces P, Q, one on the edge AB, and the other on the Prove that axis of the roller.
CONNECTED BODIES
117
20. Two rods, AB, AC, are of the same material and thickness, but AC is double the length of AB and of weight lbs. They are smoothly jointed at A and supported at points B and C, so that they each make an angle a with the vertical. Find the reactions at
A, B, C.
21. Three rods, AB, BC, CD, each of length 2a, are jointed together in such a way that each joint offers a maximum couple L of resistance to turning. AB being held fixed, find the greatest horizontal distance of D from B.
22. Two rods, AB, AC, smoothly jointed at A, rest in a vertical plane with their ends on a smooth horizontal plane. A horizontal atring joins two points D, E on the rods. Prove that its tension is
JW.
where 6
23.
is
ABsin6'/AP,
the angle the rods make with the horizontal, is the total weight of the rods, and P is the middle point of the string.
inclined at
an angle
/i
to the horizontal
is
Wrsina
24. Three similar rods AB, BC, CD, each of length 2a, rest symmetrically on two smooth pegs E, F, in the same horizontal line, and under the outer rods. Find the distance between the pegs
(i)
(ii)
25.
When the three rods are horizontal. When AB, CD are inclined at an angle 30 to the horizontal, BC being horizontal. Two equal rods, AB, CD, each of weight W, are hinged together
at their middle points E and stand in a vertical plane on a smooth horizontal table, being kept from collapsing by a string joining their lower ends A, C. If the rods make angles a with the horizontal, find the tension of the string.
26. Work out the same question as No. 25, but with the string joining A to the middle point of CE. Also find the reaction at the hinge. 27. Two equal heavy circular cylinders are placed symmetiically in the angle formed by two rough planes equally inclined to the
rough wedge is pressed down symmetrically between 2a is the angle between the planes, and A the angle of friction at all contacts, and 2ft the angle of the wedge, shew that the wedge cannot force up the cylinders unless a-ft> 2A. If this condition is satisfied, find the least pressure on the wedge which will force up the cylinders, and prove that they begin to move by slipping on the wedge.
vertical.
the two.
If
118
ELEMENTARY STATICS
A
rough hemisphere rests with its base on a rough horizontal 28. plane. The lower end (rough) of a stick sliding in a smooth vertical tube rests on the hemisphere. Shew that the hemisphere begins to slide when the inclination a to the vertical of the radius to the lower end of the stick is given by
+ W) tan A,
A heavy framework
is
ABC, formed of bars of weight w per unit suspended from C, and weights Wj, Wj are suspended
AB
is
horizontal.
Shew that
cos B,
^
^
and
find
{2Wi +w{b+ c)}h cos A = {2Wjj + w{a + c)}a the component reactions at A.
30. AC, BC are two equal rods, each of weight w, smoothly jointed at C, and jointed to points A and B in a vertical line so that weight is hung at C ; find the ABC is an equilateral triangle. reactions at A, B, and C.
CHAPTER
VII.
WEIGHTLESS FRAMEWORKS.
78.
Frameworks such
of the girder
heavy
loads,
are treated rather differently from the rods in the last chapter.
can be treated in a
first
approximation
any rate, as weightless, that is to say, their weights are small compared with the loads carried. Any load borne by a bar may, moreover, be replaced by two loads at the two ends of the bar, and may be supposed to act on the pins and not on the bar. Also, the bars may be supposed to act and react on the pins only, and not on one another. Lastly, in a frame at rest and undeformable, friction at the joints is practically non-existent, and may be neglected
altogether.
case,
it is
when
make
it rigid,
and
are sometimes
found.
the
We
n
will
if
a framework has
joints, it requires
2n - 3 bars to make
it rigid.
120
Afl
ELEMENTARY STATICS
ABCD of any an example, a quadrilateral framework But it can be made it can be deformed. shape U not rigid can no putting a bar across from A to C, when it
;
rigid
by
longer be deformed.
We
bars.
notice that
and
2x4-3 = 5
If we put another bar across from B to D, we have more bars than necessary for rigidity, and it is foimd that the
*^'
***"
stresses
may have
at
all.
stresses in it
Frames such as
Redundant, and
with more than the necessary number of bars, are called will not be dealt with in this book.
any bar is due regarded as weightless and acted on only by the bar is acted on In other words, to the pins at each end. by two forces only, one at each end, and as the bar is in equilibrium, these two forces must be equal, opposite, and in the same straight line, that is to say, along the length of the bar. Thus the bar is said to be in a state of stress, and the force at either end is called the Stress in the bar, and may be a Tension or Throst. Each section of the bar will have the same tension
79. Taking, then, the usual rigid framework,
the reactions
or thrust across
string (Art. 7).
it,
If
the rod
is
and conse;
is
in a state of tension
it is
in a state of thrust.
One can
a given bar
consider
positive
it
framework
best to
mark the
forces in a
and negative
stress is
whether the
a tension or thrust.
WEIGHTLESS FRAMEWORKS
121
Let us take the simplest possible case a framework forming an equilateral triangle with its base resting on two supports at its ends, and supporting a weight of, say, 100 lbs. at its vertex. Fig. 120 shews the framework as a whole.
P=50
P=50
Fig. 120.
Fig. 121.
it
Fig. 121
clearly.
shews
The
forces are
marked
in the
drawing, and
positive (that
it will
is,
be seen that
if
in a state of thrust.
the
marked)
is
in tension.
into account in
marking the
To
For pin
A, vertically,
2R cos 30 = 100,
R
for B, horizontally,
S=
one in tension.
-28-9
lbs.- wt.
122
ELEMENTARY STATICS
framework
When
(if
work
of
dealing with the equations for the pins should always start
possible) at a joint
actions,
joint,
where there are only two unknown reand should always continue in the same way joint by always taking points where there are not more than two
reactions,
for
unknown
we can then
is
write
much complicated by
and then
the necessity
solving.
down a number
little
of equations
Take a
in Fig. 122.
JD
FIO. 122.
shews the frame as a whole, with the Fig. 123 shews it with rods and pins separated, and all the reactions marked. First take the frame as a whole to find the external forces P
before, Fig. 122
and Q.
Q = 17-5;
whole frame,
P + Q = 30,
.-.
P = 12-5.
WEIGHTLESS FRAMEWORKS
For joint
A, vertically,
123
sin 60
.-.
= P, = 26lJ3 = U'U;
0,
horizontally,
W + Rcos60 =
.-.
W=-25/2v/3=-7-22.
y
.u
kS Jt
>x
u
Fig. 123.
For
B, vertically,
R sin 60
+ S sin 60 = 10,
20_25_^
horizontally,
T + Scos60 = Rcos60,
^=
For
E, vertically,
25
15
27l+2Tr7r^^
= 8.66.
Usin60
+ Ssin60=0,
" = 71 = 2-8^'
horizontally.
.,
2V3
2s/3
2V3
124
ELEMENTARY STATICS
vertically,
At D,
V8in60 = Q,
.-.
V=
35
-75 \o
= 20-21.
Thifl
completes the determination of the stresses. The horirontal equation for D and the two equations for C may now
be used as checks.
Instead of drawing the whole Fig. 123, it is sufficient to alone, and mark the rods in Fig. 122 with the
FlO. 124.
81.
With regard
to the
be seen that
fix
it
joints and we add n - 3 more joints, and consequently 2f - 6 more bars, we get a frame with n joints and 2n - 3 bars. In finding the stresses we get 2n equations from the n joints, and these are the correct number to give the 2n-3 stresses
and so on.
hence
if
we add two rods BC and EC, Now, in the triangle there are 3
3 rods
in the bars,
and
2x5-3 = 7
bars.
We
WEIGHTLESS FRAMEWORKS
tions for the joints (one for
125
as a whole at the start, with the result that three of the equa-
as a check
Heavy Bars.
on the method
of procedure should be
made
in connection
When
But we may
of each bar to act
by
first
by
and suppose
this
We may now
it will is
calculate the
framework, and
be found that
got by compounding the reaction thus found with half the weight of
is got by combining the by the weightless framework method with a
and opposite to half the weight of the bar. This be most useful in graphical work. this is a correct method will be seen by examining a simple case such as the framework of Art. 79. Suppose the bars, instead of being weightless, have a weight Shifting these weights to the pins we have of 20 lbs. each. 120 lbs. at A, and 80 upwards and 20 downwards at B and C. The force R' must now be found. But it is obvious that if R' on the pin is compounded with a force of 10 downwards to give a force R", the pin will be in equilibrium under the two forces R", and the weight of 100 while the rod AC will also be in equilibrium under the two forces R" at its ends and 20 at its centre. Hence the conditions of equilibrium of both bars and pins are satisfied in this way, and therefore we have the correct solution of the problem. Of course in this case
method That
will
126
ELEMENTARY STATICS
the bars are subject to a shearing stress and bending moment (see Chapter VIII.). which is not the case if they are weightless.
loads
bars,
In designing a framework the stresses for the expected may be calculated first on the assumption of weightless
II
and the sections of the bars determined to suit the and thrusts. A second approximation may then be made if necessary by calculating the stresses again, allowing for these weights, and the proposed dimensions may be adjusted
tensions
any number
of approximations.
Frames.
We
by drawing triangles and But these figures, being drawn separately, can readily be combined
it
more com-
WEIGHTLESS FRAMEWORKS
In the
first
127
marked and
calculated as before.
Now
forces,
letter the
compartments
c,
of the frame,
is
d, e, f.
In the force-diagram
which we proceed to draw, the stress along a rod AB, which separates the spaces a and e, will be represented
by a
and
so on, for
The external forces will be marked first. As they are all parallel (in this example) they are to be drawn to lie along the same
line in the force-diagram.
Draw then a
a'b'
line
to represent 30
h'c'
lbs.,
making
= 10 and
c'd'
= ll-b,
so that a'b',
we have one
force
known,
In
and the
known.
to AB,
and
Fig. 127.
to AE.
We
can
now draw
e'a'
the
represent
B,
for
will
one
force,
and
a'b'
b'f parallel to
and e'f
parallel to
ef.
If
we now take
138
the point
ELEMENTARY STATICS
E we have
c'/'d'
it,
and
it
If
we now
join
we have the
polygon of forces b'c'g'f for the point C, and the triangle The magnitudes of the stresses in each bar can d'c'g' for D.
now be determined
diagram.
at once
by
The
The
c'g' is
force-
is
b'c'g'f
downwards.
from
to
to
5^.
is is
C due
to the
rod
CD
along
DC
CD due
the pin
towards D, or
of thrust.
Similarly,
rio.
127o.Roof
truss with
wind pressure.
there
roof.
1, 2, 1
is
a wind pressure perpendicular to the half BC of the This wind pressure is represented in the figure by forces tons at the joints. The weight of the roof is represented
vertical forces 1, 2, 2, 2, 1, tons. a horizontal pressure at the walls, and as these horizontal reactions are in the same line there is no possibility
in the
same way by
is
There
now
of finding
them
separately.
we could
WEIGHTLESS FKAMEWORKS
form, the two would
129
come
in together.
We
will
make the
question
joint,
and free to move on a roller at B, so that the whole horizontal component of the wind pressure is borne at A. We will
Y',
calculated
by moments
for the
whole
In the diagram
Y =5*12,
Y'
= 646.
We
or
can now draw the force diagram for the external forces
X can be found from the length ab, deduced from the horizontal component of the wind
start at
pressure.
Now
as in Art. 83.
lao
ELEMENTARY STATICS
and we have the The
stresses
Fig. 1276.
diagram as in in the bars can now be read off and where the thrusts are positive, the
stress
Notice
in the stress
falls
on or very
This
EXAMPLES.
Find the stresses in the frameworks shewn in Examples 1 to 14, both by calculation and graphically. (The bars are lettered for
coDTcnicDce in the answers.)
Warren
FlQ. 128.
2. Girder as in
No.
1,
Fro. 129.
WEIGHTLESS FKAMEWORKS
3.
131
girder, angles 45
and
90.
..20
,,10
i\
\d
/|
\
Fig. 130.
4. Roof-truss.
FlO, 131.
5.
of 30
and
60.
Fig. 132.
6. Roof-truss
FIO. 133.
132
7.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Triangular framework with bars of lengths
3, 4,
feet.
Fio. 134.
8.
ban
5, 6, 7.
9. Cantilever fixed at
A and
B.
y
Fig. 135.
Lengths
figure.
A and
B.
Fio. 137.
WEIGHTLESS FRAMEWORKS
12. Cantilever fixed at
133
A and
B, angles as shewn.
Fig. 138.
13.
14.
Fig. 140.
bracket consisting of two rods, AB, BC, of weights 4 and hinged together at B, is fixed at A and C to points in a vertical wall. If AB is horizontal and BC makes an angle 30 with AB, find the reactions at A, B, C when a weight of 10 lbs. is hung from the hinge. (Treat the pin at B separately as supporting the weight.)
15.
lbs.,
134
ELEMENTARY STATICS
16. Two rods, AB, AC, of equal length but of weights 10 and 30 lbs., hiosed together at A, stand in a vertical plane with the ends on a bonzontal plane sufficiently rough to prevent the rods from slipping. If a weight of 50 lbs. is hung from the hinge, find the reactions at A, B. C if the rods make an angle 60^ with the vertical.
17. ABC is a light framework suspended from, and free to turn alx>ut A, and weights and are suspended from B and C. If BAC is a right angle nd AB makes an angle d with the vertical,
Wi
Wj
prove that
W, tan^=W,tanB,
and
find the stress in
BC.
18. A smoothly jointed weightless quadrilateral is acted on by equal and opposite couples L on the opposite sides AB, CD. Find the position of equilibrium and the stresses^at the joints.
CHAPTER
VIIL
we
consider
any
between
the two portions on each side of the section, so that the portion,
say on the right of the section, exerts a force on the portion on the left, and the portion on the left exerts an equal and opposite force on the portion on the right. In the case of the string and the weightless frameworks this mutual stress consists simply of a tension or thrust in the direction of the length.
But
in other cases,
when the
The same principle is applied as to the string namely that if we take any portion of the rod, it will be in equilibrium under the stresses exerted on its ends by the adjoining portions of the rod, and any external forces such as its weight which may act on it.
complicated.
in Art. 7,
Thus,
if
we
AB
of a rectangular bar
perpendicular to
length,
we
see that at
any element P
B
Fig. 141. Fio. 142.
and opposite
forces acting
If
on the portions
of the bar
on each side
135
of the section.
we
13e
ELEMENTARY STATICS
confine ourselves to the forces acting on one side (which we will call the right hand) of the section, the force at P may bo
resolved
section,
into
The
acme
on the different
compounded
at
which again
may
be replaced
by a
force
at the
Of course either T or
nuy
T
be zero.
is
is
may
be.
Bending Moment.
and couple
and opposite force T hand portion of the bar. Similarly, if we take component forces in the section, these can also be compounded into a single force S acting at the centre of the section and a couple N. S is called the Shearing Stress.
There
of course, be the equal
is
As before, there are an equal and opposite force and couple 8 and N acting on the left-hand portion. We will not deal with any questions involving a torsion couple, as they do not occur in ordinary statical questions on frameworks, but a knowledge both of the shearing stress and bending moment, as well as of the tension or thrust, is important in deciding on the size and shape of cross section of a bar in a framework designed for any particular purpose.
85. Let us
illustrate the
now
and
Examplt. 1. A rod of negligible weight is supported at its ends A, B, and carries a weight at a point C, where AC =o,
BC=6.
While the rod actually bends with the weight, the bending is usoaliy slight, and in calculating the stresses this bending may be
neglected and the rod treated as straight.
137
To find the shearing stress and bending moment at any point P, consider the portion AP of the rod, and let AP =a;.
kR,
|R
..a -.-.^[71^
At
--
X --*-p
W
Fig. 143.
The forces acting on it are the pressure R^ at A, and the stresses at P, which must consist therefore of a force S downwards equal to R, and a couple M equal to R^x. There is evidently no tension in the bar.
Now
the shearing stress at
"-a-i**^
P
=S
a +6
W,
cc.
7 =M = a+h
AR,
+s'
FlO. 144.
Fig. 145.
If
we take a
point
between
C and
B,
we can
portion
and
in order to find the stresses. call the force and couple at Q, S' and M', and
AQ
or
QB
a+0
and the
stresses directions.
on
AQ
are of the
same magnitude
in the opposite
We may
Thus in
draw
shearing-stress
by
lines in
acts
138
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Ab seen from the work above, from A to C the sheariDg stress downwards and equal to aW/(a+6) everyFrom C to B it is upwards and equal to b\N/{a+h). where. Hence it suddenly changes at C by an amount equal to the
in this portion is
is,
however,
always in the same direction and proportional to the distance from one end or the other, according as the point where the
bending
moment
is
required
is
on one
moment.
If
is 21
or a
+6 = 2?, and x
is
measured
moment
thus
W {21- a)x
^ 21
if a;
<
a,
= -^a{2l-x) iix>a.
Where x = a these two expressions are thfe same. There is no sudden change in magnitude or direction of the bending moment as there is in the shearing stress, but the expression
representing
it
suddenly changes.
139
the method
the same,
maximum
The most important quantity generally wanted bending moment at any point of a bar.
Example. 2. A heavy uniform beam is supported at its two ends and unloaded, Obtain the shearing-stress and bending- moment
diagrams.
aW
iW
A
+
W
per unit length.
wx
Fig. 149.
'I'S
Fig. 148.
Let
W 2liu =the
The
w = the weight
total weight.
If we take a portion AP (Fig. 149) as before, we have the weight of the portion AP to take into account, and therefore the equations are
vertically,
moments about
A,
and
140
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Tbeao expressions will hold from one end to the other, there being no sudden change in the value of S, or in 'the form of the expreasion for M, as there was when there was a load concentrated At one point. The saearing stress and bending-moment diagrams drawn as before will be aa follows
O
Fio. 150.Sbeftring stress.
2l
Fio.
151.Bending moment.
The
bending
shearing-stress vanishes at the middle of the bar. The moment vanishes at each end, and is a maximum at the
middle, the
maximum
8.
value being
-j-*
ExampU.
weight
Wi
at a point C, where
AC = a.
CB=b,
a +1=21.
R,
..
mc*
A.
ii
A
V^.
\
Fio. 152.
We now find
and the student
R Ri-2- *
-W
5Wi
21
'
will easily find that the shearing stress and bending are each the sum of two parts, one due to the load only and the same as in Example 1, and the other due to the weight of toe bar and the same as in Example 2.
moment
141
W
but
W,
"^M^
-s-.(
ii2;>a;
=-2tU-
2")
+ "27
(2t-a;)
u.x>a.
In the same way, if we have a number of loads concentrated at points on the beam, the shearing stress and bending moment due to each separately may be calculated and added to the stress and moment due to the weight of the beam itself to give the total effect. If we take a special case of the above when the load is equal to the weight of the beam and placed at the middle point, we have
Wi=W,
ax=l.
S='^A2l-x) 2V
itx<l iix>l
(i)
and
=-^'21
(ii)
M
and
Example.
for this case.
86.
two con-
Let W, be the loads at Q and R and ADB, AEB the bending-moment diagrams for the separate loads. Then, to get the diagram for the two together, we have to draw the graph whose ordinates are the sums of the ordinates of the two. Now, as the two graphs consist of straight lines, the compound
142
ELEMENTARY STATICS
will also consist of straight lines,
first
graph
at once by
QH
W-
W
FIO. 153.
W'
bending
It is obvious
that the
maximum
moment
in
thSf
will
of concentrated
In finding the
maximum
it is
moment when
there are
concentrated loads
especially necessary to
pay attention
For example,
(iii)
I
in Question
holding
1\.
if
lies
between
and
I,
and
(iv) if
lies
between
and
It will
be found that in
(iii)
continually increases
from
to |Wi,
and
from |W^ to
0,
BO that the
maximum
of
bending
moment
of
occurs
(iii)
when x l,
is
maximum
occurring
(iii) is
in the ordinary
maximum
(iii)
valid.
As we have
said, it is
the the
maximum bending moment in any case, as bending moment the more likely the beam is
by
bending.
Often we have a load that moves along the beam, and it is then necessary to find the greatest bending moment for all
poMtions of the load.
143
we take the
is
moment
and
is
or the load
is
maximum
WZ
88.
The
case
when
moving
is
it is
and many
similar cases.
Suppose these two loads are equal, each being W, and that they remain always at a distance c apart. We will first work
out the
tance
maximum
bending
of
them
is
at a
therefore at a dis-
,r
W
We
Q
will neglect
\\N
Fia. 154.
maximum
bending
moment
Calling the
Mq =
Wa
2^
(2Z
a)
Wa
^7
ac).
(2Z
- a - c)
W (4aZ - 2a^ nT
144
ELEMENTARY STATICS
M = -^{2l-a-c) + -^{a+c){2l-a-c)
= -g(2a+c)(2Ua-c)
= -g(4a?-2a2+2fc-3ac-c2)
(i)
MQ-M = ^^{2ac-2fc+c)
= -^c(2a-2/+c)
= 2^c{a-(2?-a-c)}.
.*.
Mq>Mp
i.e.
if
a>2l-a-c,
is
I
at that
or R which
is
beam.
Now,
from A towards
B,
R
is
is
nearer to
maximum.
Now, by
and
or
(i),
M = -^(4ai-2a2+2fc-3ac-c2),
a this is a maximum when U-ia-Zc = 0,
a = l-^c,
a
(less
than
(i)
M^=2^(2Z-a-c)(2a+c)
t('-|)'
145
stress
of a cantilever (a horizontal beam fixed at one other) of weight and loaded with a weight
2.
stress
long and weighs 12 cwt. It rests on supports Find the maximum bending moment due to its own weight and to a load of | ton at its centre. 4. With the same beam as in Question 3, find the bending moment at any point for a load of 8 cwt. at a distance of 5 ft. from one end find also where this bending moment is a maximum, and find its
at
its
A beam is 20 ft.
ends.
maximum
value.
Compare the gradients of the bending- moment curve at points on the two sides of the load and close to it. Find also the shearing stress at any point, the points where it is a maximum and minimum, and the maximum and minimum values. 5. A beam 20 ft. long and weighing a ton is supported at the ends and loaded with concentrated loads of J ton each at four points
16 ft. from one end. Find expressions for the shearing and bending moment at all points, obtaining the numerical values at 5 and 10 ft. from the end. Draw the shearing -stress and bending-moment diagrams. 6. Find the shearing stress and bending moment at any point in a cantilever, as in Question 1, 12 ft. long and weighing 8 cwt., with a load of 4 cwt. at the free end. Find the maximum value of each. at
4, 8, 12,
stress
7. A truck of weight 4 tons, borne equally by the four wheels, has its axles 10 ft. apart, and it passes along a pair of girders 50 ft. long supported at the ends of each. What is the maximum bending moment due to the truck on one girder for any position of the truck ? Find also the bending moment at the centre and at a wheel when the truck is at the centre of the girder. 8. Draw a graph to shew the maximum bending moment in a weightless beam due to a moving load passing along it. (y to represent the max. B.M. in the beam when the position of the moving load is at x.
9.
By
is
there
146
10.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Two equal
level
on the same
uprights ABC, DEF are jointed to fixed points A, D, and braced by equal light bars BF, CE. jointed at A force X in the direction CF is applied their ends to the uprights. at C. Find the stresses in BF, CE, and shew that the maximum
a+b
CHAPTER
IX.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
89. Friction.
friction
may be men-
tioned.
Friction Circle.
When
a cylindrical pin
fits
we may
Fig. 155.
If
the body
is in
which acts at an angle X with the normal, will pass at a distance r sin X from the centre if r is the radius and X the angle of
friction.
contact
limiting,
will
if
touch a
if
friction is
circle.
and
friction is
not limiting
147
it will
cut this
148
If
ELEMENTARY STATICS
a weightless bar
is
rough pins, these reactions must be in the same line and must
FIO. 156.
meet the
two ends.
If the friction is
common
circles.
Wheel.
F
Fio. 157. Carriage wheel.
Let
it.
= radius
of axle.
6 = radius of wheel.
When the carriage is pulled along, the radius to the point of contoct of the axle with the wheel will make some angle 6 with the vertical in the direction shewn in the figure, for the
motion of the wheel tends to carry the axle upwards from the
lowest point.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
Also, let S.
yiiS
149
point of contact.
R,
Fig.
158.The
axle.
The wheel and axle with the forces acting on them are shewn separately in Figures 158 and 159. Forming the equations for these separately, we have For the axle, horizontally, P + S sin0-/xS cos 6 = 0, (1)
vertically,
W-Scos0-/xSsin0 = O;
.
.(2)
W
sin sin
cosX
cos
cos 6 -sin
= tan(X-0)
For the whole system, horizontally, P=F For the wheel only, moments about the centre,
/uSa = F6 = P&;
(3)
(4)
.(5)
150
,
ELEMENTARY STATICS
from
(1 ),
/x
Sa =
S(ai cos
sin 0)6
a sin X a 8inX
(6) gives d.
= 6(8in X
cos
- cos X sin 6)
= 68in(X-0)
sin (X - 6 ) cos(X-0)'
.(6)
From
(3),
P/W = tan(X-0) =
sinX
a sinX
\/(62-a'^sin2X)
by
(6),
P/W-=sin^X
(7)
If r is small, as is usual,
from
(6) sin
{6
- X)
is
small
or
0X,
is
P/Ws^sinX.
91. Rolling Friction.
When
an action For
it
if
to
In practice this
is
found
cylinder),
but over a
small
This couple
and may be
measured by the moment about the point of contact, of the smallest force applied in a given direction which causes rolling.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
The
rolling friction has
151
Post.
very simple
it will
be given here.
is
on the point
little
when
Tj^
at one end
and Tg at the
other,
may
consider each
Fig. 161.
Fig. 162.
PQ, which
is
drawn on a
Let
O be
C be the
The
forces acting
S6 be the angle
The tension T
at Q.
is
supposed limiting)
St
is
positive.
152
ELEMENTARY STATICS
friction will each
be
= Tsin^ + (T+^T)sin^,
(1)
^R+TC0Sy = (T+^T)C0S^
T^ Now
.
(2)
se
sin -K-
~ -Q~
sd
and
if
cos -H"
of small quantities.
and from
(2),
mR+T = J+ST;
:.
R = TSe
/xR
and
= <5T;
Y = ^^'
Jy=m0+c;
.-.
.-.
log.T-log,To = ;tt0;
..
\og,
=iJLe;
'o
.-.
T = ToeM^
where T^
post,
is
In particular,
the tension at A and 6 is the angle PCA. if the rope wraps on an angle (ACB) of the
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
E.g.
if
153
fi
= 0-2,
/a = |x27r,
and
If
T^g^27rn is
Ti-2-79To.
the rope makes n complete turns round the post a tension
required to
against a tension Tq at
the other end, and obviously this will increase very rapidly
with
n.
93.
Suppose we have a screw with a square thread, and that the coefficient of friction between the thread and the block
is
everywhere
ju,
Fig. 163,
W.
154 Let 6
ELEMENTARY STATICS
the
length of the
is
is
.
applied,
26.
p = the
a=the
(or
so
screw,
as will be seen
its
in a plane,
when we
get
W we will
element of
block.
little
and the
yu
MN
the
friction
if
overcoming the
It will
FIO. 164.
and
if
the screw
is
rotated
through a small angle SO, any element MN will move a distance a SS sec a in the direction of the thread, and
.
consequently work
is
done against
friction
by the motion
be
of
MN,
= /xRaseca.
and the
total
SO,
friction will
a.
.
SO = fia aec
SO^R.
= >Afa SO t&n
for
OL,
will rise
a distance a SO tan a.
forces
will
be
2P6 SO
:.
:.
2P6 = Wa tan
(1)
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
also, if
155
we
we
get
.*.
W+2yuR sin a = 2R cos a; W = 2R (-yu sin a+cos a) = -/^ sin a+cos a.)2R
(
;
(2)
.'.
by
(1)
and
(2),
2p6 = Wa tan
a
lut.
ina sec
sin oc
JUL
ocW - cos CL
- cos
oc/
= Wa
tan
a.
fi
sec OL
OL
sm
sin oc
(yu
sin oc
{jUL
cos OL
= Wa
fjL
= Wa
If
cos
a+sin
- yu
sin
oc
cos oc
is
c-1
...
cos
\ ^ A
cos oc+sin oc
cos oc
sm A
=r
. .
cos
sin oc
^^^ sin(X+a)
cos (A
+ a)
= Watan (X+a).
W = 26 cot,,(a+A). ., -
Pa
If
is less
than
is
back, being just held by forces P' at the ends of the arm,
W = 26 cot(a-A). .,
..
p>-
If
is
greater than
oc,
no weight, however
large,
can cause
156
94. Asiatics.
If
ELEMENTARY STATICS
a system of forces acting at given points in a
body
is
rotated through
same
For example, a magnet may be thought on by two equal and opposite forces at its two poles, which remain unchanged in magnitude and direction in whatever position the magnet is placed. If the magnet is capable of rotation about a vertical axis only, it will be in
remain in equilibrium.
of as acted
equilibrium
when
its
and
if
released
it will
move
still
in equilibrium
combination.
X,,
Suppose that any forces whose components are Xj, Y^ Yj-, etc., act at points whose coordinates referred to a
point
discover whether
forces
body are x^, y^ x^, y^ etc., and we wish to any rotation of the body about O, while the act at the same points in the body and in the same
in the
;
;
body to be
exists,
in a state of
equilibrium,
and
if
equilibrium.
First
force.
examine the
effect of
about
O on
a single
The components
of the force
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
This makes the
157
O,
Y^ri cos {0
= Yjrj{coa
-
Xiri(sin
sin oCi)
= Yi(a;i
cos
0-yi
Y-iix^ sin
6+yi cos
sin 0.
0)
= (Yia;i - Xi?/i)
cos
Yi?/i
+ Xi^i)
Fig. 165.
whose components are 2X and ^Y, and a couple whose moment is - V sin 0, cos 02(Ya; - Xy) - sin 02(Xx + Y?/) = G cos
where G = 2(Ya;-X^)
= sum
and
of the
moments
in their
original positions,
V = 2(Xx+Yy).
forces can only be in
(i)
The
and
(i)
equiUbrium
if
2X=0
G
cos
and -V
2y = 0,
sin
(ii)
= 0.
(ii)
tan0 = G/V,
giving two values of 0, differing
in the altered position zero.
by
180,
158
ELEMENTARY STATICS
will
The equilibrium
be astatic
if,
Gcos0-V8inO = O,
which requires that G =
or
and V = 0, 2(Y2-X/)=0
and
2;(Xx+Yy)=0.
body and
remain
in the
we keep the body fixed and rotate the forces through an angle -d, we will evidently get the same result for the moment of the forces, but with the advantage that the axes are now fixed in the body. The component
same
direction,
forces are, however, altered to
2(X cos
and
9A
2:(
Y cos
02:x,
may
forces.
Xrr
-vX
-^x
O
FlO. 166.
X
line of
Now we
oomber
action of a
of forces
given
by
i72X-^Y+G = 0,
and hence, when the forces have been turned round in way, the line of action will be given by
this
or
e2X +sin 02Y) - ^(cos 02Y - sin 02X) +Gco8 0-VsinO = O (;2:X-^y+G)cos 0+(.72Y+^2X - V) sin = 0.
i;(cos
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
This equation shews that whatever the value of
resultant force will pass through
6,
159 the
by
^2X-f2Y + G=0,
This point
is
The
any
forces
may
;
Prove that
if
centre
is
at infinity.
96. Questions
in a Frame.
is to be supported at some point A in by means of two weightless rods attached at B and C in the s^me horizontal, A, B, C being in a
A weight W
line
vertical plane. If the sections of the rods are proportional to their tensions, find the depth of A below BC when the total amount of material used in the rods is least.
ZTiG.
167.
Let
AD be
to BC,
and
let
x = AD,
Tx
cos
T,
cos
W
sin A'
160 and
if
ELEMENTARY STATICS
the croes sections are
"^
=
-.
Bin
A
.
cos
C+
cos B)
Bin
A (.6
c }
be sin
= mW
x{h + k)
x*+hk
and
a minimum when
BAC
is
2. A weight is to be supported at A by two rods fixed to two points B, C, in the same vertical. If AB is horizontal and of given length h, find the length of C A so that the least quantity of material may be required for the two rods, assuming the sections proportional to the stresses in the rods and the weights of the rods themselves neglected. If the section for a tension is made r times the section for a thrust of the same magnitude, find the length of CA for the minimum quantity of material.
8. A horizontal bar AB, loswled in any way, is hinged at A and supported by a weightless strut CD jointed to a point C vertically below A and to a point in the rod. Shew that if the section of CD is proportional to the thrust in it, the quantity of material in it will depend only on the inclination of CD to the vertical, not on its length, and will be least when the strut makes an angle 45 with the vertical.
EXABIPLES.
and that
by a string passing round a pulley turning the force exerted and the radius of the axle of the wheel is a, and the angle of friction is A, prove
is
raised
If
is
that
W
P
2.
force
In a rough screw verify that the work done by the applied is the sum of the works done against the opposing force and
gainst friction.
CHAPTER
CENTRES OF MASS
97. If
(or
X.
CENTRES OP GRAVITY).
A and
wire,
of two particles of weights w^ and Wg ^^ and attached to one another by a weightless rigid the forces due to gravity are equivalent to a single force
B,
we think
Fig. 168.
AB
in the ratio of
is
Wg
*^i-
I^
Similarly,
we take
Fig. 169.
the same distances from one another, the parallel forces w^,
Wg. "Wa can be
compounded
by
first
'-*
comwhere
w-^+w.2, ^^
161
162
: :
ELEMENTARY STATICS
:
AD DB-w, ir,, and then compounding w^+w^, and tv^ into. A single force at G, where CO GD = w^ +W2 H'3. As the forces have a definite resultant, the same point G must be obtained in whatever order we proceed with the composition.
:
As
will
in the case of
two
particles, it will
be seen that
is
it
does
not matter in
what
position the
framework
We
particles,
and we
of Gravity as follows
The Centre
of Blass of a
number
of particles is a point
relative distances
made up
of
namely
parallel to
we can speak
But if the body is very large, such as a mountain, the forces due to gravity are not accurately proportional to the masses, nor are they accurately parallel, and in fact the forces due to gravity may not compound into a single force at all, and consequently the term Centre of Gravity would be a misnomer. On the other hand, a definite centre of mass is given by the definition in such a case as in any other. Hence modem writers generally adopt the term Centre of Mass in
preference to Centre of Gravity.
98. Centre of
If
Mass by Experiment.
we support a
rest, it will
rigid body at one point and let it hang at be acted on only by gravity, and by the reaction
CENTRES OF MASS
at the point of support C.
single vertical force
163
a
The resultant
effect of gravity is
This must
G must
We
if
it
by a pin at one point, so that it hangs in a vertical plane, and mark the vertical through the pin. Xhen support it at a
FlO. 170.
Fig. 171.
The centre
of
mass
will
be in
We
CM.
roughly, in the
same
way, for
many
basket, and
it will
CM.
CM.
will
by Calculation.
CM.
is
required,
body up
into pieces
CM.
of the whole.
164
ELEMENTARY STATICS
of a thin uniform rod
is
The CM.
point.
evidently at
its
middle
100.
CM.
ol a thin
{e.g.
a thin
CM.
of a parallelo-
fnun.
Let
ABCD
be the parallelogram.
It
may
at
be divided into an
infinitely large
number
side AD.
The CM.
of each strip is
middle point
in
II
form a
set
on the
line
EF
in Fig. 172.
The
some EF or, in other words, the CM. of the whole parallelogram is somewhere on EF. Similarly, the CM. lies on the line HK bisecting AB and DC. Hence it lies on the intersection of these two lines, which is also the intersection of the
resultant of all these must, therefore, act through
;
point on
CM,
of
a Parallelopiped.
As
may
be divided
and the
CM.
will
be found to be at the
which
is
CENTRES OF MASS
102.
165
(or
CM.
of a
CM.
of
of a Triangle).
The
triangle
ABC may be
number
mass
of
which
all lie
median AD
triangle lies
of the triangle,
CM.
of
on AD.
Similarly the
CM.
lies
and
is
As there
is
meet
Note
also that
by
similar triangles
AG GD
or
-
AB DE
GD=1AD.
if
we
CM.
we
of three equal
.proceed
D, of
and
combine 2m at D
point dividing
AD
2:1.
CM.
same centre
of
placed at
its vertices.
166
103.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
CM.
of
a Tetrahedron.
ABCD
PQR by
C
Fio. 174.
C
Fio. 175.
CM.
A to E, the Hence the centres of mass of all the plates are on the same line, and therefore this line contains the centre of mass of the tetrahedron. Similarly the CM. is on the line from B to F, the CM. of the triangle ACD. These lines therefore intersect, and the point of intersection G is by
similar triangles that
of the triangle
PQR M is
be at M.
on the
line joining
BCD.
the
CM.
of the tetrahedron.
That AE and BF intersect may be seen at once geometrically by bisecting CD in H. Then E and F are on BH and AH, and therefore BF and AE are in the plane AHB,and therefore intersect. Again, on joining EF we have
HE=^HB
and
.-.
HF = ^HA; EF = JAB;
GE EF EG = JEA.
also
.".
^=^ = 3
'
CENTRES OF MASS
The
167
CM.
CM.
of four
their
For three equal particles, each of mass m at B, C, D, have CM. at E (Art. 102), and the CM. of the four is the same as that of a mass 3m at E and m at A, which therefore
is
ratio of 3
1.
Mass
of a
Compound Body.
mass
of the whole.
we have
portions of a body,
we can
Let
nil, "^2
Gj,
The CM.
whole
will
be at G, where
or
GiGa in-i+m^'
.
nii+m^
''
105. Centre of
Similarly,
Mass
of a Remainder.
of its
if we know the mass of a body and the position CM., and we cut off from it a portion of known mass and CM., we can readily find the CM. of the remainder. For if (Fig. 17.7) G is the CM. of the whole, whose mass is M, and G^ the CM. of the part (of mass m) cut ofi, then G2,
the
CM.
G2G_ m ~ M -m GGi
168
106.
If
ELEMENTARY STATICS
CM. ol any the CM. of any
it
Quadrilateral.
rectilineal area is required, it is generally
necessary to divide
Art. 104.
up
into triangles,
of
CM.
^
no. 178.Centre
of
mass of a quadrilateral.
CM.'s
of the triangles
ABD, CBD,
HE = ^AE,
KE = ^CE.
It
remains to divide
HK
of these triangles.
Now, if AM, CN are the perpendiculars from A and C on BD, the areas are proportional to AM and CN, and therefore to
AO and CO.
Hence
also,
if
H K cuts BD
in L,
HL^AO^ABD
LK~OC~CBD'
or
L divides HK
CENTRES OF MASS
Hence,
if
169
we mark
off
HG =
KL,
will divide
is
HK
in the of the
and therefore G
the
CM.
107. Centre of
Mass
of a
Number
of Particles.
...
in one
x^,
2/1
by the coordinates
G,--,
/^.^'J
'''
i
m^g
Fig. 179.
Oy
vertical,
m-^g,
and think
. . .
of the
on by their weights
m^,
proportional
x^,
to their masses
from O.
acts
and parallel to Oij, and at distances aj^, Hence (by Art. 33) the resultant of these along a line at a distance x from O given by
_
forces
_ "^rngx _ Imx
2.mg
2,m
this
line,
consequently the
a;-coordinate
is
CM.
is
somewhere on
'Emx/'^m.
or
its
By
Ox
is vertical,
we
get y,
CM., and
y = 'Emy/'^m.
results of
We
If
will see
from the
if
formula holds
170
X,, y,, jj,
ELEMENTARY STATICS
to denote the distances of the particle
of the
planes,
CM.
X = '2mxl^m
ExampUa. 1. Find the coordinates of the terms of the coordinates of the vertices.
?Vt.
CM.
of
a triangle in
%
*./.
FlO. ISO.
Aa the centre of mass of the triangle is the same as that of three Sual maww at its vertices, it follows at once that if the coordinates
the vertices are x^, y^ centre of mass are
X,
;
Xj, y^
z,, y,
+x. +x.
and
yi+Vi+y*
ft
MBS a and 6.
2. One end of a rectangular plate is cut off obliquely so as to leave plate as in the figure. Find the distance of its CM. from the
fl'
C
Fio. 181.
We will
ways.
illustrate the
CENTRES OF MASS
The The
First solution. Divide it into two triangles by joining AC. areas of these triangles are ^ab and ^a'b. distances from AD and AB of the CM. of ACD are
171
^^^
-3-
a +a'
by Example
CM.
of
ABC
are
and
a'
3;
..
CM.
ia63 + ia6-3
^ab + ^a'b
^ao
-^ + -j-
^,(^
+ 2a0
a + a'
a + a'
;^r
hfa b-
and
lab + ia'b
a + a'
Second solution.
plate.
Fig. 182.
The areas
tively
respec-
l{a^a')b,
l{a+a')b.
Hence,
masses
if
we
call
distances of
G from
H, K, G the centres of mass of these, and if the the sides a and b are y and x, we can say that
l{a -a')b at K,
and
;,
^
x,
^>
and
have a
^{a+a')b G,
CM.
and
|a.
'
172
ELEMENTARY STATICS
"^
2a
. :.
'
(a+aOy-aft-Ca-a)
b(a + 2a') y~ 3(a + a')
,,26
g=
ah + 2a'b
g
,
Tkird aolution. We can divide the quadrilateral into triangles in the first method, and then replace each triangle by proper
ct the vertices.
mten
tt area,
triangle ABC can be replaced by masses proportional to each say \a'b at A, B and C, and ACD will be replaced by iab at A. C, D, giving in all |(a'6 +a&) at A and C,
Thiu the
^a'b at B,
lab at D,
and the
CM.
of the quadrilateral
is
the
CM.
Fourth solution. The quadrilateral may, of course, be conveniently divided into a rectangle and triangle, and we would continue as in the first solution. We leave the working out to the student.
8. An equilateral triangle and a square have a side in common. Find the distance of the centre of mass of the two from the common
side.
4.
L) is of uniform thickness, of lengths 10 and 8 ins. and the breadth 2 ias. Find the distances of the CM. from the outer edges
it
bv a
triangle whose sides are 5, 12, 13 ins. has a quarter cut off line parallel to the shortest side, and bisecting the others.
CM.
of the remainder
6. Find the centre of mass of three equal rods each of length 2a and forming three sides of a square.
7. Find the centre of mass of five equal rods each of length 2a forming five sides of a regular hexagon.
CENTRES OF MASS
8.
173
is
ABCDEF
(i)
is
find the
CM.
the triangle
ABC
(ii)
the triangle
OAB
CM.
of a regular tetrahedron of
10. From a regular tetrahedron of edge 2a a regular tetrahedron of edge a is cut off by a plane parallel to one face ; find the distance of the CM. of the remainder from the base. 11.
cylindrical shell of thin sheet metal has a base of the If its radius is r and height h, find the
same
CM.
12. Find the position of the CM. of a framework of six equal bars of length 2a forming the edges of a regular tetrahedron,
13.
Find the
CM.
of a regular tetrahedron
formed
of thin sheet
metal.
14. Find the centre of mass of a hollow cone with a base, formed of uniform sheet metal.
all
15. One end of a rectangular plate is cut off obliquely, leaving a quadrilateral whose parallel sides are of lengths 6 and 4 ins. and breadth 3 ins. Find the distances of the CM. from the square end
parallel sides.
16. In a cubical block a cylindrical hole is drilled perpendicular to one face, the centre of one end of the cylinder being at the centre Find the CM. of the remainder if the edge of the cube of the cube. is 2a and the radius of the cylinder r.
17. In a circular sheet of metal of radius 10 ins., a circular hole of radius 3 ins. is punched whose centre is 5 ins. from the centre of the sheet. Find the position of the CM. of the remainder.
18. Masses of 1, 2, 3, 4 lbs. are placed at the corners of a square Find the centre of mass of the whole. plate of mass 6 lbs.
19. Masses of 1, 4, 3, 5 lbs. are placed at the corners of a square Find the distance of the centre of mass of the plate of mass 6 lbs. whole from the centre of the plate.
20. Masses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are placed at equal intervals round the circumference of a circular plate weighing 4 lbs. Find the CM. of the whole.
21.
Two
angles A,
of
h^, h^,
at a distance
'~
h
^
174
22.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
The diagonals
of a quadrilateral
ABCD
intersect at right
anglM at O. Prove that the distance of the CM. of the quadrilateral from O is K/{(OD -OB)* +{0A -0C)). 23. A pyramid with a square base is formed by piling up equal
balls, there
of the
pyramid above the centres of the the height of the top ball as n 4n + 2.
CM.
is
to
84. Shew that the CM. of a thin triangular frame is the same as that of particles of masses b +c, c+a, a +b, at the vertices of the triangle, and deduce that the CM. is at the centre of the inscribed
oiiole.
25. Shew how to find particles which, when placed at the vertices of a tetrahedral framework will have the same CM. as the framework. The edges of a tetrahedral framework are AS = AC = AD = 13 ins., ins. Find the distance of the CM. from BC = 10, CD =6, the triangle BCD.
DB=8
108. Centre of
Mass
of
any Pyramid.
Let H be the centre of
the base, the
as
the vertex at O.
mass
of
and h the
base into
//^\\
By
dividing
/\l\\\
/
.
triangles
such
ABE,
BED,
Y
//'
/..---T^^A
^y c^v nX.
;
^^^ ^
ijito
^
.*.
_A/^^
D
Pio 183,
^^
Now
.
at
the
CM.
of the whole
pyramid
is
at a height j
above the
base.
Also a plane drawn parallel to the base will cut the pyramid
ABCDE, and hence, by drawing such planes close to one another, we get a series of slices similar to the base, and therefore having the CM. of the slice
CENTRES OF MASS
similarly placed to that of the base.
175
hedron
it
the C.M.'s of
CM.
of the base,
and conis
CM.
of the
whole tetrahedron
on this
way
AH from
any form
H, or three-quarters of the
way
along from A.
applies to
of
The above
cone (which
is
of a Right Circular
Cone
is
on
its axis,
and
three-quarters of the
way from
is
cut off
by a plane
parallel to its
base, the
CM.
of the
Art. 105,
combined with the result of Art. 108, or worked out independently by integration.
110. Centres of
may
be
Mass by the
Calculus.
Many
mase
Calculus,
body of given shape require the use of the Integral and a few of the simpler cases will be worked out here by it. Some of them may be obtained by algebraic methods, which are, however, usually more complicated.
of a
will be used for the density of a mass per unit volume, as grammes per cubic <t will be used for the mass centimetre, or lbs. per cubic ft.
body, that
centimetre,
of a sheet of metal.
by an ordinate perpendicular
to the axis.
176
ELEMENTARY STATICS
CAC be the segment, and let the equation of the parabola
y^ = iax,
let
Let bo
and
the height
AB
of the
segment be
h.
o^-^
p.y^
M N
.r
P'^
^\
C'
FlO, 184.
lies
on AB.
is 2?/, its
breadth
is dx.
its its
area = 2ydx;
:.
mass = 2
.
j/
dx.
Now by
CM., we have to multiply the mass which we divide the body by its X coordinate, add together all such products, and divide by the total mass. As the summation becomes simply integrato A in this example, we get tion from
get the X coordinate of the
of each little element into
I
(r.2ydx.x
<T.2ydx
2(rWiax.xdx
2a^xidx
2a^\x^dx
2a\j\^dx
CENTRES OF MASS
112. Solid Hemisphere.
177
Divide
it
by planes
PP'Q'Q
The area
.'.
.'.
of the disk
= vy^,
==dx]
=iry^(lx;
thickness
,,
volume mass
,,
= pTcyMx = p7r{a^ -
x^)dx,
since x^
+ y^ = a^
I
pir {a^
- x^) dx X
.
pTr\{a^x- x^)d:
pTr\{a^-x^)da.
pTr{a^- x^)dx
a^x^
x^~
L 2 r
2
a
I
^n
2? ~
S""-
113.
off
Zone
of Sphere, that
is,
"^
last
belt PP'Q'Q,
its
circumference
where
with Oy,
FiQ. 188.
= PQ = QK sec 6 = dx sec 6
',
178
.'.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
the area of the belt
.dx sec 6
Now
with
called a circumscribing
off
on
cut
Thus the area of any belt of the sphere is equal to the area off on the circumscribing cylinder between the same two planes (Archimedes's result), and the centre of mass of the belt is given by _ ^2Tradx.x
_ ^~
IS.'Kadx
'
and
is
CM.
cylinder,
and
is
circle).
^^
B
FlO. 187.
OC
O being the centre of the arc, and the radius bisecting the angle AOB, and
let
AOC = a
PQ
^POC = 0,
i-POQ.
.'.
= dQ\
arc
PQ,=adQ.
CENTRES OF MASS
Let X = mass per unit length
.'.
;
179
mass
of
PQ = \adO, X = ON = a
sin
[
cos
I
.
XadO .a
COS 6
-_Jj;:a
j-a _ asma
a=^
.
2a
TT
The sector may be divided into a number of thin triangles. The CM. of any one of these is two-thirds of the way from the
centre to the circumference of the circle.
Fig. 188,
will
CM.
it is
of the arc
CD
and hence
at a distance
2 a sin
a
from
~3'
oc
A0B = 2a.
Hence the CM.
of a semi-circular area is at a distance
the centre
2 a
4a
180
ELEMENTARY STATICS
theorems are important
the area of the surface generated
If
equal to
by the length
of the path
If
its
plane
by the curve is equal to the area of the curve multiplied by the length of the path of the centre of mass of the area. (i) Let the curve AB revolve about the axis of y.
which does not intersect
FlO. 189.
The X coordinate
of the
CM.
by
where ds
is
Now
is
by the element PQ
a belt
x and breadth
its
(h,
and consequently
area = 2irx ds
.'.
; ;
CENTRES OF MASS
Now
(ii)
181
2xai
is
proved,
With
X = coordinate
S = total
area.
of the
-
CM.
dS = an element
of area.
Fig. 190.
The element dS
whose volume is
2xa;
.'.
^S
total
volume = 22 xa; dS
.*.
volume = 27rX2(;S
of path of the
CM.
for
117. Pappus's
in
some cases
its
Thus,
if
the curve
base,
= ixa^.
The length
of the curve
.'.
= xa
4xa^ = 2'irx x xa
/.
5=
(cf.
Art. 114).
182
ELEMENTARY STATICS
of the semi-circle
/.
The area
= Jira-
*xo=
= 27rXa7ra2,
Art. 115).
X = ||(cf.
ExampUs. 1. In a cubical block of edge 2a a hemispherical cavity of radius r is hollowed out with its centre at the centre of one Find the CM. of the remainder. of the faces.
8. In a cubical block of edge 2a a hole is drilled consisting of a If the vertex cylinder of radius r terminated by a cone of height h. of the cone is at the centre of the block, find the CM. of the remainder. 8. Find the CM. of a truncated right circular cone, the whose ends are a and b and height h. Find also the CM. of
(i)
(ii)
radii of
a truncated cone whose ends are Find the volume and CM. of the
whole.
5. With the result of Ex. 2, Art. 107, verify Pappus's theorem by finding the volume of a truncated cone by revolving the area in that example about the side b. 6. Shew that the CM. of a homogeneous solid pyramid whose base is a parallelogram is the same as that of four equal particles at the angles of the base with a particle of four-thirds of the mass of each at the vertex.
7. 8.
Find the
CM.
of a
segment of a
circle.
Find the CM. of a paraboloid of revolution (the solid formed by revolving a parabola about its axis) bounded by a plane perpendicular to
9.
its axis.
Find the
CM.
bounded by two
pftrallel planes.
10.
11. A cylindrical hole of radius r is cut centrally and perpendicularly to the base through a hemisphere of radius a. Shew that the CM. of the remainder is at a distance 3v/{o* -r*) from the base.
CENTRES OF MASS
12.
183
faces of a solid bounded by planes are rectangles of sides the sides a^, a^ being parallel. The distance between these faces is h. Shew that the distance of the CM. from the rectangle a^, h^ is a,&, + 3ai&i + a + <^ ^
!, 61
;
Two
a^, 62,
A A
13. Shew that if a slice of a spherical shell of any thickness is made by two parallel planes so as to forma ring, the CM. is midway between
coil of radius
its
a and consists of
is
Shew that
CM.
at a distance
tt/
sin
centre.
15. A body is bounded by a rectangle of sides 2a and 2h (b<a) and four planes through these at equal inclinations 6 to the plane of the rectangle. Shew that the distance of the CM. from the
rectangle
is
9.
of the parabola
x,
the curve, and the ordinate a;=4a, and find the coordinates of the
CM. CM.
x, find
118. Upsetting of a
If a
Body on a Plane.
left
body
is
to
itself, it
may remain
may
fall
over.
Think
of it
as held for a
moment.
It is in contact
may may
all
convenient
way
Thus,
of
to suppose a string
all
drawn
if
and enclosing
the contacts.
The
condition that
is
when
left to itself
134
the base.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
For the forces acting are the weight vertically down-
upwards.
The
reactions can be
compounded
into a single
if
vertical force
the centre
will
of
mass
is
be
But
outside the
when
left to itself.
The same
is
applies to a
sufficient friction
is
rectangular block
body on an inclined plane when there to prevent it from sliding. Thus, if a placed on a plane which is then tilted
sliding, or
may
slide
^*-
ii-
Fia. 192.
In Fig. 191
let
2h be the height,
2a the breadth of the base.
If
tt
the body
is still
at rest
if
R,
when the plane makes an angle F are the normal reaction and
cos a,
friction.
d R
= \a/ W
F=
W sin a.
For
it
^=Ai = tana.
CENTRES OF MASS
On
the other hand, for
vertically
it
185
of toppling,
to be
on the point
must be
above
A, as in Fig. 192.
tan
oc
= v.
h
is tilted
^<h'
and
will topple before sliding
if
EXAMPLES.
circular table of weight and radius 1. vertical legs at a distance a from the centre.
2a stands on four
What
it ?
is
the least
2. A number of equal bricks are piled on top of one another, the lowest being on a horizontal table, and each successive one projecting
it
How many
3.
whose base has a radius of 1 ft. and placed on a plane which is then tilted up. If the coefficient of friction is greater than unity, shew that the cone will topple before sliding, and find the inclination of the plane when toppling takes place.
right circular cone,
is
ft., is
whose height
cup with a flat bottom is made of sheet per unit area. It stands on a horizontal table, and a rod of weight is placed in it and projects over the edge. Shew that the whole wiU upset if the length of the rod is greater than
4.
circular cylindrical
lo
metal, of weight
\/4r^Tp{2
where h
5.
is
+^
(Trr^
+27rrh)Y
its radius.
of strings knotted together at a common point O pass over the smooth edge of a horizontal circular table on which lies, and carry masses hanging freely at the ends. Shew that if the system is in equilibrium, either the centre of mass of the masses is vertically below or all the strings lie in the same vertical plane.
number
186
ELEMENTARY STATICS
6. A sphere of radius r, whose centre of mass is at a distance a from the centre, resta on two rough planes each making an angle 45 with the horizontal. Shew that when slipping is about to take place the line joining the centre of mass to the centre of the sphere makes an angle 6 with the vertical, where
\^2a sin
^ =r
sin 2k,
where k
is
7. A rectangular block of weight W, and of edges 2a, 26, 2c, stands on a rough horizontal plane. What horizontal force appUed at the middle of the upper edge will be required to overturn it if the edges 2a are vertical and the force is parallel to the edges 26 ? Find also the work necessary to be done to upset it.
ladder has its centre of mass one-third of the way up. It 8. rests against a vertical wall and on a horizontal plane. Shew that if the coefficient of friction is 1/3 at each end, it is in limiting
equilibrium
to the horizontal
is
tan"'
CHAPTER XL
VIRTUAL WORK.
119.
We
any
forces acting
on a
rigid
body capable
moving
in
one plane.
fuller
my
From the meaning of a rigid body any two points of the body remain at the same distance from one another, however the body is moved about. A body is said to be moving in one plane when a plane fixed Different points in the body moves in a plane fixed in space. For example, if a of the body then move in parallel planes. cube slides about on a horizontal table with the same face always in contact with the table, it is said to be moving in one
plane.
planes.
In this case
all
move
in horizontal
We
will
same displacement and therefore the displacements whole body may be represented by the displacements points in any one of these planes.
same
interval of time,
187
of the
of all
188
120. There
ELEMENTARY STATICS
are
of
displacement,
all
in other words,
new
fixed,
this
Any
For
may be
Fig. 193.
A to A', and B to a point B^, and then a rotation about A' bringing the line A'Bj into the position A'B', and when the two points are fixed in their final positions every
translation bringing
other point
is
fixed.
also be
For
if
right angles, and the bisectors meet in O, the triangles OAB, OA'B' are congruent, and therefore O is the same point of the body in both positions, and as A can be brought into its new
VIRTUAL
position
WORK
189
into their
by a rotation about O, all points of the body are brought new positions by the same rotation at the same time.
In applications to Virtual
calculate the
Work
in Statics
we only
require
differential calculus.
121.
We
will
prove
now
that
a body
is
is
body
displaced a small
still
acting at the
is
zero,
work done is zero to the first order of small quantities. Take first the case of translation alone, and suppose the body to be moved with translation Ss in any direction. If a force P on the body makes an angle a. with the displacement, the work done by P is p cos a Ss,
.
and the
total
work done by
all
the forces
cos a. Ss
.
is
2P
= Ss^P = 0,
since
cos oc
2P
and
therefore the
sum
of the
resolved
any direction is zero. Next suppose the body to rotate through any angle SO about any point O, and suppose a point A comes in consequence to A'. Take any line through O as axis of x, and suppose OA makes an angle a. with Ox.
parts in
Fia. 194.
Let
OA = r.
increases Sx
190
ELEMENTARY STATICS
rfjcf cos
Now
also,
(cL+SS) -
cos
a
SO) - r cos ol
;
SO
(see
Elementary
Dynamics^
Art. 113),
cos^0 = l,
sin
SO = SO,
;
SO being
Again,
in circular
.*.
measure
Sx= - r sin
a.
SO = - y SO.
Sy = r sin (a + ^0) -
r sin
a
oc
= r (sin a cos SO + cos a. sin SO) - r sin = r(sin a +C0S , .SO)-r sin a.
= r cos tx
= xSO.
^0
Now, if P is the force acting at A, and its components are X and Y, we have proved (Art. 42) that the work done by P is the sum of the works done by X and Y, also that the work done by X in the displacement A A' is the sum of the works done in the displacements Sx and Sy, of which AA' is the
resultant.
.'.
XSx+y Sy
is
= {Sx-Xy)SO.
Hence the
total
= SO^yx-Xy)
since
122.
if
We
we had used
= r cos
a,
Sx = ^SoL=
-r sin
oi. Sol, a
- o (C
i:
X-
5o^
VIRTUAL
123.
of a rigid
WORK
191
As the total virtual work done in any small displacement body is zero, it is evident that the same is true of any number of connected bodies. That is to say, if any displacements are given to the bodies with the understanding that the forces remain constant in magnitude and direction, the virtual work of the forces is zero, to the first order of small quantities. The displacements may be any whatever, but in general
it
is
advisable to
this is
will
done
it is
not
work done by the reaction acting on the other. the tension of an inextensible string will not appear,
as has been
may
will
string,
virtual
work
and
Such a displacement,
it will
be noticed,
may
be made, though
is
inextensible,
is
to say,
We
will
also
they
method
of virtual
method, we can often calculate the force we want to find without bringing all the other forces into the equations.
by
this
work
if
remembering that
it is
positive
the
the force
is
and
if
in the opposite
direction negative.
192
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Bxamphs. 1. A rod AB of weight is supported at A by a smooth and a string passes from B over a pulley C, vertically above A, an<i supports a weight P. If AB = AC, find the angle CAB in
hinge,
(xpiilibrium.
We
at
will
W and
P.
The
reaction
docs no work.
Fio. 195.
Now,
if
AB=2a, and G
;
is
above A =a cos $
/.
change in height of
.-.
G = -o
sin
^ . S0
work done by
the length of
abo
:.
change in
BC =2o cos ^ 8^
.
/.
P ascends a
:.
distance
= 2acos ^.80
Wa
sin
WBin0 = 2Pcos^,
a
either
co3- = 0, giving
a
6'
= 180
sin^^P/W.
VIRTUAL
WORK
W,
193
and of equal length 2a, 2. Two rods AB, AC, of weights W, are smoothly jointed at A and stand in a vertical plane with the ends B, C on a smooth table and connected by a string. ,If they make angles oc with the horizontal, find the tension of the string.
The forces are as in Fig. 196. Give a displacement by increasing oc. The original height of G and G' above the table is a sin oc
;
.".
increase in height
.*.
work done by
W and W
cos
oc 8oc
is
- (W
+W')a cos oc
oc
;
8oc.
The length
.'.
of the string
= 4a
cos
= - 4a sin oc 8oc, = T4a sin oc Soc work done by the tension - (W + W')a cos oc 8oc + T4a sin oc See =0
increase in length
.-.
T=i(W+W')cota.
It will be noticed how none of the forces X, X', R, R' come into the equation. If there were friction at B and C it would appear in the equation of virtual work, and so also would a friction couple at the joint. Thus, if it takes a couple L to move the joint there would be work done by friction in the displacement of - L 28a., since the angle between the rods is changed by 2Soc, and the work done by a couple is the product of the couple into the angle through which the arm is twisted. It will also be noticed that the work done by each force is obtained in terms of a single displacement. This is always necessary where the position of the system is determined by a single coordinate such as the $ in Question 1 or the oc in Question 2. Cases involving two independent coordinates will not be dealt with in this book.
.
B.E.S.
194
125.
rigid
ELEMENTARY STATICS
The method of virtual work may be applied to just frames, and can be used to calculate any stress without
Take the framework worked out in Art. 80, and suppose to find T directly by virtual work. Imagine the bar BC imoved. but the forces T to be applied in some way to the joints. This will still keep the frame in equiUbrium, but it is deformable, and we can imagine the two halves to rotate each through an angle about A and D. This will be found to cause B and C to descend >unt distanoee a 5^, while the distance BC will be shortened by an amount 2aV35d. Hence the equation of vu^ual work is
Ex.
8.
w wanted
T2n^3=30,
T=5s/3.
126. Stable, Unstable,
If
may
if
stand an
on a
table,
he
will
probably
fail,
or at
position is, however, one of equilibrium, but the slightest shake, an almost infinitesimal puff of air, is sufiBcient to upset it. If the same stick is supported at the upper end and allowed to hang down, it may be disturbed from that position, but
it
returns to
it
We may
body
in equilibrium,
define the terms by sajring that if a and on being displaced slightly from its
it
position of equilibrium
it is said
to be in stable equilibrium
if,
however,
it
further
equilibrium,
equilibrium.
is
in
when the
centre of mass
is
as low as
it
it
can
get.
and
in unstable equilibrium
when
it is
as high as
can
VIRTUAL
If
WORK
minimum
195
rails, it
a sphere
rolls in
altitude,
and could be in unstable equilibrium at a point of maximum If a body can move altitude.
without the height of the centre
of
mass changing,
it is
said to be
i
.
in
displacement
to return.
Such
is
the case
when a sphere
is
placed on a
horizontal plane.
Good
may
is
floating in water,
in
it oscillates,
and
finally
returns to
Uttle.
old position,
also
if it is
raised a
it
But
for
moved
horizontally there
;
is
no tendency for
brium
horizontal
displacements, and
may
even be in
ment about a horizontal axis. Stable and Unstable equilibrium may generally be best treated by the method of virtual work, but to distinguish between the two we have to examine the work done, taking
into account terms of the second degree in the displacement.
is
is
by
or against
In this case,
if
there
is
work
of
the
of
first
When we
it will
be seen that
is
lowered in a small
is
displacement, or work
196
unstable, for the
ELEMENTARY STATICS
body
will
continue to
motion
if
will
move as On the
mass
is
long as the
other hand,
raised, the
equilibrium
stable.
Example. Let A be a portion of a fixed sphere of radius a, B a segment of another sphere of radius 6, which rests in equilibrium on the highest point of A. If the centre of mass of B is at a distance h from tlio point of contact, find whether the equilibrium is stable or not, the spheres being supposed so rough that the only displacement possible is a roUing of one on the other.
riG. 198.
To determine whether it is imstable or stable, we must suppose the upper sphere to roll a short distance on the lower, and examine whether the centre of mass G of the upper is lowered or raised in the process. In the former case the equilibrium is unstable, in the latter
stable.
Let, then, the upper sphere roll so that the point of contact is at P, and let OP make a small angle $ with OC, being the centre of the sphere.
now
If is the point that was in contact with C, the highest point of the fixed sphere.
C'P-CP.
C'P=b<f>
also
CP=ad
't'-le.
VIRTUAL
WORK
r-0.
197
Consequently
O'C has
<f)
or
is
= {a
The old height was
+?;)cos 6 -{b
-h)cos{6
+4>).
a+h
.'.
the rise of
G = (a+6)(cos^-l)-(6-/t){cos(6' + c^)-l}
[,
(J-
positive
if
ab
-ah
-bh>
,
(a+b)h<ab
h
1
< a +b
V
ab
h
In this case equilibrium
If v
is
stable.
< a +T b
>
it is
unstable.
If
r=^ +V
the equilibrium
is
neutral to the
same degree
it will
of
approximation, but on examining terms of higher degrees found that it is not really neutral, but unstable.
be
EXAMPLES.
Four uniform bars, each of weight w and length a, are smoothly jointed together to form a rhombus A BCD. AB is fixed horizontally, and a light string joins A to C. Find the tension in the string if the
1.
angle
DAB
is
a.
198
2.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
A
Binoothly jointed
rhombus ABCD,
of side a, is
formed of
uniform rods, and is supported at the point A and kept from collafwing by a Hght elastic string AC of natural length d and modulus A. Show that the length of string in the position of equilibrium is
A + ^)
where
is
8. A heavy rod rests with one end on a smooth horizontal table and the other against a smooth vertical wall. The lower end of the rod is connect^ with a point in the wall by a horizontal elastic
and modulus
equal to the weight of the rod. Shew that there the rod makes an angle of 45 with the vertical.
4.
equilibrium
when
AB, BC,
C.
CD
A, C, and B, D, are joined by light strings of lengths v 3 times that of a rod, and the frame rests in a vertical plane with AD on a smooth horizontal floor. Find the tensions of the strings.
6. A smoothly jointed parallelogram of uniform bars ABCD has the mid points of AD, BC smoothly jointed at two fixed points in the same vertical so as to form a Roberval's Balance. To the middle of the top bar AD is fixed at right angles a pointer of length I and weight lo per unit length. Shew that when weights are attached at A and D respectively, the inclination 6 of the pointer to the vertical is given by
B and
V^,W
where
AD
=a.
rod AB of weight 8. is hinged at A and supported by a string attached at B and passing over a pulley at C vertically above A, and then along an arc CE of a smooth vertical circle of which A is the centre. A weight is attached to the end of the string and can sUde along the arc. If AC = AB, and the whole length of the string is equal to the quadrant of the circle, prove that there will be equilibrium when AD makes an angle 6 with the horizontal, where
^=2 cos
ABCD
6^,
1' nearly.
a jointed rhombus of equal rods. AB is fixed horizontally, and a string of natural length SAB and modulus equal to the weight of one bar connects AC. Shew that BC makes an angle 26 with the horizontal given by 6 cos 2^ -2 sin 2d + 3sih 6=0.
VIRTUAL
WORK
199
8. A square formed of four uniform heavy rods, smoothly jointed at the corners, is suspended from one of the corners and kept square by a weightless rod along the horizontal diagonal. Shew that the thrust in this rod is half the weight of the square.
9. A weightless, smoothly jointed rhombus has its opposite Shew that the tensions of the corners joined by stretched strings. strings must be in the ratio of their lengths.
10. ABCD is a jointed rhombus of weightless rods with another Equal forces F are apphed at A and C weightless rod joining BD. along AC. Find the stress in BD.
rectangular block of wood, whose vertical dimension is a, 11. rests on top of a fixed sphere of radius b. Is the equilibrium stable
or unstable
12.
?
A A
radius
b.
hemisphere of radius a rests on top of a fixed sphere of Find whether the equihbrium is stable or unstable
(i)
(ii)
When When
in contact with
half cylinder of radius a rests on top of a fixed sphere of Find if the equilibrium is stable or unstable when the curved surfaces are in contact
13.
radius
b.
(i)
(ii)
Find
wards.
stable or unstable
when the
flat
surface
is
down-
14. A heavy rod rests horizontally on two smooth planes, each at an angle 45^ with the horisiontal. Is the equilibrium stable or
unstable
15.
equal rods, each of length 4a, are jointed together at one end and rest in equilibrium, touching a horizontal cyhnder of radius Prove that in equilibrium the rods make an angle 45 with the a.
vertical.
Two
CHAPTER
XII
GRAPHICAL STATICS
127.
first in
We
Art. 24,
in
Chap. VII.,
work.
But
other words to
we were
more
graphically.
We now
come
difficult case
on a body.
We
will first
any number
It will
of forces acting in
any position
in a plane,
be best to take
a point, and
first
meeting
in
be applied at once to
line of action.
is the same in magnitude and direction as if the three forces met in a point, and can therefore be determined at once by drawing a force diagram (Fig. 200) ABCD, with its sides representing the forces in magnitude and direction then AD represents the resultant
;
We
200
GRAPHICAL STATICS
in
201
remains to
be
magnitude and
direction.
Its
position
determined.
ABCD, but
OB, OC, OD. Next, in Fig. 199, take any point y on P and draw pq parallel to OB to meet Q,m q.
perimeter,
and
join OA,
Fig. 199.
Similarly
draw
qr parallel to
rs
00
OD,
OA,
to
meet R
in
r.
s.
ps
Then
s will
be a point on the
For from
Fig.
200, P
is
represented by
forces represented in
sp and qp.
Q can be represented by BO and OC acting along and rq and R can be replaced by forces represented by pq CO, OD, acting along qr and sr.
Similarly
;
202
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Combining these together again we find we arc only left sr, and therefore the resultant acts
8.
through
We
tude, direction
and
is
the
it
Force Diagram
is
pqrs
is
the Pole.
in Art. 65, to
FlO. 201.
U
force,
is
not closed
we have a
necessarily
resultant
gives
and
the
construction
above
a
is
funicular polygon,
obtained.
If
we may
is closed there is no single resultant, and have a resultant couple or equilibrium. These
two cases
GRAPHICAL STATICS
Suppose the force polygon
is
203
closed so that
rs
coincides with
(Fig. 202),
OA
rs').
replaced by
Hence the funicular polygon is unclosed, and it will be seen by Art. 128 that we have replaced the three forces by two, each The forces thererepresented by OA, acting along sp and s'r. fore in this case are equivalent to a couple whose moment is obtained by multiplying the force represented by OA, by the distance between ps and rs' If, however, jps and rs' coincide the forces are evidently in equilibrium, and the funicular polygon (for this case of three
forces) is a triangle.
It will readily
number
of
forces,
forces
in
and 200.
For
if
the force F
reversed
we have
cular
is
equilibrium,
forces.
130.
follows
We may
therefore
state
the
general
results
as
When n
open, the
is
closing or (w
+ 1)"'
-1-
1 sides in all,
and
on the resultant
If
closed
and
last sides of
the funicular
is
closed
and
also
is
a polygon of
sides.
20t
ELEMENTARY STATICS
of parallel forces only differs
The case
in the
in a
straight line.
Fia. 203.
Fio. 204.
CD
and
is
found as before.
If
we take
it will
easily
identically the
same as that
two
Examples.
2.
1.
Prove
this statement.
funicular
if
is
taken on the
Examine what happens if the pole is taken (i) on a side of the force polygon,
(ii)
4. Is it possible to
of
two
forces
132. It
its
is easy to find the pressures exerted by a girder on supports by means of the funicular polygon.
Thus let Fig. 205 represent a beam supported at the ends and loaded as shewn (the weight of the beam has been neglected).
GRAPHICAL STATICS
and suppose we want the position
pressures on the supports.
of the resultant load
205
and the
Draw
Fig. 205.
line)
then DA
will
represent the
sum
of the pressures
Y and
X.
Fig. 206.
O and
any point
st.
t,
so getting
Join
st,
and draw OE
parallel to
and Then
206
ELEMENTARY STATICS
is
ABCDEA
X and Y
the complete
force polygon,
will
be represented by
EA and DE.
Also,
if
A few
result
must be the same whatever point O is taken as Pole in the force diagram. Thus O may be within or without the force polygon. For different points O different points s will be obtained, but they must all lie on the line of the
The
resultant force.
may
same pole O,
be
parallel,
Funiculars for
"P
uR
Q
Fio. 207.
Fig. 208.
Further,
it is
is
no necessary order
pole
force polygon.
O and
may
but with a
little
that.
The student should draw the funiculars for many simple casestwo forces, three forces at a point, and other cases. With a given set of forces he should draw them for different
positions of the pole
and
and
different
GRAPHICAL STATICS
order of forces in the force polygon, and observe
are consistent.
if
207
Bis results
The
force polygon
may
be the
we may
Q,
when the
force polygon
becomes
EXAMPLES.
1.
Obtain the resultant for Fig. 207 by drawing the funicular (i) when the forces are taken in the order P, R, Q, and the pole is at the centre of the square (ii) when the forces are taken in the order P, Q, R, and the pole is at the mid-point of BD in Fig. 208 (iii) forces as (ii), and pole at corner of the square opposite A.
; ;
2.
in
Find the position of the resultant of the parallel forces shewn diagram 209.
15
r
Fio 209.
17
girder, 20 ft. long and of 3. 8-2, 7-6 tons at points 6-8, 11-4,
weight 5 tons, supports loads 5-3, 151 ft. from one end. Find the
Find the resultant of the three forces shewn (Fig. 210), where the sides of the triangle are a -6, 6 =4, c = 7.
A6 4i
.2_.
.3.
..2_-
FIG. 211. 5.
couple,
208
6.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Find graphically the resultant of the forces in Fig. 93, Art. 66.
Fia. 212.
7. Shew graphically that the forces in Fig. 212 are in equilibrium, the sides of the rectangle being 6 and 8 ft.
^
\i
\
CHAPTER
XIII.
to be
remarked
now
Thus,
if
we want
to
may give its distances from two adjacent walls and The three planes give planes to measure from the floor. from, and their three inroom, we
tersections are three axes
We
will
by Ox, Oy,
with the
Similarly,
dealing
of
direction
line in a plane, it
was only
a given
FlO. 213.
made with
Ox.
When we
it.
are
it
is
135. Let Ox, Oy, Oz be the three axes taken at right angles
to
one another.
B.E.S.
The
position of P
209
is
denoted by
its
distances
o
210
ELEMENTARY STATICS
These distances are PL, PM,
by the angles
it
OP
is
ON
OP makes
is
with ON, PN
astronomy,
if
OP
if
the direction of a
by an observer at O, and
line,
west,
aON
And
the star,
PON
is
In magnetism,
OP
xON
is
suspended from
its
centre of mass,
is
and
PON
the figure,
is
From
PL + PM = PH2;
.-.
186. If
OP
we can
first
resolve
it
ON
into
OF and OG.
OH
OP
Now
follows
cos
sin
<f),
<p,
211
Oij,
PF
is
perpendicular to OF,
Oz,
similarly,
OF = OPcosoc; OG = OP cos ^,
OH=OPcos
and we have the
result, since
y,
.'.
so that
oc,
cos
y are not all independent of one another. may be called the Direction Angles of OP, and |5, y a, cos ^, cos y are called the Direction Cosines of OP.
oc, /3,
We
force
by three
resolutes
Thus,
if
the resultant
R and
its
resolutes are X, Y, Z,
X = 2P
cos a,
Y = 2Pcos;8,
R makes angles
a, 6, c
cosa = X/R,
cosfe
= Y/R,
cosc=Z/R.
If
R=0;
.-.
x2 + Y2 + z2 = 0;
/.
X = 0,
Y = 0,
Z=0.
sufficient
for
212
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Example. Prove that if a number of forces meet in a point and the sums of the rpsolutes in three different directions not in one plane, but not necessarily at right angles, separately vanish, the forces are
in equilibrium.
187.
We
will
three components in
in Fig. 206, Ox, Oy,
Thus,
angles,
\
FlO, 214.
and we can
where OP
OG,
is
still,
of
OP
OH
components would be
complicated.
cases a question
on
be
forces in space
may
easily
213
S be the
^T
YW
Fig.
216. Forces at A.
The
figure forms
a,
and by
its
geometry,
.-.
BK=a/v/3;
AK=av/2/\/3;
.-.
cosBAK=\/2/3.
Therefore at A we have three forces each S, and each making an angle ^ = cos~V2/3 with the vertical therefore resolving vertically for the joint A,
;
38^2/3
.-.
=W
S=W/V6.
At
B, horizontally along
B K,
Ssin^=2Tcos30;
.'.
-^ = 2T^;
n/3
.-.
S=3T;
T = -^-
2. A body of weight 38 lbs. is supported by three strings from The body is vertically points A, B, C in the same horizontal plane. below a point O in the plane, and OA = 10 ft., 0B = 18, OC=32. If OB and OC are at right angles while OA makes an angle tan~'f with CO produced, prove that the tensions of the strings are 26, 10, 10 lbs. wt. respectively. {Hint. Think of each tension resolved into two components, one vertical and the other in the horizontal plane the vertical
;
214
ELEMENTARY STATICS
in the horizontal plane
must
P is equally 3. OA. OB, OC are axes mutually at right angles. PL, PM, PN are the perpendistant from the three planes OAB, etc. diculars from P on the three axes, and PR is the perpendicular on the plane AOB. If PL, PM, PR, LR, MR, NR are weightless bars attaching P to fixed points L, M, N, find the stresses in the bars when a force F acts at P parallel to OB. CA, CB, CO 4. OA, OB, OC are axes mutually at right angles. are weightless bars jointed together at C and to fixed points A, B, O. A force acts at C, whose components are X, Y, Z. Find the stresses in the bars.
5.
weight
is
supported at a point
O by
on the ground at A, B, C. The vertical through O meet the ground at N, and AN meets BC in D. Prove that the stiCM in OA is ND OA/AD ON.
resting
ft.,
=\/24 and the angles ANB, BNC, CNA are all 120. Calculate by the method of Example 5 the stresses in the bars if the weight supported
6.
5,
is
100
7.
lbs.
electric wire, approximately horizontal, and having a tension of 100 lbs., passes round a post 20 ft. high, the two portions making an angle 150 with one another. stay 25 ft. long is fixed to the top of the post -and to the ground. What should be the tension of the stay so that there should be no horizontal stress on the
An
post?
CHAPTER
ANY FORCES
IN
XIV.
THREE DIMENSIONS.
138. To discover tlie conditions of equilibrium when a number of forces act at any points of a body in three dimensions, we shall follow the same method as before by simplifying the
system
of forces,
making use
We
We
saw
couples in different planes, and the question arises at once, " Can couples in different planes be compounded together in "
any way
We
means
shall
of straight lines as
lies
we did
forces.
which a couple
the couple
is
may
in a given plane or in
any
Also the
magnitude of the moment of the couple, which, it will be remembered, is the only other thing of consequence about the
couple,
may
line, so
that
we have a
line of
The couple
is
thus a
may
216
There
is,
ELEMENTARY STATICS
however, an important difference between the In the case of a
(or the origin) of
line.
may
;
in other words,
one end
may
may
be taken anywhere in
;
in other words,
any
j)oint in space.
For a couple
may
be moved anywhere
its
in its
effect
own
on a
body.
may
The
will
positive and negative directions of a couple in a plane be distinguished by the vectors being drawn in opposite
directions,
it
FlO. 218.
moment
one another
same way as the translation and rotation of an ordinary right-handed screw. Thus, for the couple shewn in Fig. 218, the vector should be drawn perpendicular to the
in the
paper, from the paper towards the reader. The direction of the vector of a couple
Axis.
If the
is
plane of a couple
can
call it
is perpendicular to the line Ox, we a couple whose vector is along Oa;, or a couple
about Ox.
ANY FORCES
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
217
Let
X,
Y be the planes of two couples. 00' the line of intersection of the planes.
xOy
L,
both.
may be M apart.
represented by
We
A
Fig. 219.
We
two unit
forces at
A and
B.
In Fig. 230
FlQ. 220.
Fig. 221.
parallel
is
unity and
arm AB.
Call
this couple N.
Now, drawing
two
sides parallel
218
ELEMENTARY STATICS
and equal to L, M, we see that the triangle is congruent with AOB, ita third side being perpendicular to AB, and therefore N is given in direction and magnitude by the ordinary vector law
of composition.
140. Composition ol a
Number
o Couples.
It follows that a couple can be resolved into components along three lines in space in exactly the same way as forces,
Fia. 222.
in space
can be compounded
Thus, let L, M, N, ... be a number of couples, which may, by Art. 138, be represented by vectors all drawn through the same point O. The couple L can be resolved into components L,, L,, L,, about three axes at right angles, and the components can then be added together so that we have finally three couples,
"-XJ
"'-yj ^'-Zt
about the three axes, and these can be compounded into a single couple G, where
it
and the direction of its vector makes with the axes, where
is
a., jS,
ANY FORCES
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
219
For example,
if
we have
two
forces,
each
P, parallel to
Ox forming
force
a couple, and a
along Oz as in Fig.
223,
Qm
forces at
R in the plane
but we can-
P,
because R
in a point
In order to
compound a
force
must
be perpendicular.
and a couple can be reduced to a force and a To do this, suppose we have a force R and a couple G, whose vector makes an
But a
force
AR
V
angle Q with R.
We can
R.
resolve
into
two
couples, one,
y G coi
G
and the
cos Q about
other,
G
Gainff
sin
Q about
a perpendicular to R
Now
Fig. 224.
G
parallel to the original.
sin
and
this
couple
Hence we now have a force R and a is in the same direction as R, the couple may be drawn with any origin,
we may say
220
ELEMENTARY STATICS
force
in direction are
said to
142. Redaction of
We
how
of forces to its
simplest form.
\
FlO. 225.
A,
It
can
first
Let
AH
HK
H on
Ox, so that
OK = x,
KH=y, HA = 2.
The
and
force
at
A can be replaced by
a force
at
H
is parallel
a couple Xz,
last vector
whose vector
to Oy.
The
X
Xy,
at
O
whose vector
is
a couple
in the negative
direction of Oz.
ANY FORCES
a force a couple
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
original
221
X by
Ox,
Oy,
Oz.
X
Xz
at
along
about
and
Similarly,
a couple - X?/
about
we can
replace Y
by
at
a force a couple
Y
Ya;
along
Oy.
Oz,
about about
and
a couple - Yz
Ox,
at
along
Oz,
Zy
about
about
force P at
Ox,
and
a couple
-Zx
Oy.
is
equivalent to
and
If
couples Zy
each,
whole to
and
axes.
couples
^(Xz-Za;),
1{yx-Xy)
into
about the
The
forces
can
now be compounded
G.
a single force
may
be reduced to a
In general,
couple.
may
vanish.
it will
will be the same in magnitude and direction whatever point O is taken as base, but both magnitude and direction of the couple will vary with different
bases.
222
ELEMENTARY STATICS
possibilities, therefore, for
The
forces are
(i)
(ii)
(Hi) (iv)
A A A
force
and a couple,
force only.
couple only,
all,
Nothing at
or equilibrium.
148. Conditions for Equilibrium. that for equilibrium both the resultant force and the resultant couple must be zero, and these involve that the three components in each case are zero, and we
It will
be seen
now
and
Prove algebraically that if these equations are a new point O' is chosen as origin instead of O, the
144.
Moment
moment
of the
of a force
about a point.
It
moment
is
a measure
tendency of the force to cause rotation about an axis through the point perpendicular to the plane containing the
force
and the
point.
it is
any
ANY FORCES
is
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
components.
223
the turning power, by using the fact that the effect of a force
the same as the
sum
Suppose
it is
Moment
of a force about
line in
ma.
226.
Fig. 227.
required.
P cos 6
at at
and
to turn a
sin
A A
parallel to
Oz
perpendicular to Oz.
Now, P cos 6 being parallel to Oz, evidently has no tendency body about Oz, and the moment of P about Oz may
If
moment of P sin 6 about O. 6 makes an angle ^ with OA produced or in other words, if OA makes an angle ^ with a plane PAz', parallel to the force and to the line about which the moment is wanted,
therefore be defined as equal to the
sin
and
if
OA = a,
write the
we can
moment
P
as
.
sin
sin sin
</>
= Pa sin 6
</>.
224
ELEMENTARY STATICS
when OA
is
OA,
OA
being perpendicular to
P,
Pd, sin 0,
is no component of P along and the moment can therefore where d is the shortest distance
between the
and the force. It will be found that the definition above is such that the moment is the same whatever point A is chosen as the point
line
Ox
is
taken so that
is
gl
\'
0.
common
P,
perpendicular.
is
''i
If,
\ \
have to take
is
taken on
02,
and ABi
is
parallel to
the
component
P
sin Q,
whose
it
moment we
Hence
and
in
one case
has to be multiplied
by OA, and
the
in the other
by
of the position of A.
of this article in other words,
we
may
moment
of a force
about a
line as
follows
If the force is perpendicular to the line its moment is the product of the force into its shortest distance from the line.
is not perpendicular to the line, it must be resolved two components, one parallel and the other perpendicular to the line, and the moment is the product of the latter into its
If
the force
into
shortest distance from the line, which is also the shortest distance of the resultant force from the line.
It will further
is
replaced
by P
cos d
and P
may
ANY FORCES
convenient components,
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
of the of P
225
of
moments
moment
Moment
of a Force
about a Line.
{x, y, z)
X
Y
Z
is
is
is is
-Xy,
Yx,
0.
and
of
Hence the
total
moment
Vx-Xy,
and
similarly the
Zy-\z
and
Xz-Zx.
i:{yx-xy),
may
also
be
226
called
ELEMENTARY STATICS
the
sums
of
the
moments
of
axes.
148.
The conditions
is
for
equilibrium
may
therefore
be
expressed as follows
system of forces
in equilibrium if the
sums of
the resolved
any
be seen, however, that the three lines chosen need not necessarily be the same as the
moments
but
may
plane, but
at right angles.
A number
time,
of j)arallel forces
and
will therefore If
or a couple.
will
resultant about
any line
be equal to the
...
parallel to O2,
^t
yj,
in X, y.
line
Oy,
Rx = 2Px;
.
= -vp
2Px
ANY FORCES
Hence
given by
also,
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
227
of the centre of
^ma;
148.
If
Moment
of
a couple has a vector along Oz and a moment N, then its tooment about a line OA, making an angle 6 with Oz, is N cos 9.
Fig. 230.
distance
For the couple can be represented by two forces N at unit OB apart and perpendicular to the plane zOA, and with one of them passing through O. The moment of the
other about
OA
will
then be evidently N
of the couple
BC
or
cos 6,
is
moment
;
about
OA
and N cos 9.
not at
line
plane.
of necessary
and
sufficient conditions
that the
of
sum
forces
in
each
three
different
non-coplanar directions
228
ELEMENTARY STATICS
should separately vanish, and that the sums of the moments about three different non-coplanar lines should qpparately
vanish.
It
may be
It is
useful to examine this statement in another way. proved in Art. 142 that a system of forces may reduce
(^^
(ii)
to either
(iii)
(iv)
If
we
must be zero, for if there were a resultant (which it will be remembered is the same whatever base point is taken), it would require to be at right angles to each of the three
force
directions,
which is impossible, as the three, are not in one plane. Hence the alternatives (i) and (ii) are impossible. We then see that the remaining conditions shew that (iii) is impossible,
for
if
the
sum
of the
moments
of the forces
about three
lines
and the
Hence the
forces
must be
It will
necessary.
For
if
five
might reduce to a
what
Thus, if the sums of the resolutes along Ox and Oy ai^ zero, and the sums of the moments about the three lines are zero, 80 that we have five conditions only, all these conditions would
be
satisfied
if
if
Again,
zero,
zero,
ANY FORCES
couple in the plane aOy.
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
if
229
150.
Moment
is
Moments may
which
way,
by means
of vector notation.
The moment
of a force
about a point
is
may
be defined as a
is
by the
moment
about a point
if
we
treated the
moment
If
as a vector perpendicular to
AB
ON is moment
Fig. 231.
about
is
a vector perpendicular to
of the triangle
With
theorem
//
this definition
:
following fundamental
is the vector
moment of a
moment
is the resolved
part of
along Oz.
;
in
is
moment G about O
this plane.
230
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Then CD will be equal to the resolved part of P perpendicular to Oz, and therefore the moment of P about Oz will be represented by the product of CD, and the perpendicular from O
^1
Fig. 232.
on CD,
or, in other
words,
of the triangle
OCD.
Now
cular to
02 being perpendicular to OCD, and G being perpendiOAB, the angle between the planes OAB and OCD is 6.
.'.
A OCD
A OAB,
moment about Oz
is
cos 0.
151. CJomposition of
Moments about a
sum
Point.
if
We
point
two
equal to the
moment
point, or,
forces,
and
join AD,
OG.
ANY FORCES
Then the moment
of P
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
O
is
231
about
a vector perpendicular to
OABE and
of
The moment
D
Q is
perpendicular to
OACF and
represented in magnitude
Fig. 233.
by OACF, or perpendicular to EBDG and represented in magnitude by EBDG, while the moment of the resultant is perpendicular to OADG and represented in magnitude by OADG. It remains to shew that the vectors representing OABE and EBDG are equivalent to the vector representing OADG.
Draw
etc., of
the
ABDOEG, and let the section be LMN. The areas OABE, EBDG, OADG, are respectively equal to MN, NL, LM, each multiplied by the length of the prism. Therefore the vector moments of the forces P, Q, R are
triangular prism
232
ELEMENTARY STATICS
sides of a triangle are equivalent to
in the
two and
a vector perpendicular
same proportion
rod of weight hangs ExampUs. 1. Bifilar Suspension. at rest suspended horizontally by two vertical threads, each of length / and attached at distances a from the centre of the rod. Find the couple necessary to hold it when making an angle 6 with
its
equihbrium position.
Tain <()
B,
O'
Tsintp
Fig. 236.
Let AB be the equiUbrium position. When the rod is turned round its centre O
into a position O', A'B' being the lying in a horizontal plane.
new
Fig. 236 represents a plan (looking down from above), AjBi being the points in the horizontal plane of A'B', which are vertically above
AB. I^t
^=the
angle each string makes with the vertical in the displaced position.
tension of each string.
couple.
T =the
Geometrically
L =the required
we have
A, A' = Z sin
<^
=2a
sin
e
(1)
2Tco8</)=W (2) The horizontal component of T is T sin acting along A'Aj. Hence taking moments about the vertical through O,
<!>
(3)
ANY FOKCES
from
(2)
IN
L
,.,
THEEE DIMENSIONS
</>
233
and
(3),
jr.
Now
Bin <p
= -7
2a
sin -
2a
tan(^:
sin.
V-
^2
- 4a^ sin^
^l'
4<i^ sin^
2. A square trap- door A BCD, capable of turning about smooth hinges AB, in a horizontal line, is held at an angle a. with the vertical by a rope attached at C to a point E vertically above B. If the weight of the door is and BE =BC =2a, find the tension of the string and the reactions at the hinges.
Fia. 237.
Let X, Y, X', Y' be the components of the reactions at A and B There will be in the horizontal and vertical directions as marked.
X+
X'
= Tcos
2'
(1)
Y + Y' + Tsin|=W,
.(2)
234
ELEMEJSTARY STATICS
T2o cos ^
of X',
=Wa sin
<k,
.(3)
moments about BE, moments about line of action X=0. Hence from (4)
(5)
X2a=0,
Y2o = Wa
(4)
.(5)
Y=
(3)
T =W sin ^.
X
Y'
(1)
=T cos - =
sin ou
(2)
=W - W sin*^ - Y = Y cos
OL.
8.
of C.
Suppose in the last example the rope is attached to D instead Find the reactions and tension when the door is horizontal.
Fio.
238.
In this case T has a component parallel to AB, and there will therefore be a component of the reactions in the line of the hinges let these be Z, Z'.
Hie components
of
is
=-;q
for
edges,
the diagonal of a cube of which BA, BC, BE are conterminous and therefore DE makes equal angles with each edge and the cosine of this angle is BEED = l/v'3.
is
DE
are
Y + Y'+;;r3=w.
(1)
ANY FORCES
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
X+
X'
235
= -^,
(2)
parallel to
AB,
Z+Z'=-^,
-Tk2a=\Nd,
(3)
moments about A B,
(4)
(4)
y2a+ -m2a-Wa,
through B,
(5)
vertical
X=0
(6)
T=
X=0,
~
T
(6)
w
T
W w
(3)
Z+Z'=^.
in the
Z' act along the same straight line they will come in> form Z + Z', into any equation in which they appear at all. and hence all we can obtain with regard to these components of the
As Z and
reaction
is
that their
sum
is
but there
is
much
it
of this will be borne by one hinge, and how much by the other depends on how the plate has been placed in position, and a small knock may alter the division of the reaction between the two. Such reactions are said to be Indeterminate.
and radius r, is suspended hori4. A circular disk, of weight zontally by three equal vertical strings attached at equal distances apart to its circumference. given horizontal couple L being applied to the disk, find the equilibrium position and the tension of the strings.
its
5. A square table of weight stands on three legs at three of corners A, B, C. If the centre of mass is at distances x, y from AB and BC, find the pressures of eetch leg on the ground.
236
ELEMENTARY STATICS
with the vertical. 6. The line of hinges of a door makes an angle Find the couple required to hold it open at an angle (j> with the
equilibrium position.
7. A picture ia suspended in the usual way by a string attached symmetrically to two points A and B of the back, and slung over a Shew that if the perpendicular CM from nail C in a smooth wall. C to AB is of length I and makes an angle </> with the wall, the distance of the centre of mass of the picture from the wall is
I
sin
^ + tan
(ft
sjk^ -
P 8in*</),
where h
8.
is
M
is
A heavy
square lamina
of a horizontal edge, and is kept at an angle ix. with the vertical by a force F normal to the lamina and acting at a distance z from the horizontal line of the hinges and at a distance k from the middle Find F and the stresses at the hinges. line between the hinges.
9. A uniform rod AB, of weight W, rests with the ends A, B on a smooth horizontal floor, and against a smooth vertical wall respectively, the rod making an angle with the horizontal, and the vertical plane through it making an angle ^ with the wall. Shew that horizontal forces JW cot and ^W cot 9 cos </>, properly directed at A and B respectively, will keep the rod in equilibrium,
rod AB, of length 2a and weight W, is hinged by a universal 10. joint at A, and presses against a vertical wall at B at a distance d A. If C is the foot of the perpendicular from A ( = 2a cos .) from on the wall and BC makes an angle 6 with the vertical, find the component reactions at the two ends of the rod, supposing the friction at B to be perpendicular to BC, and find the least coefficient of friction required to keep the rod thus.
11. If the frictional couple resisting the opening of the lid of a box times the resultant force in the line of the hinges, shew that the lid will be about to open when the box is held so that the Une of
is fi
hinges
makes an angle
where
a.
of hinges
ANY FORCES
IN
THEEE DIMENSIONS
237
13. Reduce to their simplest form (single force, couple, or Poinsot wrench) the systems of forces in the following examples, ABCDEFGH being a cube
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
P along DE, and P along BG. P along each of GF, FE, EH, BC, CD, DA. P along each of GE, ED, DB, BG.
B
Fig. 239.
CHAPTER
XV.
VECTORS IN SPACE.
152. In
my
The
results
may
be
made
book
and
proofs.
A,
are
two
AB
is
cos 0,
magnitudes of
and B, and $
is
The
scalar product
denoted -by
A and B is where A, B are the the angle between them. B, and read A dot B.
:
We then
A+B = B+A,
A-B=-(B-A),
m is any scalar,
A.B = B.A,
A.(B + C)=A.B+A.C.
In dealing with questions relating to moments
it is
convenient
to have a notation for the vector which represents the moment of a force about a point. therefore introduce the Vector
We
it
thus
vectors
is
and
is
vector per-
whose magnitude
AB
sin 0,
238
VECTORS IN SPACE
where
them.
A,
239
the angle between
B are
their
magnitudes and 9
is
We
The
AxB
and
it
should be read
cross B.
direction of
AxB
A x B form
AXB
is
AxB
Ak
Fio. 240.
Fia. 241.
towards
through an angle of
We
BxA= -AxB
Thus the vector product depends on the order of the factors. As a simple special case, suppose i, j, k are unit vectors
(that
axes.
is,
Then
it will
be seen at once
ixj=k, jxk=i,
kxi = j.
i.i=j
.
about a point,
is
if
is
the
moment about
rxP.
the origin
240
163.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
The proof that we have given in Art. 151 that the vector sum of the moments of two concurrent forces is equal to the moment of the resultant applies to any two vectors.
It is expressed
by saying that
rxP+rxQ = rx(P+Q),
or in general,
if
and likewise
AxA=0.
'B
P.
Fig. 242.
In Fig. 242,
plied
is
if
is
any point on the line of action of P, the same direction as P, is equal to P multisay
by some
scalar,
AB = cP,
^
being a scalar
;.
then
if r'
r'=r+cP,
and
if
we suppose P
to act at
B instead
of at
A the moment
about
O
=r'xP = (r+cP)xP
=rxP+cPxP
=rxP,
since
PxP=0. Hence
moment about
it
we think
0.
P as
acting,
result
154. Any vector can be expressed in terms of three vectors which are not coplanar. For the vector can be resolved into
VECTORS IN SPACE
components
in
241
if
any three
directions,
and hence
A, B, C are
resolved
P can be
we can
write
^
P = aA+6B + cC,
where
vector
a, h, c
In particular,
j.
can be written
P^Pii + PaJ+Psk,
where
tions.
P^, Po,
and
can be
aA-f6B,
of the
form
aA+6B
is
in the plane
By
writing
A = Aii-|-A2J+A3k
and
similar notation for other vectors, prove that
(i)
(ii)
A.B = AiBi + A2B2 + A3B3. A X B = (A2B3 - A3B2)i +(A3Bi - /K^B^)] + (A^Ba - A2Bi)k.
(iii)
A X (B X C) = (A
C)B - (A B)C.
.
and the
He
must
what
is
of symbols.
important products.
multiplied
Thus (A B)C will be understood at once as the vector C by a scalar, and is therefore a vector in the same
.
direction as C.
(A X B) C
.
is
first
the vector
AxB
is
taken,
scalar product of it
C formed.
242
Since
ELEMENTARY STATICS
AxB
is
a vector perpendicular to
ODEF
in Fig.
AxB
and C
will
FlO. 243.
mi
volume
of
parallelogram by
parallelogram.
The
therefore the
the
Hence we have
also
B X C,
is
and hence
it
in the
it
consequently
as
obtained for
in
example
(AxB).C = (BxC).A
156.
Any
Forces.
acting at a
P at A is and a couple consisting of the original force equal parallel and opposite force at 0. The moment of this couple expressed as a vector is r x P by Art. 150, Compounding, we get that the forces are equivalent to a single force 2P and a couple 2r x P.
vector
is r,
A whose
we
equivalent to
P at the P and an
origin
VECTORS IN SPACE
The
suras are of course vector sums.
243
We will
and
denote these by
R = 2P
G = 2rxP.
O
Fig. 244.
Now,
vector
if
the
is p,
G'=2(r-p)><P
(i)
For
We will prove next that for all origins B G is constant. R is the same for all origins, and R.G'-R.G = R.(G-pxR)-R.G = - R (p X R)
.
=0,
since p X
2M, 2N are the component couples about three rectangular axes, and 2X, 2Y, 2Z the component forces along the same axes, this is, by Art. 154. Ex. (i), the same as
If
2L,
saying that
2X2L+2Y2IVI+2Z 2N
is
constant for
all origins.
2U
If in
(i)
ELEMENTARY STATICS
of Art. 156 p is parallel to R,
pxR = 0;
G'
= G,
all
or the resultant
moment
is
the same at
points on a line
158.
Next
let
resultant
this
is parallel to the resultant force. To do draw a plane through O perpendicular to R then if p is the vector to a point A on this plane, and if the moment at A
;
moment
is parallel
to R, then
or
G - p X R is parallel G - p X R = mR,
to R,
where
m is
some
scalar.
R RxG-Rx(pxR)=RxmR;
of each side
by
also
by
(iii),
R X (p X R) = (R
now
.
R)p - (R p)R
.
.
perpendicular to p
.*.
Rx(pxR)-R2p;
also
RxmR = m(RxR)=0;
.*.
RxG-R2p = 0;
.*.
p=
^RxG,
we have one
all
definite value
it
Hence there
is
one
line
such that at
points of
the
moment
This line
is
VECTORS IN SPACE
The moment about any point on
this line is
245
G-pxk
= G--2(RxG)xR
= G+^Rx(RxG)
= G + ^\{-(R.R)G+(R.G)R}
= G + ^{-R2G + (R.G)R}
--R2-R,
the numerical value of which
is
RG
cos
-^
a = GcosO
R''
if
is the angle between G and R. The moment about any other point p+q, where p
still
represents
^Rx
G,
is
G-(p+q)xR
R.G, R q
R2
X R,
which
is
R GR -^
and
-qxR,
is
RAG of
R.
axis
In other words, the moment about any point on the central is less than the moment about any point not on it.
APPENDIX.
NOTE ON THE HISTORY OF
The
first
STATICS.
xinr:
who
was long called in other words, with moments He was thus led to the consideration of of parallel forces. centres of mass, which he investigated to a remarkable extent, finding, for example, the centre of mass of a paraboloid.
Pappus, who gave the theorems of Art. 116, lived in the third
century a.d.
Modern
1620),
Statics
may
his
work on the triangle of forces, but the systematic treatment in the modern way, developed from the
parallelogram of forces,
who based
The
is
principle of Virtual
due to Lagrange (1736-1813), perhaps the greatest matheMost of Lagrange's work in mechanics based on this principle.
wrench
(Art.
141)
is
due to Poinsot
(1777-1859).
The theory of vectors originated with Hamilton (1805-1865) and Grassmann (1809-1877), and has been developed and simplified by many workers of the nineteenth century.
of
Culmann
246
(1821-1881).
ANSWERS.
Note.
lbs.
II.
p. 12.
16, 12.
ft.
6.
11, 6,
231.
7.
7-28, 21-28.
1-44
ft.,
10-44, 0-21
12. 6-5
13. 48 12'.
No.
15. 143 8', 126 62', 90.
p. 13.
14. 8,
4W/V100-W2.
p. 15.
p. 19.
p. 20.
1.
32-14, 38-30.
2. 6.
3.
2. 7-21 at
3.
4.
5. 6.
6.
1204.
p. 35.
1. 8-66, 5, 2.
3. 4.
6. 6.
60, 30'
57-7
8.
a.
p. 36.
9. r(sec a
1),
10. 6, 5-20.
11.
W tan W W
sec
0.
sec
sin /3/sin (a
+ ^3),
sin a/sin (a
+ p).
14. 67 31'.
2W
^^-
W
'
T/g
7/5
2W sin a.
fW.
20. 14- 14.
18. 16, 4.
19.
22. 106-91.
247
248
p. 37.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
24. 125-66.
25.
^^ ^r*-(k + r-h)>
29.
W^^^^.
lU-56.
28.
m(2P + W).
Bin /S/sin (o
+ /3),
81. 0-26w.
p. 38.
32. 69 5, 31-5.
38.
-2.
40. 49 0, 81
158
71,
329
ft.
CHAPTER
p. 42.
(i)
III.
all
the others
is
to left of larger.
(iv) 1, 110.
(ii)
4, 20.
(vi)
(v)
01, 1190.
p. 43.
1.
from
first
towards second,
9, 4-44.
(iii)
2.
4,
first
away from
1,
second,
(iii)
400.
8. 6.
7j, 2.
85.
(i) (iii)
5. 3, 18. 8.
33^,
4.
43-75, 35.
(ii)
p. 50.
3.
beyond
last.
6.
-1,
1 ft.
before
first,
1,
opposite the
5.
4.
3 lb.-wt.-ft.
2i^^,
IfV.
9.
6.
54-1, 45-9.
7.
7-85, 8-15.
11. 3.
8. 8-8 ft.
from A.
9 at B.
10. 100.
12. 93-3,74-7.
p. 60.
1.
51-52547, 1-00103
51-52550, 1-00100.
2.
mm.
3.
W'o+W6/(a + 6),
1 in.,
15-55.
4. 26-873.
p. 61.
7.
lbs.,
2 ins. from A.
CHAPTER
p. 77.
1. 6, 8.
IV. 80
ft. -lbs.
10000
ft. -lbs.
2. 4-55,
4. 7. 9.
(W +W')/2, (W
8-3,
-W')/2.
5. 28, 112.
p. 78.
8.
22-4,
760
ANSWERS
CHAPTER
p. 84.
p. 86.
1.
249
V.
19-9.
3.
23 Ib.-wt.-ft.
3 parallel to BC, 2-67
in.
2.
6-93.
1. 2.
from BC.
Represented by
BD
but through C.
3. 6-67
from
A.
;
p. 90.
6.
(i)
in.
to
(ii)
Force 5 at 53
right of A.
8'
5,
10, 15
2-75 to
(iii)
2P along AB.
26 34' with
7. 6-71, 8.
AB, meeting
AB
at distance f
AB from
A.
2Pa
(i)
(ii)
if
a = side of square.
p. 98.
1.
with horizontal,
with horizontal.
21
19'.
p. 99.
4.
5. 6. 9.
(W + 2 W')a sin 0/6 sin {9 + <p), (W + 2W') a sin e sin 0/6 sin (^ + 0), - (W + 2 W')a sin cos O/b sin {6 + 4>). + where tan ^ = tan {1 -6(W+W')/a(W + 2W')}.
<f>
<f>
28-7 cwt.
7. 21-8.
8. 93-75, 150.
ft.
51 20'.
10. 12-32
;
11. 38 40'.
12. 0-414.
150.
19.
of a
2a
is
length of side.
20. 6 tana/(a
+ 6).
p. 101.
21. cos-i
(
^,
sin a\
tan
a,
horizontal.
23.
Components^
(cos^ ^
+ cos
v;
5 sin
6),
Wf, O
25.
sin^^
sin
^cos^)
^
9.
-^ (cos
W,
a 6
+ sm
.
a\ 6).
0173, 129
250
p. 104.
1.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
W/8in(A + B)/68inA,
-^isin (A +
ah).
B),W + Tco8 A.
2.
W cot
At A,
(
o,
8.
P--
W ^-^
rs
>
at B, horizontal
same as
at A, vertical
4.
P +W.
6.
tt*V2c
+ Wd/c.
/
cos
(
J + )
^)
7. (r
cos ^ -
- (r cos 5 - Z sin
cos
6}.
p. 105.
9.
Components
W^sino.
d
p. 106.
16. Pl/a.
17. L/a.
CHAPTER
p. 115.
4. 6.
VI.
8-66, 5
;
8-66, 5.
;
6 50, 21-25
;
6-50, 1-25
;
6-50, 8-75.
8-4, 3-7
8-4, 1-2
8-4, 16-3.
8-4, 21-2.
9.
/3)/2(tan o
- tan
jS),
etc.
W
E
at E,
W\^-
At B
^
D,
3^ cot
at
resultant
3^ sec
6.
T sin
;
T cos D +
W+
)
'
?, if
T =given
thrust.
7-22, 2-5.
5-92, 17-54.
18
Wa cos a cos
26 sin (a
-f 0)
ff
t
If
if
26sin(a + )J
o cos o sin ^
a cos o
< 6 sin (a + 6), n must > cot 6 sin > 6 sin (a + d),
+ 0)
sin
*
M must
ANSWEKS
p. 117.
20.
251
fWcota,
L
21. If
if
> 4Wa
= 90;
vertical.
if
< Wa,
d^, 6^
where
$1=0, sin e^^L/Wa, are the angles BC, CD make with the
if
2a
is
W cot
2
-;
;;
a.
^Vl+Qcot^a;
sin
-.
3^ cot
..,,
a,
^.
if
-f
27.
W = wcight ^
../
i.i.
of a
icylmder, '
.
W' = weight
of wedge.
CHAPTER
Note.
in the diagrams.
VII.
The stresses are given in the order in which the bars are marked
Tensions are negative.
-11-55, -11-55, 11-55.
1.
p. 130.
p. 131.
5-77,
2. 3.
-2-89.
6.
p. 132.
7.
6,8, -4-8.
7-29,
8. 5-54,
9.
-3-96.
-30,-10,14-14,-14-14,14-14,20.
-15-28, -11-35, 13-55, 8-26. -20-71, -20-71, -20-71,10-72,10-72,5-36.
10. 11.
-57-59, -10,50-64,25-71.
15.
p. 134.
16.
At A, At A,
20-21, 40
(9/
at C, 20-21,
5a
17. 18.
Wi sin
and =
sin B.
AD, BC must be
L/a.
parallel, and if a is the distance between them, the stress at each angle is parallel to AD
252
':
ELEMENTARY STATICS
CHAPTER
VIII.
p. 145.
1.
S=
X
W+^
(21
-x);
M =\N'{21
-x) +
~ (21- xf,
;
where
is
2.
Between end from which x is measured and nearest support, S =Wx/2i, M =\Nx^/U between supports, S =Wx/2i - W/2
;
ton-ft.
4. If
this
measured from the end nearer the end and the load S = 12-|x, M = 12x-^xS beyond the load
X
is
load,
between
S=
greatest
"^^B I
cwt. close to
ton-ft.,
JBi
4-|x,
M=40 + 4x-^V*''
and
2-67
1
and
ft.
load
greatest
bending
moment
where
x = 6-67
5.
20x -
120-f-5x--,
2
X2 200 -; . 2
S = 10,
2
6.
cwt. x^
M =82-5,
110 cwt.-ft.
I2-3X, 96-12x + ~;
20
ton-ft.
x=0.
7. 20-25, 20,
p. 146.
10. jr-T
-\
^f-
j-^
i,
where d
is
vertical.
CHAPTER
p. 160.
2.
IX.
A>/3, hxJr+2.
CHAPTER
p. 172.
3.
X.
4. 2-5, 3-5.
0-523a
if
2a
is
the side.
6.
5. 2-67, 1-94.
7.
ANSWEES
p. 173.
8. 0-267a,
9.
253
0-408a.
11. A2/(r
+ 2A).
13.
12.
Same
as
cm.
of tetrahedron.
if
As No.
side.
12.
+ r) from base
1-33
^= height
centre.
and
= slant
18. wr^a/{16a^-2irr'^)
17. 0-494
from
centre.
18. y
from centre
if
2a
side of square.
= side
of square).
20.
On
p. 174.
p. 182.
|r)/(6a^
TTT^)
from
centre.
irr'^h)
2.
7rr2
from centre.
3.
^^i+2^^+#^,fromenda;
4
+ l)^
3 a+b
4. 7.
3 l(a +
ft.,
b)
+ a^ + b'
ft.
238-9 cub.
6-79
2a
a/3(a-sin a cos a) from centre of circle radii to the extreme points contain an angle 2o.
sin^
if
the
8.
- from base
_
= height.
9.
f{b + a)^
2r^
a^ b^
^ from
and
10.
r the radius.
4 (r
- o) {2r2 - ar - a2)
;
I (!LfI^.
3a, 6a/5
647ra3/5, lOa/3.
p. 185.
1.
0-547W.
2. 2n.
3.45.
7.
W6/2a, W(\/aM^-o),
CHAPTER XL
p. 197.
1. 4.
cos o/sin ~.
p. 198.
2W.
^54
p. 199.
10. 12.
ELEMENTARY STATICS
Fcottf.
(i)
11. Stable
if
if
26 >o.
if
SUblo
if
36>5a.
3ir6>4a.
(ii)
Stable
(ii)
86>3a.
18.
SUble
(i)
(iii)
46 >(3t - 4)o.
16. SUble.
36 >(5k - 4)o.
14. Unstable.
CHAPTER
p. 214.
3.
XIII.
f\%
0, F, F, F,
- Fn'S.
4.
8. 13
46
4, 46-4.
7. 86-3.
CHAPTER
p. 236.
4.
XIV.
given
by
tension
6.
=W/3^1
if
-i^%in2|.
if
a = side
of square.
p. 236.
6.
Wo sin 6 sin ^
p-Wasin
a.
line of hinges
2a = breadth of door.
to
8.
horizontal,
cos a
F cos o.sin a -
vertical,
J[*
{A
+ 1 sin
a - o sin-a}, \fAh -
fc
o sin^o}.
10.
t sin^ 6).
friction
= - sm
W
2
6.
M = tan
12.
a tan
0.
-fees
is
the length
of each branch.
p. 237.
18.
(i)
(ii) (iii)
AE
EF.
2P through centre
parallel to
ABFE.
oLaoow
CONTENTS.
Acceleration.
Velocity Chap. I. Position Kinematics. Motion in a Straight Line III. Force and Mass Motion in a Straight Line. IV. Forces VI. Simple Harin Two Dimensions. V. Vector Methods.
I.
;
Part
The Particle.
II.
;
monic Motion. VII. Motion in a Plane Curve. Simple Pendulum. IX. Projectiles. X. Collision.
VIII.
The
Part
II.
II.
Chap.
;
I.
Rigid Kinematics.
Moments of Inertia. III. Rotation about a Fixed Axis Rotation about a Fixed Axis Examples. IV. Motion of a
Rigid
Body
in
a Plane.
Appendix
History
of
Dynamics.
Answers.
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F.R.S.
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