CON4341 - E - Note - 03 PSD, Consistency, Descriptions

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY Dr.
Paul Ho
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIUTION, SOIL CONSISTENCY,
SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION
3.1 Introduction
The ‘classification’ of soil is a good guide to a soil’s functional character as a

material for engineering use.
• Different soil types have different shear strength and settlement

characteristics, meaning they differ in their response to loads induced on
them by structures.
• Different soil types have different seepage characteristics, meaning they
differ in the ease with which water or other liquids flow through them.
3.2 Basic Soil Groups
There are three main groups of soil:
Coarse grained soils – examples: cobbles, gravels, sands

• Individual grains can be seen with unaided eyes.
• There is no cohesion between grains (i.e., cohesionless).
• Particles flow freely when dry.
• Water can flow through them freely.
• Retain little or no water when drained.
Fine grained soils – examples: silts, clays

• Individual grains cannot be seen with unaided eyes.
• There is some form of cohesion between grains (i.e., cohesive).
• Form slumps when dry.
• Water does not drain out - retain water.
Organic - example: peat soils or muskeg (fibrous):

• Decayed plant remains mixed with silt and clay.
CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 1 of 22

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY Dr. Paul Ho
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
3.3 Typical features of Engineering Soils:
Major classes and features of engineering soil are summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Major Classes and Feature of Engineering Soils
Coaresed Grain Fine Grained Organic

Soil types Cobble, Gravel, Sand Silt, Clay Peat
Particle shape Round to angular Flaky Fibrous
Particle or grain size Coarse Fine ---
Porosity or void ratio Low High High
Permeability High Low to Variable
impermeable
Inter-particle cohesion None to very low High Low
Inter-particle friction High Low None to
low
Plasticity Very low Low to high Low to
moderate
Compressibility Very low Moderate to Usually
very high very high
Rate of compression Immediate Moderate to slow Moderate
to rapid
Effect of PSD Important Relatively -
on Engineering Important (silts)
Behaviour Relatively
unimportant (clay)
Effect of water on Relatively Important -
engineering unimportant
behaviour exception:
(very fine sand)
3.4 Particle Sizes
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very wide, from boulder size
larger than 200 mm down to the colloidal size of some clays of less than 0.001
mm. Although natural soils are mixture of various sized particles, it is common
to find a predominant grading with a relatively narrow band of sizes. Table 3.2
shows the British Standard (BS) of particle size limits for use in soil
engineering.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Table 3.2 British Standard of Particle Size Limits of Engineering Soils
Type Range of particle size, mm

Boulder > 200
Cobble 200 - 60
Gravel
Coarse gravel 60 - 20
Medium gravel 20 - 6
Fine gravel 6-2
Sand
Coarse sand 2 - 0.6
Medium sand 0.6 - 0.2
Fine sand 0.2 - 0.06
Silt
Coarse silt 0.06 - 0.02
Medium silt 0.02 - 0.006
Fine silt 0.006 - 0.002
Clay Less than 0.002
3.5 Particle Size Distribution
• Both the size of particles and the distribution of particles sizes are
important.
• Sieving tests (for coarse grain soils) and hydrometer tests (for fine grained
soils) are used to define the distribution of grain sizes.
• Classification of soils according to particle sizes varies slightly between
different classification system. In Hong Kong a system based on the British
Soil Classification System (BSCS) is commonly used.
• In discribing the size of a soil particle, either a dimension or name as shown
in Table 3.2 is used.
• The particle size refers to an equivalent particle diameter as found from
sieve analysis.
• The British Standard Sieve Sizes as shown in Table 3.3 are commonly used
in Hong Kong.
• The range of particle sizes varies from 200 mm > D (grain size diameter)>
0.002 mm, hence the particle size distribution is examined on a logaritmic
scale as shown in Figure 3.1

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Table .3.3 British Standard Test Sieve Sizes
75 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 37.5 mm, 28 mm, 20 mm, 14 mm, 10 mm, 6.3 mm, 5
mm, 3.36 mm, 2 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 µm, 425 µm, 300 µm, 212 µm, 150 µm, 63
µm
(1 µm = 0.001 mm)
Figure 3.1 Particle Size Distribution Chart (BS range of particle sizes)
Determination of Particle-size Distribution
Basically, in terms of grain size, soil is described as either coarse-grained or

fine-grained.
Coarse-grained soil: one in which more than 65% of the grains, by weight, are
greater than 0.06 mm in diameter.
Fine-grained soil: one in which more than 35% of the grains, by weight, are
smaller than 0.06 mm in diameter.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
In British Standard, the size 0.06 mm is the dividing line between silt and sand
(see Table 3.2) and represents the smallest particle that can be distinguished as
a discrete grain by the naked eye.
Sieving and Sedimentation
Two methods are used to determine the particle-size distribution of soils. One
is for coarse-grained material which uses sieves. The other is for fine-grained
material which uses the technique of sedimentation; one example is the
hydrometer method.
Most natural soil is a mixture of coarse-grained material (sand and gravel) and
fine-grained material (silt and clay). Separation of the coarse and fine
materials is necessary for proper testing. This is done by an initial wet sieving
in which the soil is completely washed through a 63µm (.063 mm) sieve by a
stream of water. The soil retained on the sieve is greater than 0.063 mm in
grain size. The particle-size distribution of the retained fraction can then be
done using other larger sized sieves. Alternatively, the sieving of the coarse
fraction can also be done on the dried sample. This is known as dry sieving.
Sieving
Sieve Analysis is used to determine the distribution of the larger grain sizes.
The soil is passed through a series of sieves with the mesh size reducing
progressively (Figure 2), and the proportions by weight of the soil retained on
each sieve are measured. There are a range of sieve sizes that can be used, and
the finest is usually a 63 µm sieve. Sieving can be performed either wet or dry.
Because of the tendency for fine particles to clump together, wet sieving is
often required with fine-grained soils.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Figure 3.2 Sieves and Shaker
Sedimentation (Hydrometer)
To determine the grain size distribution of material passing the 63 µm sieve the
Hydrometer method is commonly used (Figure 3.3). The soil is mixed with
water and a dispersing agent, stirred vigorously, and allowed to settle to the
bottom of a measuring cylinder. As the soil particles settle out of suspension
the specific gravity of the mixture reduces. An hydrometer is used to record the
variation of specific gravity with time. By making use of Stoke’s Law, which
relates the velocity of a free falling sphere to its diameter, the test data is
reduced to provide particle diameters and the % by weight of the sample finer
than a particular particle size.
(Hydrometer method will not be coverd in this module.)

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Figure 3.3 Hydrometer
Particle Size Distribution Curve
Most soils are composed of particles of various sizes. Some soils have a more
homogeneous (same) combination of particle sizes while other soils have a
mixture of grain sizes. The sieving analysis (or together with hydrometer) of
soil particle sizes is usually recorded on a Particle Size Distribution (PSD)
Chart and the curve so ploted is referred as the Particle Size Distribution
(PSD) Curve (or Grading Curve) as shown in Figure. 3.4.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Particle Size Distribution Chart
The PSD Chart is a semi-logarithmic chart.
The horizontal scale is a logarithmic scale (log10) of the particle size diameter
over a range of 0.0001 mm to > 100 mm.
The vertical scale is the percentage by weight of the soil grains that are finer
than a given size. For example, point ‘A’ in Figure. 3.4 represents 60% by
weight of that soil is finer than 2.0 mm. The percentage is always designed as
percent passing or finer (a certain sieve size) or as a summation percentage.
100
80 A
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Figure 3.4 Typical Particle Size Distribution (PSD) curves
Some typical grading (PSD) curves are shown on the figure. The following
descriptions are applied to these curves
W Well graded material

U Uniform material
P Poorly graded material
C Well graded with some clay
F Well graded with an excess of fines
Another quantity analysis of grading curves may be carried out using certain
geometric values known as grading characteristics. For example, in Fig. 3.5,
D10 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 10 % is finer – (effective size)

D30 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 30 % is finer
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
D60 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 60 % is finer
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu = D60/D10 - measures spread of particle size

distribution
Coefficient of curvature, Cc = (D30)2/(D60 x D10) - measures slope of the grading

curve
GRADING of coarse-grained soils (gravel and sand):
Well-graded soil (gravel or sand):

Cu > 4 and 1 < Cc < 3 (well-graded gravel)
Cu > 6 and 1 < Cc < 3 (well-graded sand)
Poorly-graded soil: (gravel or sand)

If Cu is small, soil is poorly-graded (uniform)
If C c > 3 or 1< , soil is poorly graded (gapped graded)
100
80
hydrometer sieve
% Passing
60
fines sands gravels
40
D10 = 0.013 mm
20 D
30
D30 = 0.47 mm
D60 = 7.4 mm
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size (mm)
Figure 3.5 Grading Characteristics
Curves can also be used to obtained percentages of gravel, sand and fines (silt
and clay).
For example, for the curve in Figure 3.5:

gravel = (100-46) = 54%
sand = (46-18) = 28%
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Fine (silt + clay) = (18-0) = 18%
3.6 Consistency of Fine-grained Soils
Atterberg Limits
If we take a very soft (high moisture content) clay specimen and allow it to dry
we would obtain a relation similar to that shown in Figure 3.6.
As the soil dries its strength and stiffness will increase. Three limits are
indicated, the definitions of which are given below. The liquid and plastic
limits appear to be fairly arbitrary, but recent research has suggested they are
related to the strength of the soil.
Volum Decreasing Strength

n
w
Semi-solid/
Semi-plastic
PI
Solid Plastic Liquid
SL PL LL
Moisture Content (%)
Figure 3.6. Volume - Moisture Content relationship for fine-grained soils
• (SL) The Shrinkage Limit - This is the moisture content the soil would have
had if it were fully saturated at the point at which no further shrinkage occurs
on drying.
• (PL) The Plastic Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil
will deform plastically (i.e., the soil can be molded)
• (LL) The Liquid Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil
will flow under a small disturbing force
• (PI or Ip) The Plasticity Index. This is derived simply from the LL and PL
IP = LL - PL (3)
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
It measures the range of water within which the soil is plastic.
• (LI) The Liquidity Index - This is defined as
w − PL w − PL
LI = = (4)
LL − PL Ip
where w = the natural moisture content
It tells which state (semi-solid, plastic, or lquid) the soil is at its natural
condition.
The Atterberg Limits and relationships derived from them are simple measures
of the water absorbing ability of soils containing clay minerals. For example, if
a clay has a very high LI and LL it is capable of absorbing large amounts of
water, and for instance would be unsuitable for the base of a pavement. The LL
and PL are also related to the soil strength.
Remember that only the fraction finer than 425 µm is tested in the Atterberg
Tests. If this fraction is only small (that is, the soil contains significant amounts
of sand or gravel) it might be expected that the soil would have better
properties. While this is true to some extent it is important to realise that the
soil behaviour is controlled by the finest 10 - 25 % of the particles.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Liquid Limit Tests
These tests are only used for the fine-grained fraction (silt and clay) of a soil
(the % passing a 425 µm sieve).
Determination of Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer Method)
Figure 3.7 Conepenetrometer

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Figure 3.8 Typical results of Cone Penetration Test

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Determination of Liquid Limit (Casagrande Method)
British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
The standard system used worldwide for most major construction projects is known as
the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). This is based on an original system
devised by Cassagrande. Soils are identified by symbols determined from sieve
analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.
• Coarse Grained Materials
Figure 3.9 Casagrande Method
Figure 3.10 Typical results of Casagrande Mehtod

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
3.7 British Soil Classification System
The standard system discussed here is the British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
which is used in Hong kong. Soils are identified by symbols (Figure 3.11) determined
from sieve analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.
Figure 3.11 Symbols used for BSCS

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Coarse-grained Soils
If more than 65% of the material is coarser than the 60 µm, the soil is classified as
coarse. The following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate symbols
(Primary–prefix and Secondary–suffix).
Steps:
1. Determine the prefix
If more than half of the coarse fraction is sand then use prefix S
If more than half of the coarse fraction is gravel then use prefix G
2. Determine the suffix
This depends on the uniformity coefficient Cu and the coefficient of curvature Cc

obtained from the grading curve, on the percentage of fines, and the type of fines.
First determine the percentage of fines, that is the % of material smaller than the 60
µm.
Then if % fines is
< 5% use W or P (Pu or Pg) as suffix
between 5% and 15% add M or C as suffix in addition to W or P(Pu or Pg)
between 15% and 35% use M or C together with degree of plasticity (L, I, H, V, E)
as suffix and no W or P(Pu or Pg) is required
If W or P are required for the suffix then Cu and Cc must be evaluated
D60
Cu =
D10
D302
Cc =
( D60 × D10 )
If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3, otherwise use (Pu
or Pg)
If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3, otherwise use (Pu
or Pg)
If M or C are required they have to be determined from the procedure used for fine-
grained materials discussed below. Note that M stands for Silt and C for Clay. This is
determined from whether the soil lies above or below the A-line in the plasticity chart
shown in Figure 3.12.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Fine-grained Soils
These are classified solely according to the results from the Atterberg Limit Tests.
Values of the Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit are used to determine a point in the
plasticity chart shown in Figure 3.12. The classification symbol is determined from the
region of the chart in which the point lies.
Examples CH High plasticity clay

CL Low plasticity clay
MH High plasticity silt
ML Low plasticity silt
Figure 3.12 Plasticity chart for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Fine-grained Soils
If more than 35% of the material is finer than the 60 µm, the soil is classified as fine.
The following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate symbols.
Steps:
1. Determine the prefix
If the point (PI, LL) is plotted aboce the “A’-line, the soil is Clay and use symbol C
If the point (PI, LL) is plotted below the “A’-line , the soil is Silt and use symbol M
2. Determine the suffix
This depends on the amount of fine materials and the types of coase materials present
in the soil:
Then If % fines is:

from 65% - 100% use degree of plasticity (L, I, H, V, E) as suffix (no need to
worry the coarse materials)
from 35% - 65%, in addition to plasticity (L, I, H, V, E), add G to the suffix if the
coarse material is Gravel or S if the coarse material is Sand
The complete procedure for BSCS is summarised in Table 3.4

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Table 3.4 British Soil Classfication System (BSCS)

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
The final stage of the classification is to give a description of the soil to go with the
symbol class. For a coarse grained soil this should include:
• the percentages of sand and gravel

• maximum particle size
• angularity
• surface condition
• hardness of the coarse grains
• local or geological name
• any other relevant information
If the soil is undisturbed mention is also required of
• stratification
• degree of compactness
• cementation
• moisture conditions
• drainage characteristics
All information required can be found in the list of reference (GEO Guide 3: Guide to
Soil and Rock Description).

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Example - Classification using BSCS
Classification tests have been performed on a soil sample and the following
grading curve and Atterberg limits obtained. Determine the BSCS classification.
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i z e ( m m )
Given Atterberg limits: Liquid limit LL = 32, Plastic Limit, PL =26
Step 1: Determine the % fines from the grading curve
%fines (% finer than 60 µm) = 10% (<35%, therefore Coarse grained)
Step 2: Determine % of different particle size fractions (to determine G or S), and D10,
D30, D60 from grading curve (to determine W or P)
D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38, and hence Suffix1 = W
Particle size fractions: Gravel 17%

Sand 73%
Silt and Clay 10%
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Step 3: From the Atterberg Test results determine its Plasticity chart location
LL = 32, PL = 26. Hence Plasticity Index Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line, and hence Suffix = M
Step 4: Symbols are SWM (Fines is between 5% to 15%)
Step 5: Complete classification by including a description of the soil

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Home Exercises:
1 The results of a sieve analysis on a soil sample are tabulated below.
Sieve 20 10 5 2 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.212 0.15 .063 pan

Size (mm)
Mass 59 38 33 27 30 22 15 17 16 9 40
Retained (g)
LL and PL of the fine portion (<0.063 mm) of the soil has been determined to be 32%
and 24% respectively.
Plot the PSD curve for the soil sample and determine D10, D30, D60, Cu, Cc, the
percentages of gravel, sand and (silt+clay). Classified the soil according to the BSCS
(symbol and description).
2 In a cone penetration test on a soil sample, the following results were recorded:
Test W1 W2 W3 Cone penetration (mm)

1 11.6 21.26 19.03 14.3
2 11.35 21.21 18.77 15.9
3 10.17 19.47 16.96 17.5
4 10.53 19.98 17.14 19.6
5 10.24 20.47 16.96 23.3
where W1 = mass of container (g)
W2 = mass of container and wet soil (g)
W3 = mass of container and soil after oven drying (g)
Determine the liquid limit of the soil sample. Calculate the plasticity index and
liquidity index if the plastic limit was 20 % and the natural moisture content 33 %.
What is the claasification of this soil according to the plasticity chart.
3 The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test using the
Casagrande apparatus:
No. of blows 6 8 12 26 28 31
Water content (%) 53.4 52.5 48.3 40.0 38.8 37.1
(a) Determine the liquid limit of the soil.

(b) If the plasticity limit of the soil was found to be 22 %, determine its
plasticity index and classify the soil.

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SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY Dr.

The ‘classification’ of soil is a good guide to a soil’s functional character as a

• Different soil types have different shear strength and settlement

3.2 Basic Soil Groups

There are three main groups of soil:

Coarse grained soils – examples: cobbles, gravels, sands

Fine grained soils – examples: silts, clays

Organic - example: peat soils or muskeg (fibrous):

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 1 of 22

Table 3.1 Major Classes and Feature of Engineering Soils

Coaresed Grain Fine Grained Organic

3.4 Particle Sizes

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 2 of 22

Type Range of particle size, mm

3.5 Particle Size Distribution

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 3 of 22

Table .3.3 British Standard Test Sieve Sizes

Determination of Particle-size Distribution

Basically, in terms of grain size, soil is described as either coarse-grained or

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 4 of 22

Sieving and Sedimentation

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 5 of 22

Figure 3.2 Sieves and Shaker

(Hydrometer method will not be coverd in this module.)

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 6 of 22

Figure 3.3 Hydrometer

Particle Size Distribution Curve

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 7 of 22

The PSD Chart is a semi-logarithmic chart.

W Well graded material

D10 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 10 % is finer – (effective size)

Coefficient of uniformity, Cu = D60/D10 - measures spread of particle size

Coefficient of curvature, Cc = (D30)2/(D60 x D10) - measures slope of the grading

GRADING of coarse-grained soils (gravel and sand):

Well-graded soil (gravel or sand):

Poorly-graded soil: (gravel or sand)

Grain size (mm)

Figure 3.5 Grading Characteristics

For example, for the curve in Figure 3.5:

3.6 Consistency of Fine-grained Soils

Volum Decreasing Strength

Solid Plastic Liquid

Figure 3.6. Volume - Moisture Content relationship for fine-grained soils

• (LI) The Liquidity Index - This is defined as

where w = the natural moisture content

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 11 of 22

Determination of Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer Method)

Figure 3.7 Conepenetrometer

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 12 of 22

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 13 of 22

Determination of Liquid Limit (Casagrande Method)

British Soil Classification System (BSCS)

• Coarse Grained Materials

Figure 3.9 Casagrande Method

Figure 3.10 Typical results of Casagrande Mehtod

Figure 3.11 Symbols used for BSCS

CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 15 of 22

1. Determine the prefix