PROJECT REPORT

REPORT On INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED, GHAZIABAD

SUBMITTED BY: VRISHTY GARG ROLL NO.-27116 ELECTRONICS AND COMM. ENGG. UIET,CSJMU,KANPUR.

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BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED

Trainee No. 246/10

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CONTENTS
1. PREFACE 2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3. CERTIFICATE 4. ABOUT BEL 5. QUALITY POLICY 6. QUALITY OBJECTIVES 7. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 8. INDIAN MARKET 9. JOINT VENTURES 10. VISSION,MISSION & OBJECTIVES 11. MANUFACTURING UNITS OF BEL 12. R & D 13. DESIGN & MANUFACTURING SERVICES 14. NINE UNITS OF BEL AT A GLANCE 15. FORMATION OF THE UNIT (BEL GHAZIABAD) 16. THE PRODUCT RANGE
17. ORGANISATION

18. VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF BEL GHAZIABAD

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19. ROTATIONAL TRAINING 20. DEPARTMENTAL WORK INTRODUCTION HISTORY OF PCB PCB MANUFACTURING PROCESS COMPONENTS OF ATE TYPES OF ATE SYSTEMS ANALYST BOUNDARY SCAN TESTING LANGUAGES CONTEXT DEPENDENT PROBING SIMULATORS S790 21. CONCLUSION

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PREFACE
With the ongoing revolution in electronics and communication where innovations are taking place at the blink of an eye, it is impossible to keep the pace with the emerging trends. Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. A well planned, properly executed and evaluated project training helps a lot in inculcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between the student and industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. During this period, the students get the real, first experience for working in the actual environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of their studies is put to test here. Apart from this, the students get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely helps them in building their career. Project training has become and important part in students curriculum as it not only makes them aware of the working conditions of any industry, it also helps them in bridging the gap that exists between an institution and an industry. The project training is of high importance in helping him psychologically for the transformation. I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my sphere of knowledge to a great extent. I got a chance to learn many new technologies and was also interfaced to many new instruments. BEL Ghaziabad, a premier electronics company also gives opportunity to students of many disciplines in helping him/her prepare for the big jump. They conduct training for organization, which excel in their own fields of operation.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to thank our Director, Prof. Renu Jain under whose able guidance our batch was guided to undergo an Industrial training of six weeks for academic purposes. This training at the BEL, Ghaziabad gave me immense opportunities to widen my horizon of knowledge and to further increase the depth of concepts involved in the field of Communication equipments used in defense sector. I would like to express my extreme gratitude towards Human Resource Department who allowed me to join BEL as a trainee. I would also like to mention the generosity in delivering every possible help by the Testing Department employees. I also take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks and deep gratitude to all the members of the ATE Deptt. of BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED, GHAZIABAD. All of them were extremely cooperative and helping. They have been very supportive of my work with their encouragement and criticism. I am deeply indebted to:
1. Mrs. Anuradha Mahur (Manager, ATE Deptt.) 2. Ms. Tanuja (D.E., ATE Deptt.)

for allowing me to join their department and guiding me throughout the project.

Yours sincerely, Vrishty Garg

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled AUTOMATED TEST EQUIPMENT (TESTING OF PCB) submitted by VRISHTY GARG from UIET,CSJMU,KANPUR for the degree of B.Tech. is bonafide work done by her in BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED, GHAZIABAD from 7 JUNE , 2010 to 17 JULY,2010. She has worked under my guidance and supervision in this organization. I hereby certify her project report and approve it.

PROJECT GUIDES

Ms. Tanuja D.E. (Radar-ATE) BEL, GHAZIABAD

Mrs. Anuradha Mahur DGM (Radar-ATE) BEL, GHAZIABAD

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INTRODUCTION TO BEL

ABOUT BEL

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Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of Ministry of Defense as the fountainhead to manufacture and supply electronics components and equipment. In the past 50 years this unit has augmented into an organization having nine units and employing about 12000 employees. A good range of products is being manufactured in these units in vital areas like Defense, communications, system engineering etc. Initially Defense consumed products, but now they are available in commercial market and for export also. BEL, with a noteworthy history of pioneering achievements, has met the requirement of state-of-art professional electronic equipment for Defense, broadcasting, civil Defense and telecommunications as well as the component requirement of entertainment and medical X-ray industry. Over the years, BEL has grown to a multi-product, multi-unit, and technology driven company with record of accomplishment of a profit earning PSU. The company has a unique position in India of having dealt with all the generations of electronic component and equipment. Having started with a HF receiver in collaboration with T-CSF of France, the company's equipment designs have had a long voyage through the hybrid, solid-state discrete component to the state of art integrated circuit technology. In the component arena also, the company established its own electron valve manufacturing facility. It moved on to semiconductors with the manufacture of germanium and silicon devices and then to the manufacture of Integrated circuits. To keep in pace with the component and equipment technology, its manufacturing and product assurance facilities have also undergone sea change. The design groups have CADDs facility, the manufacturing has CNC machines and a Mass Manufacture Facility, and Quality Control (QC) checks are performed with multi-dimensional profile measurement machines, Automatic testing machines, environmental labs to check extreme weather and other operational conditions. All

these facilities have been established to meet the stringent requirements of MIL grade systems. Todays BELs infrastructure is spread over nine locations with 29 production divisions having ISO-9001/9002 accreditation. Product mix of the company are spread over the entire
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electro-magnetic spectrum ranging from tiny audio frequency semiconductor to huge radar systems and X-ray tubes on the upper age of the spectrum. Its manufacturing units have special focus towards the product ranges like Defense Communication, Radars, Optical and Optoelectronics, components etc. BEL has nurtured and built a strong in-house R&D base by absorbing technologies from more than 50 leading companies worldwide and DRDO Labs for a wide range of products. A team of more than 800 engineers is working in R&D. Each unit has its R&D Division to bring out new products to the production lines. Central Research Laboratory (CRL) at Bangalore and Ghaziabad works as independent agency to undertake contemporary design work on state-of-art and futuristic technologies. About 70% of BEL's products are of inhouse design. BEL was among the first Indian companies to manufacture computer parts and peripherals under arrangement with International Computers India Limited (ICIL) in 1970s. BEL assembled a limited number of 1901 systems under the arrangement with ICIL. However, following Government's decision to restrict the computer manufacture to ECIL, BEL could not progress in its computer manufacturing plans. As many of its equipment were microprocessor based, the company continued to develop computers based application, both hardware and software. Most of its software requirements are in real time. EMCCA, software intensive naval ships control and command system is probably one of the first projects of its nature in India and Asia. BEL has won a number of national and international awards for Import Substitution, Productivity, Quality, and Safety Standardization etc. BEL was ranked no. 1 in the field of electronics and 46th overall among the top 1000 private and public sector undertakings in India by the Business Standard in its special supplement The BS 1000 (1997-98). BEL was listed 3rd among the mini Ratanas (category II) by the government of India, 49th among Asias top 100 Electronic companies by the Electronic Business Asia and within the top100 worldwide Defense Companies by the Defense News, USA. Telecommunications, Sound and Vision Broadcasting, Electronic

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MILESTONES
YEAR 2007 2007 2003 2002 2002 MILESTONES BEL conferred the Navratna status BEL gets AS 9100B certification BEL celebrates its Golden Jubilee Year BEL acquires category-I Mini Ratna status Foundation Stone laid for BELs new corporate office building in Bangalore 2001 2000 BEL bags National R&D Award in Electronics Industry Sector Bangalore unit of BEL implements Rain Water Harvesting on an industrial basis 1999 1998 Bharat Electronics Quality institute was established Hyderabad unit gets ISO 9002 Kotdwara unit gets ISO 9001 1996 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 Joint venture with Multitone and GEMS ISO-9001 Accredation ISO-9002 Accredit ion Central research laboratory, Ghaziabad was established SATCOM EMI/EMC Test Facilities & Computer Software Telecom-Switching &Transmission System and Mass Mfg. Facility Central Research LABORATORY, Bangalore was established Naval Equipment Division Kotdwara, Taloja & Hyderabad units. Klystrons & Travelling wave tubes. Madras and Panchkula units, Broadcast & TV, Digital Communication Equipment Divisions, Vacuum Interrupters
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1983 1982 1979 1974 1972 1971 1970 1968 1967 1966 1962 1961 1956 1954

(ASCO) Machilipatnam integrated with BEL Space Electronics Divisions Pune unit was established Ghaziabad unit was established B/W TV Picture Tubes Integrated Circuits and Hybrid Microcircuits X-ray Tubes & Management HF& Broadcast Equipment, Silicon Semiconductors Transmitting Tubes Radars Germanium Semiconductors Receiving Valves Equipment Production started at Bangalore (present LPE Division) Incorporation of BEL

QUALITY POLICY
Bharat Electronics consistently delivers enhanced value to its customers, through continual improvement of its products and processes.

QUALITY OBJECTIVES
Quality objectives of Bharat Electronics are as follows: Effective and efficient design and development process, considering the present and Future needs of customers.

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Enhanced customer satisfaction by in-time delivery of defect free products And Effective Life cycle support.

Continual up gradation and utilization of infrastructure and human sources. Mutual beneficial alliances with suppliers. Continual improvement of processes through innovation, technology and knowledge management.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
Bharat Electronics is involved in the design, development, production and supply of professional electronic equipments and services with a Corporate Mission to be the market leader in Defense Electronics and other chosen fields and products. It recognizes the impact of our day-to-day operations on the environment. In order to minimize the harmful effects on the environment by such operations, it commits itself to: Continual improvement of our environmental performance and prevention of pollution, reduction of waste and consumption of resources (materials, water, fuel & energy) in all our operations, by implementing and maintaining an Environmental Management System. Minimize any significant environmental impact of all our activities, products and processes throughout their life cycle, by applying the most economically viable application of the best available technology for prevention of pollution. Set, maintain and review environmental objectives and targets as well as develop environmental performance evaluation procedures and associated indicators. Complete with all the relevant legislations, regulations and industry codes associated

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with our environmental impacts and where no legislation exists, endeavor to set appropriate standards. Promote environmental awareness among all employees and ensure their participation in implementing this environmental policy at their place of work. Suppliers will also be made aware of the need to preserve environment and prevent pollution, in line with the companys environmental policy. Effective and efficient design and development process, considering the present and future needs of the customers. Enhanced customer satisfaction by on time delivery of defect free products and effective lifecycle support. Continuous up gradation and utilization of infrastructure and human resources. Mutually beneficial alliances with supplies. Continual improvement of processes through innovation, technology and knowledge management.

INDIAN MARKET
Bharat Electronics Limited is a major supplier of products and turnkey systems to the Indian Defense Services. Over the years, BEL has diversified into manufacturing many civilian products as well. Large turnkey telecommunication solutions are also being offered to civilian market. A brief list of the Customers in the defense and civilian market segments and the products and services offered to them is given below:

Products and Services Defense Communication Radars & Sonars

Customers Indian Defense Services , Para -military forces Indian Defense Services, Civil Aviation, Meteorological
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Department, Space Department Telecommunication Department of Telecommunication, Para- military forces, Power Sector, Oil Industry, Railways Broadcasting Equipments and All India Radio, Doordarshan, (National Radio & TV Studio Systems Electronic Voting Machine Solar Products & Systems Turnkey Systems, Broadcasters) Election Commission Of India Individuals, Private and Government Organizations E- Police, State Governments, Public Sector Undertakings

Governance Networks Components All India Radio and Doordarshan the National Radio & TV Broadcasters, Instrumentation Industry, Switching Industry, Entertainment Industry, Telephone Industry

JOINT VENTURES
GE-BE PRIVATE LIMITED
GEBE Pvt. Limited was set up in 1997 as a joint venture between Bharat Electronics Limited and General Electric Medical System. The facility based at Whitefield, Bangalore, India, manufactures X-ray tubes for RAD & F and CT systems, as well as components such as High Voltage Tanks and Detector modules for CT system. The products are exported worldwide and meet the safety and regulatory standards specified by FDA, CE, MHW, AERB and the facility has been accredited with ISO-9001; ISO-13485 and ISO-14001 certifications. GEBEL also markets the conventional X-ray tubes made at Pune Unit of BEL. The turnover of GEBEL during 2004-2005 was over Rs.450 Crores including an export of over Rs.430 Crores.

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X-RAY TUBES

HIGH VOLTAGE TANKS

CT DETECTOR MODULES

The company has been recognized for its outstanding export performance since 1998 by the Export Promotion Councils. The facility conforms to the high standards of Environment, Health & Safety and is recognized as a GE Global Star site. Apart from manufacturing, a dedicated engineering team is working on the development of new technologies & products to meet various customer needs.

BEL-MULTITONE:
BEL and Multitone, UK offers state-of-the-art Mobile Communication Products for the workplace. Multitone invented paging in 1956 when it developed the worlds first system to serve the life or death environment of St. Thomas Hospital, London. With the strength of Bharat Electronics in the Radio Communications field and the technology of multitone in the field of Radio Paging, the joint venture company is in a position to offer tailor made solutions to the Mobile Communication needs at workplaces in various market segments.

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The joint venture offers one of the most comprehensive on-site product ranges- from small, easy to use pagers to practical, durable private mobile radios and the latest technology, digital cordless communication systems. Brief details of the products are:

Access 700 one-way speech paging system which supports 100 pagers. Access 1000/3000 Radio Paging system which supports 1500/5000 users. Computer Radio Integration units. Digital Cordless Communication Systems.

VISION, MISSION,VALUES AND OBJECTIVES

VISION
- To be a world-class enterprise in professional electronics.

MISSION
- To be a customer focused, globally competitive company in defense electronics and in other chosen areas of professional electronics, through quality, technology and innovation.

VALUES
- Putting customers first. - Working with transparency, honesty & integrity. - Trusting and respecting individuals. - Fostering team work. - Striving to achieve high employee satisfaction. - Encouraging flexibility & innovation. - Endeavouring to fulfill social responsibilities. - Proud of being a part of the organization.
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OBJECTIVES
- To be a customer focussed company providing state-of-the-art products & solutions at competitive prices, meeting the demands of quality, delivery & service. - To generate internal resources for profitable growth. - To attain technological leadership in defense electronics through in-house R&D, partnership with defense/research laboratories & academic institutions. - To give thrust to exports. - To create a facilitating environment for people to realize their full potential through continuous learning & team work. - To give value for money to customers & create wealth for shareholders. - To constantly benchmark company's performance with best-in-class internationally. - To raise marketing abilities to global standards. - To strive for self-reliance through indigenization

MANUFACTURING UNITS OF BEL

BEL originated in 1954 with a factory of Jallahali, since then Bharat Electronics has grown into nine units all over India and two overseas offices located at New York and Singapore. BEL provides most of its services to defense sector. 85% work is done for defense services and the rest 15% work is done for public services. A brief description of the units and their products is given below:-

1. Bangalore
This is also called BG complex. Jallahali unit, which is the mother unit, is now a part of the BG complex. This is the biggest unit with the strength of approximately 9000-10000 employees working here. It was the first Radar manufacturing company. Among the products produced here the important ones are:
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PROJECT REPORT Communication Equipments.

OB VAN for Doordarshan and other channels for live coverage and telecast etc.
RADAR-mobile, one dimensional, 3 dimensional and multi dimensional RADAR.

Different range of semi conductor devices like ICs, Resistors, Black & White and Color TV picture tube glasses.

2. Ghaziabad
This unit was set up in 1974, and approximately 2500 employees are working here. This is the second largest unit of BEL. It basically manufactures: RADAR Communication equipments like antennae etc. SATCOM (defense) Microwave components

3. Pune
To diversify further one more branch was added in the year 1979 in Pune. In this branch around 700-800 employees are working. The product profile includes:
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X ray tubes Batteries Electro-optics

4. Machilipatnam
There was one Andhra Scientific company, which was a sick unit. This was taken over by BEL and is called ASCO unit in 1983. The products include: Optical and Opto-electronic equipments like binoculars, microscopes etc. Medical electronics

5. Taloja
This is an industrial place near Bombay. This unit manufactures: Glass shells for black and white TV picture tubes Shelter for electronic equipments Train actuated warning system Electronic equipment assembly

6. Panchkula
The government in 1985 proposed Panchkula and Kotdwara simultaneously. It was proposed to set up one unit each in Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. But the place in UP for setting up BEL unit could not be decided while that at Haryana was decided and hence this unit started earlier. This unit manufactures: Communication equipments like VHF, UHF transceivers etc.
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7. Kotdwara
This is a unit in Garhwal District of Uttaranchal. This unit manufactures radio relay, Multiplex equipments and exchanges etc.

8. Chennai
The eight unit of BEL was established in Chennai. This unit manufactures tank electronics related equipments and Optical fire control system.

9. Hyderabad

This is another unit of BEL, which manufactures electronics warfare equipments. Besides these manufacturing units, there are marketing centers at Delhi, Mumbai, Vishakhapatnam, and license cell at Agra, Overseas offices at New York and Singapore.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

Research and Development is a key focus activity at BEL. Research & Development started in 1963 at BEL and has been contributing steadily to the growth of BEL's business and selfreliance in the field of defence electronics and other chosen areas of professional electronics. BEL's R&D Policy is to enhance the company's pre-eminence in defence electronics and other chosen fields and products through Research & Development. Major R&D objectives of BEL is development of new products built with cutting-edge technology modules to meet customer requirements ensuring that the developed products are state-of-the-art, competitive and of the highest quality .

Resources and Investments

All the 9 manufacturing Units of BEL have their own Development & Engineering (D&E) divisions. The role of these D&E divisions is to develop new products and obtain customer acceptance, generate new business, provide product lifecycle support and upgrades, develop processes and components as necessary. Specialised core technology modules required by the D&E Engineers for product development are developed at several core Central D&E groups at Bangalore. BEL also has two Central Research Laboratories (CRLs) located at Bangalore and Ghaziabad, whose primary role is to work on critical areas of technology, develop enabling technology modules for use by D&E divisions and provide training to D&E engineers on emerging technologies. Presently there are about 1450 engineers and 300 support staff in the R&D Divisions of BEL, concentrating on various projects. D&E divisions of BEL pursue various categories of projects: in-house development projects, joint development or ToT projects with DRDO / other national design agencies and ToT or joint development projects with foreign vendors. Usually, 45 to 60% of the turnover is from BEL designed products, 10 to 25% of turnover is from products designed by DRDO and other National Design Agencies and the remaining from foreign collaborations.

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The annual R&D expenditure is around 4 to 5% of BEL's sales turnover. BEL regularly recruits young engineers based on the identification of required competencies for the R&D divisions. There are schemes for on-the-job training after placement and facilities for continuous learning for these engineers. There are recognition and reward schemes for excellence among R&D engineers. BEL R&D units are recognised by the Department of Scientific & Industrial Research (DSIR) under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. BEL's Software Technology Centre at Bangalore has the recognition of Capability Maturity Model (CMM) Level 5 Rating from Software Engineering Institute (SEI).

Areas of R&D Activity

R&D engineers are engaged in the development of new products, cutting edge technology modules, subsystem, processes & components in the following major areas:- Radars - Sonars & Naval Systems - Communications - Command Control Systems - Electronic Warfare Systems & Avionics - Tank and Opto-electronics - Broadcast, Satcom & Telecom - Other products & systems - Components Core Central Groups under Central D&E support the product development groups with stateof-the-art technology modules in areas like Power Amplifier, Power Supply, RF & Synthesiser, Crypto, DSP & Datacom, Software and Radar Signal Processing.

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DESIGN & MANUFACTURING SERVICES

Bharat Electronics Limited today has an integrated approach and systems capability, which is a direct result of its commitment to providing tailor-made solutions to the customers through its philosophy of quality management. The company has set up impressive infrastructure and manufacturing facilities spread over nine ISO 9001 / 9002 certified modern production units around the country. The infrastructure is regularly upgraded with the latest and state-of-the-art facilities. Manufacturing infrastructure is amply supported by the applicable Quality Assurance infrastructure and skilled technicians. Standards Division of BEL optimizes the processes on a continuous basis. Process and QA standards generated by BEL are used as reference by a number of companies in India. With the strengths in infrastructure and skilled/experienced manpower, BEL offers Contract Manufacturing Services for both domestic and international customers in the following areas: PCB Assembly(SMT, Through Hole, BGA) and Testing BEL has set up an exclusive Mass Manufacturing Facility and achieved proficiency in assembly of a wide variety of circuit board designs including Surface Mount Technology (SMT), Mixed Technology and Plated / Pin Through Hole Technology (PTH),. BEL also offers most modern facilities for testing of the products manufactured. Precision Machining and Fabrication BEL has the experience and expertise in the manufacture of high Precision Machined and Fabricated Parts in its state-of-the-art facilities equipped with latest CNC and special purpose machines. Products manufactured include chassis, enclosures, panels, brackets, rack mounts, card cage flanges and covers, large and medium modular frames and precision machined parts for the electronic, computer, and electrical products being used in commercial, defense, aerospace and telecommunication industries. Opto Electronic Components and Assemblies Bharat Electronics offers cost effective services for design and manufacture of optical and opto-electronic products and components operating in the UV, Visible and IR spectrum.
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Optical components include lenses, prisms, mirrors, windows, wedges etc. and Optical assemblies include Objective assembly, Eye piece assembly, Collimator assembly & Imaging assembly. Microwave Integrated Circuit Assemblies BEL manufactures a variety of Microwave Components and sub-systems using microchip technology which are required for wide range of applications in communication, radar systems including airborne and space related sub-systems. The facility is also qualified for the manufacture of C-Band Receiver for satellite systems. Multilayer PCB Design and Manufacturing BEL has established an excellent infrastructure to manufacture variety of Printed Circuit Boards ranging from single sided to 18 layers. The facilities are equipped to manufacture high technology quick turn prototypes, "Quick-to-Market products" and undertake volume production of buried and blind vias, build-up multi layers (microvias) and ultra fine lines/spaces. Cable Assemblies And Wiring Harnesses BEL specializes in the manufacture of cable assemblies and builds custom wiring harness required for its electronic equipment for commercial and military applications. Design And Manufacturing Of Professional Grade Transformers, Coils And SubAssemblies BEL manufactures a wide range of transformers (power, audio frequency, modulation, pulse, filament etc.,) coils (audio frequency, radio frequency, air arc, IF, pot case, moulded, etc.,) Chokes (smoothing, modulation, radio frequency, etc.,) and Sub-assemblies (HV Units, EHV units, etc.). Most of these products meet the stringent defense specifications for use in defense equipment. Antenna Manufacturing Bharat Electronics Limited is engaged in development and production of various types of antennas for use in Radars, Communications, TV-Broadcasting, Satellite Communication etc. The antenna production division also includes a FRP shop capable of producing antennas with hand-lay-up technology. The R&D and production efforts are supported by wellPage 25 of 87

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equipped microwave testing laboratory and a microwave outdoor antenna test range. There is also a facility to produce thin film MIC components which are extensively used in phased array antennas. Many foreign companies like AT&T-USA, GE-Medical-USA, Vishay-Austria, ECHOSTAR-USA, ENCON International-USA, CREO Products Inc-Canada., MultitoneUK, Elisra, Elta, Ortek, Scitex, ELOP-Israel, Technology Rendezvous Inc., USA, ERICSSON,SWEDEN and many more are using our facility for meeting their outsourcing requirements. BEL has also established Joint Venture Companies with Delft, Holland for Image Intensifier Tube and General Electric Medical Systems, USA for X-Ray Tubes.

NINE UNITS OF BEL AT A GLANCE

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FORMATION OF THE UNIT-BEL,GHAZIABAD

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In the mid 60's, while reviewing the Defense requirement of the country, the government focused its attention to strengthen the air Defense system, in particular the ground electronics system support, for the air Defense network. This led to the formulation of a very major plan for an integrated Air Defense Ground Environment System known as the Plan ADGES with Prime Minister as the presiding officer of the apex review committee. At about the same time, Public attention was focused on the report of the Bhabha Committee on the development and production of electronic equipment. The ministry of Defense immediately realized the need to establish production capacity for meeting the electronic equipment requirements for its Plan ADGES. BEL was then entrusted with the task of meeting the development and production requirement for the Plan ADGES and in view of the importance of the project it was decided to create additional capacity at a second unit of the company. In December 1970 the Govt. sanctioned an additional unit for BEL. In 1971, the industrial license for manufacture of radar and microwave equipment was obtained; 1972 saw the commencement of construction activities and production was launched in 1974. Over the years, the Unit has successfully manufactured a wide variety of equipment needed for Defense and civil use. It has also installed and commissioned a large number of systems on turnkey basis. The Unit enjoys a unique status as manufacturer of IFF systems needed to match a variety of Primary Radars.

THE PRODUCT RANGE

Radar Systems:
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3-Dimensional High Power Static and Mobile Radar for the Air Force. Low Flying Detection Radar for both the Army and the Air force. Tactical Control Radar Systems for the Army Battlefield Surveillance Radar for the Army IFF Mk-X Radar systems for the Defense and Export ASR/MSSR systems for Civil Aviation. Radar & allied systems Data Processing Systems.

Communications:

Digital Static Tropo scatter Communication Systems for the Air Force. Digital Mobile Tropo scatter Communication System for the Air Force and Army. VHF, UHF & Microwave Communication Equipment. Bulk Encryption Equipment. Turnkey Communication Systems Projects for defense & civil users. Static and Mobile Satellite Communication Systems for Defense Telemetry/Tele-control Systems.

Antennae:
Antennae for Radar, Terrestrial & Satellite Communication Systems. Antennae for TV Satellite Receive and Broadcast applications. Antennae for Line-of-sight Microwave Communication Systems.
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Microwave Component:
Active Microwave components like LNAs, Synthesizer, Receivers etc. Passive Microwave components like Double Balanced Mixers, etc

Most of these products and systems are the result of a harmonious combination of technology absorbed under ToT from abroad, Defense R&D Laboratories and BEL's own design and development efforts.

ORGANISATION
The operations at BEL Ghaziabad are headed by General Manager with Additional / Deputy General Manager heading various divisions as follows: Design & Engineering Divisions : Development and Engineering-R Development and Engineering-C Development and Engineering-Antenna.

VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF BEL GHAZIABAD

Human Resource Development Design and Engineering Work Maintenance
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Test Equipment and Automation PCB Fabrication Quality Control Works Assembly Design & Development Microwave Lab Environment and Testing Laboratory Personnel and Administration Production control Management Services Information Systems Antenna Fabrication Machine Shop Fabrication Shop Finance and Accounts Material Management Plant and Service Marketing and Customer Co-ordination Quality Assurance and Torque Central Services Central Research Laboratory

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ROTATIONAL TRAINING
The first week in the company was the period of orientation. In this period we were told about functioning of various departments. Following is the briefing, my experience and observation about various departments of the company:

PERSONNEL AND ADMINISTRATION

The manager (P&A) has jurisdiction over the following departments: Establishment Industrial relations Welfare section Medical Recruitment Adjudication H.R.D. department Security section Co-ordination Hindi cell

ESTABLISHMENT
It deals with the following works:
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Promotion of all the employees. Transfer of employees. Yearly increment of employees. Deputation etc.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
The aim of this department is to maintain good relation between the employees and the management. It is concerned with the maintenance of harmony and discipline within the factor and removes conflict between the employees and management,

WELFARE
This section deals with:

Canteen facility Medical facility Crche facility Maternity benefits Labour welfare funds Workers education scheme Family welfare scheme Cultural activities National savings scheme Community development program
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MEDICAL
There is a small hospital that looks after the employees, their family health and provides medicine.

RECRUITMENT
The employees acquisition form is sent by various deptts. to this section. For executives, there is an entrance examination followed by an interview taken by the cooperate office. For non executives, the employment exchange forward the name and afterwards, the recruits are send to HRD for training of one to sixth months.

HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT SECTION

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HRD HRD

SDP SDP

EDP EDP

Developmen Developmen tt

The HRD section controls the under listed functions: 1. Training Two training programs are: SDP (Skill development program) EDP (Employees development program) 2. Development.

MICROWAVE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

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Frequencies greater than 1 GHz are termed as Microwaves. Microwave Integrated Circuit used extensively in production of subsystems for Radar and Communication equipment constitutes a very important part of technology for these systems are generally imported. Owing to the crucial and building block nature of the technology involved, BEL is currently setting up a modern MIC manufacturing facility at a planned expenditure of Rs. 2 crore. When in full operation this facility will be the main center for the MIC requirements of all the units of the company. The manufacturing facility of hybrid microwave components available at BEL Ghaziabad includes facility for preparation of substrates, assembly of miniaturized components on substrates, bonding and testing. Testing of these microwave components viz.Directional couplers, Waveguides, low noise amplifiers, phase shifters, synthesis etc. involve scalar as well as vector measurements. For this state of the network, analyses are used. Various losses such as return loss, bending loss, insertion loss are measured and testing is done in a way to minimize these losses.

MICROWAVE LAB
This section undertakes:

Manufacturing of films and microwave components to meet internal requirements. Testing of low power antenna for which test-site is about 100 Km from the factory at Sohna.

The main component testing in this department is: Oscillators Amplifiers Mixers Radiation elements (e.g. Feeders)
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Microwave components (e.g. Isolators, circulators, waveguides etc.) Filters (e.g. LPF, BPF, Uniplexers, and Multiplexers etc.) Functioning of component is listed below: Frequency response Noise figure VSWR Directivity and coupling Power measurements

Various instruments in the lab are: Adaptor Attenuator Coupler Mixer Detector

ENVIRONMENTAL LAB
Various tests conducted in the environmental lab in BEL in order to ensure reliability. Reliability is defined as the probability of a device performing its purpose adequately for the period intended under the given operating conditions.

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In a given system reliability is given as R = R1 * R2 * R3 The standards available here are: JSS 55555 - Joint Services Specifications (Military Standard of India) Mil Standards - U.S. Military standards QM333 - Civil Aviation and Police

PCB FABRICATION
PCB is abbreviated form of printed circuit board. As the name suggests, in a PCB the electrical circuit is printed on a glass epoxy board. This reduces the complex writing network

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whose trouble shooting in case of shorting or misconnection is not easy. PCB fabrication is mostly done for house requirements. It also takes some external jobs. Types of PCBs Single Sided: Having circuit pattern only on one side of the board. Double Sided: Having circuit pattern on both sides of the board. Multilayered: Having many layers of circuit.

BEL Ghaziabad produces only single-sided and double-sided PCBs.

FABRICATION OF SINGLE SIDED PCBs:

1. 2. A copper clad sheet is taken. It is cleaned and scrubbed. The sheet is laminated with a photosensitive solution.
3.

Positive photo paint of the required circuit is placed over the laminated sheet

and it is subjected to the UV light. As a result the transparent plate gets polymerized and the opaque part remains unpolymerized.
4.

The plate is now dipped in solution in which the non-polymerized part gets

dissolved. 5. 6. Tin plating is done on the tracks obtained. Lamination of the plate is removed (stripping). 7. The unwanted copper from the plate is also removed by dipping it in the solution that dissolves copper but not tin (etching). 8. Now drilling is done on the paths where the components are to be mounted. This process fabricates PCB.

PCB MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

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1. Copper clad 2. Drill location holes 3. Drill holes for T.H.P. (Through Hole Plating) 4. Clean scrub and laminate 5. Photo print 6. Develop 7. Copper electroplate 8. Tin electroplate 9. Strip film 10. Etch and clean 11. Strip tin 12. L.P.I.S.M. (Liquid Photo Imageable Solder Mask) 13. Photo print 14. Develop 15. Thermal baking 16. Hot air level 17. Legend marking/Reverse marking 18. Route and clean But these PCBs have the following disadvantages:

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Due to very narrow spacing between adjacent tracks, there may be a chance of short circuit if the soldering is done by hands between the components on opposite side.

Moisture or dust between the gaps may disrupt smooth soldering.

These disadvantages are overcome by soldered mask PCBs in the later one an additional film is put on the earlier fabricated PCB, leaving points where components are to be soldered.

TEST EQUIPMENT & AUTOMATION

TEST EQUIPMENT SUPPORT (TES)
Main functions are: Develops technical support to other departments. Repair of equipment in case of failure.
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Maintenance of equipments. Periodic calibration of equipments. Provide technical support to other departments. This includes: Handling requests from the other department for equipments. Storage of rejected equipments. Approval of equipments to be purchased.

This section deals with testing and the calibration of electronic equipments only the standards of this department are calibrated by National Physics Laboratory (NPL).

AUTOMATION TEST EQUIPMENT (ATE)

1. Component testing gives faults of various discrete components of a PCB. 2. Integrated circuits tester tests various ICs. 3. Functional testing compares output to decide whether the function is being performed to the desired level of accuracy.

MAGNETICS
This department manufactures all types of transformers and coils that are used in various equipments manufactured by BEL. This department basically consists of four sections: 1. 2. 3. Planning section Mechanical section Moulding section
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4.

Inspection section

The D&E department gives the following descriptions to the magnetics department. They are as follows: Number of layers Number of turns Type of winding Gap in core Insulation between layers Ac/dc impedance Dielectric strength Electrical parameters and Earthing

The various transformers being made are: Open type transformer Oil cooling type transformer Moulding type transformer PCB moulding type transformer

The transformer is mechanically assembled, leads are taken out and checking of specification is done. Winding machines are of three types:
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Heavier ones- DNR for 0.1 to 0.4 mm diameter LC controlled machines Torroidal machines having 32 operations from winding to mechanical assembly.

The various types of windings used are: Hand winding Torroidal winding Sector winding Pitch winding Variable pitch winding Wave winding

Two main types of core used are: E-type for 3-phase C-type for single phase

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WORKS ASSEMBLY
This department plays an important role in the production. Its main function is to assemble various components, equipments and instruments in a particular procedure. It has two sections, namely: 1. 2. PCB assembly Electronic assembly

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In PCB assembly, the different types of PCB are assembled as per BEL standards. PCB is received from the PCB department on which soldering of component is done either by hand soldering or wave soldering. HAND SOLDERING: WAVE SOLDERING: In case of hand soldering, soldering is done manually. Wave soldering is a procedure in which PCBs are fed to the

wave soldering machine from the opening on one side and the soldering is done by machine and after the soldering is done PCBs are collected from the another opening of the machine and after that the pcbs are cleaned in cleaning machine and then the PCBs are than send to testing department for testing according to the product Test procedure issued by the D&E department. After testing PCBs are lacquered and Send to the planning store for storage. In electronic assembly, the cable assemblies, cable forms modules, drawers, racks and shelters are assembled. Every shelter (e.g. - DMT) is made of racks, racks are made up of drawers, drawers are made up of modules and modules are made up of PCBs, cable assembly and cable forms. Every module or drawer before using in next assembly is send for testing according to their PTP. Shop planning collects the purchase from the IG store, takes fabricated parts, PCBs etc. from planning stores and issued to the assembly department as per the part list of the assembly to be made. The documents issued to the assembly are: KS PL CL WL WD : : : : : Key Sheet Parts List Connection List for cable form Wiring List for modules Wiring Diagram

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GA

General Assembly diagram

This department has been broadly classified as: 1. WORK ASSEMBLY RADAR e.g. : INDRA-2 , REPORTER ,
2. WORK ASSEMBLY NCS e.g. : EMC CA , MSSR , MFC

EMCCA: EQUIPMENT MODULAR FOR COMMAND CONTROL APPLICATION MSSR: MONOPULSE SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR MFC: MULTI FUNCTIONAL CONSOLE The stepwise process followed by work assembly department is: 1) 2) 3) Preparation of part list that is to be assembled. Preparation of general assembly. Schematic diagram to depict all connection to be made and brief idea about all

components. 4) Writing list of all components.

METHOD OF PCB PROCESSING

1. Tinning 2. Preparation 3. Mounting 4. Wave soldering 5. Touch up 6. Quality control
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7. Ageing 8. Testing 9. lacquering (AV) 10. Storing

RADAR ASSEMBLY
This deals with the assembly of RADARS, e.g. INDRA-I, INDRA-II, FLY CATCHER, EMMCA, IRMA, REPORTER etc. The main projects under construction are: Digital mobile tropo (DMT) GHz radio relay Digital encrypter

QUALITY CONTROL WORKS

According to some laid down standards, the quality control department ensures the quality of the product. The raw materials and components etc. purchased are inspected according to the specifications by the IG department. Similarly QC works department inspects all the items manufactured in the factory.

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The fabrication inspection checks all the fabricated parts and ensures that these are made as per the part drawing. Plating, Painting and stenciling etc are done and checked as per the BEL standards. The assembly inspection department inspects all the assembled parts such as PCB, cable assembly, cable form, modules, racks and shelters as per latest documents and BEL standards. The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as: D&E mistake Shop mistake Inspection mistake

A process card is attached to each PCB under inspection. Any error in the PCB is entered into the process card by certain codes specified for each error or defect. After mistake is detected, following actions are taken:

Observation is made. Object code is given. Division code is given. Change code is prepared. Recommended action is taken.

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DEPARTMENTAL WORK

PROJECT REPORT ON AUTOMATED TEST EQUIPMENT (TESTING ON S790)

INTRODUCTION
Automated test equipment (ATE) is computer controlled test and measurement equipment, arranged in such a way as to be able to test a unit with minimal human interaction. The
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advantage of this kind of test is that they are repeatable and cost efficient in high volume. The chief disadvantages are the upfront costs; programming and setup. Automated test equipment can test components, printed circuit boards, and interconnections and verifications. Test types for components include logic, memory, linear or mixed signal, passive components and active components. Logic test systems are designed for handling the testing of microprocessors, gate arrays, ASICs and other logic devices. Memory testers are automated test equipment for the testing of SDRAM, DDR-SDRAM SIMMs and DIMMs. Linear or mixed signal equipment is used for the testing of components such as analog-todigital converters (ADCs), digital-to-analog converters (DACs), comparators, track-and-hold amplifiers and video products. These components incorporate features such as, audio interfaces, signal processing functions and high-speed transceivers. Passive component ATEs test passive components including capacitors, resistors, inductors etc. Typically testing is done by the application of a test current. Discrete automated test equipment tests active components including transistors, diodes, MOSFETs, Regulators, Triacs, Zeners, SCRs, and JFETs. Printed circuit board testers include manufacturing defect analyzers, in-circuit testers, and functional analyzers. Manufacturing defect analyzers (MDAs) detect manufacturing defects, such as shorts and missing components, but they can't test digital ICs as they test with the UUT (unit under test) powered down (cold). As a result, they assume the ICs are good. MDAs are also referred to as analog circuit testers. In-circuit analyzers test components that are part of a board assembly. The components under test are "in a circuit." The UUT is powered up (hot). They are also referred to as digital circuit testers. A functional test simulates an operating environment and tests a board against its functional specification. They may also be referred to as emulators. Test types for interconnection and verification include cable and harness testers and bareboard testers. Cable and harness testers are used to detect opens (missing connections), shorts (open connections) and miswires (wrong pins) on cable harnesses, distribution panels, wiring looms, flexible circuits and membrane switch panels with commonly used connector configurations. Other tests performed by automated test equipment include resistance and
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hipot tests. Bare board automated test equipment is used to detect the completeness of a PCB circuit before assembly and wave solder.

COMPONENTS OF ATE
The Semiconductor ATE architecture consists of master controller (usually a computer) that synchronizes one or more source and capture instruments (listed below). Historically, custom-designed controllers or relays were used by ATE systems. The Unit Under Test (UUT) is physically connected to the ATE by another robotic machine called a Handler or Prober and through a customized Interface Test Adapter (ITA) or "fixture" that adapts the ATE's resources to the UUT. Most modern semiconductor ATEs include multiple Digital Signal Processing (DSP) instruments used to measure a wide range of parameters, including: Digital Power Supply (DPS), Parametric Measurement Units (PMU), Arbitrary Waveform Generators (AWG), Digitizers, Digital IOs, and utility supplies. Each of these instruments perform different measurements on the UUT. All of these instruments must be synchronized so the source and
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capture waveforms very precisely aligned a basic requirement in DSP-based ATE. The DSP-based signal generation would require a number of sample patterns to be calculated and be sent at very specific times. There is a variety of different approaches that can be used for automatic test equipment. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages, and can be used to great effect in certain circumstances. When choosing ATE systems it is necessary to understand the different types of systems and to be able to apply them correctly.

TYPES OF ATE AUTOMATIC TEST SYSTEMS

There is a good variety of types of ATE systems that can be used. As they approach electronics test in slightly different ways they are normally suited to different stages in the production test cycle. The most widely used forms of ATE, automatic test equipment used today are listed below:

Automatic optical inspection, AOI: AOI, Automatic Optical Inspection is widely used in many manufacturing environments. It is essentially a form of inspection, but achieved automatically. This provides a much greater degree of repeatability and speed when compared to manual inspection. AOI, automatic optical inspection it is particularly useful when situated at the end of a line producing soldered boards. Here it can quickly locate production problems including solder defects as well as whether the correct components and fitted and also whether their orientation is correct. As AOI systems are generally located immediately after the PCB solder process, any
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solder process problems can be resolved quickly and before too many printed circuit boards are affected. AOI automatic optical inspection takes time to set up and for the test equipment to learn the board. Once set it can process boards very quickly and easily. It is ideal for high volume production. Although the level of manual intervention is low, it takes time to set up correctly, and there is a significant investment in the test system itself.

Automated X-Ray inspection, AXI:

Automated X-Ray inspection has many

similarities to AOI. However with the advent of BGA packages it was necessary to be able to use a form of inspection that could view items not visible optically. Automated X-Ray inspection, AXI systems can look through IC packages and examine the solder joints underneath the package to evaluate the solder joints.

ICT In circuit test: In-Circuit Test, ICT is a form of ATE that has been in use for many years and is a particularly effective form of printed circuit board test. This test technique not only looks at short circuits, open circuits, component values, but it also checks the operation of ICs. Although In Circuit Test, ICT is a very powerful tool, it is limited these days by lack of access to boards as a result of the high density of tracks and components in most designs. Pins for contact with the nodes have to be very accurately placed in view of the very fine pitches and may not always make good contact. In view of this and the increasing number of nodes being found on many boards today it is being used less than in previous years, although it is still widely used.

Manufacturing Defect Analyzer, MDA: A Manufacturing Defect Analyzer, MDA is another form of printed circuit board test and it is effectively a simplified form of ICT. However this form of printed circuit board test only tests for manufacturing defects looking at short circuits, open circuits and looks at some component values. As a result, the cost of these test systems is much lower than that of a full ICT, but the fault coverage is less.

Functional testing, including rack and stack: Functional test can be considered as any form of electronics testing that exercises the function of a circuit. There are a
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number of different approaches that can be adopted dependent upon the type of circuit (RF, digital, analogue, etc), the degree of testing required. The main approaches are outlined below:
1. Functional Automatic Test Equipment, FATE: This term usually refers to

the large functional automatic test equipment in a specially designed console. These automatic test equipment systems are generally used for testing digital boards but these days these large testers are not widely used. The increasing speeds at which many boards run these days cannot be accommodated on these testers where leads between the board under test and the tester measurement or stimulus point can result in large capacitances that slow the rate of operation down. In addition to this fixtures are expensive as is the program development. Despite these drawbacks these testers may still be used in areas where production volumes are high and speeds not particularly high. They are generally used for testing digital boards.
2. Rack and stack test equipment using GPIB: One way in which boards, or

units themselves can be tested is using a stack of remotely controlled test equipment. The most widely method of controlling the test equipment is still to use the General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB). There may also be a test interface adapter required to control and interface to the item under test. Whilst the GPIB is relatively slow and has been in existence for over 30 years it is still widely used as it provides a very flexible method of test. Laboratory test equipment can often be used as most items of lab test equipment have a GPIB port. The main drawback of GPIB is its speed and the cost of writing the programmes although packages like LabView can be used to aid program generation and execution in the test environment. Fixtures or test interfaces can also be expensive.
3. Chassis or rack based test equipment: One of the major drawbacks of the

GPIB rack and stack automatic test equipment approach is that it occupies a large amount of space, and the operating speed is limited by the speed of the
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GPIB. To overcome these problems a variety of standards for systems contained within a chassis have been developed. The idea of containing test instruments within a chassis was first developed under the VXI (VME eXtensions for Instrumentation) guise. The system uses test instruments on a card that can be slotted into a standard chassis. This saves both space and cost when compared to the stand-alone instruments as well as proving an increase in communications speed when compared to other technologies such as GPIB. Later introductions of PXI and then PXI Express provided for lower cost instrumentation while still retaining the advantages of the chassis approach. Although there are a variety of ATE, automatic test equipment approaches that can be used, these are some of the more popular systems in use. They can all use test management software such as LabView to assist in the running of the individual tests. This enables facilities such as the ordering of tests, results collection and printout as well as results logging, etc.

JTAG Boundary scan testing: Boundary scan is a form of testing that has come to the fore in recent years. Also known as JTAG, Joint Test Action Group, or by its standard IEEE 1149.1, boundary scan offers significant advantages over more traditional forms of testing and as such has become one of the major tools in automatic testing.

As a result of its ability to test boards and even ICs with very limited physical test access, Boundary Scan / JTAG has become very widely used. With the requirement for testing circuit efficiently increasing while test access is decreasing, efficient methods of testing are needed. Boundary scan uses special boundary scan ICs that have a shift register in the output. By connecting boundary scan compatible ICs serially on a board (or just using the boundary scan chain in an IC for individual IC testing) and enabling the boundary scan chain, it is possible to send in a serial data word, and then monitor the exiting data word. Analysing the exit

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data train enables the test information to be accessed. In this way it is possible to gain a high level of test access without compromising the circuit.

Combinational test:

No single method of testing is able to provide a complete

solution these days. To help overcome this various ATE automatic test equipment systems incorporate a variety of test approaches. These combinational testers are generally used for printed circuit board testing. By doing this, a single electronics test is able to gain a much greater level of access for the printed circuit board test, and the test coverage is much higher. Additionally a combinational tester is able to undertake a variety of different types of test without the need to mover the board from one tester to another. In this way a single suite of tests may include In-circuit testing as well as some functional tests and then some JTAG boundary scan testing. By utilizing all the different test techniques appropriately, it is possible to ATE automatic test equipment to be used to its fullest advantage. This will enable tests to be executed swiftly, while still providing a high level of coverage. Inspection techniques including AOI and X-ray inspection can be used along with In-circuit test, and JTAG boundary scan testing. Functional testing can also be used. While it is possible to use different types of test, it is necessary to ensure that products are not over tested as this wastes time. For example if AOI or X-Ray inspection is used, it may not be appropriate to use In-circuit testing. The place of JTAG boundary scan testing should also be considered. In this way the most effective test strategy can be defined.

TEST EQUIPMENT SWITCHING

The addition of a high-speed switching system to a test systems configuration allows for faster, more cost-effective testing of multiple devices, and is designed to reduce both test errors and costs. Designing a test systems switching configuration requires an understanding of the signals to be switched and the tests to be performed, as well as the switching hardware form factors available.

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AUTOMATED OPTICAL INSPECTION

Automatic or automated optical inspection, AOI, is a key technique used in the manufacture and test of electronics printed circuit boards, PCBs. Automatic optical inspection, AOI enables fast and accurate inspection of electronics assemblies and in particular PCBs to ensure that the quality of product leaving the production line is high and the items are built correctly and without manufacturing faults.

Need for AOI, automatic optical inspection

Despite the major improvements that have been made, modern circuits are far more complicated than boards were even a few years ago. The introduction of surface mount technology and the subsequent further reductions in size mean that boards are particularly compact. Even relatively average boards have thousands of soldered joints, and these are where the majority of problems are found. This increase in the complexity of boards also means that manual inspection is not a viable option these days. Even when it was an accepted approach, it was realized that it was not particularly effective as inspectors soon tired and poor and incorrect construction was easily missed. With the marketplace now requiring high volume, high quality products to be brought to market very quickly very reliable and fast methods are needed to ensure that product quality remains high. AOI, automatic optical inspection is an essential tool in an integrated electronics test strategy that ensure costs are kept as low as possible by detecting faults early in the production line.

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One of the solutions to this is to use automated or automatic optical inspection systems. Automated optical inspection systems can be placed into the production line just after the solder process. In this way they can be used to catch problems early in the production process. This has a number of advantages. With faults costing more to fix the further along the production process they are found, this is obviously the optimum place to find faults. Additionally process problems in the solder and assembly area can be seen early in the production process and information used to feedback quickly to earlier stages. In this way a rapid response can ensure that problems are recognised quickly and rectified before too many boards are built with the same problem.

AOI, automatic optical inspection basics

AOI, automatic optical inspection systems use visual methods to monitor printed circuit boards for defects. They are able to detect a variety of surface feature defects such as nodules, scratches and stains as well as the more familiar dimensional defects such as open circuits, shorts and thinning of the solder. They can also detect incorrect components, missing components and incorrectly placed components. As such they are able to perform all the visual checks performed previously by manual operators, and far more swiftly and accurately. They achieve this by visually scanning the surface of the board. The board is light by several light sources and one or more high definition cameras are used. In this way the AOI machine is able to build up a picture of the board The automated optical inspection, AOI system uses the captured image which is processed and then compared with the knowledge the machine has of what the board should look like. Using this comparison the AOI system is able to detect and highlight any defects or suspect areas. AOI uses a number of techniques to provide the analysis of whether a board is satisfactory or has any defects:

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Template matching: board".

Using this form of process the AOI, automated optical

inspection system compares the image obtained with the image from a "golden

Pattern matching: Using this techniques the AOI system stores information of both good and bad PCB assemblies, matching the obtained image to these.

Statistical pattern matching: This approach is very similar tot hat above, except that it uses a statistically based method of addressing problems. By storing the results of several boards and several types of failure, it is able to accommodate minor acceptable deviations without flagging errors.

In order to build up the database of what the board should be, both known status boards and PCB design information is used as described later. As technology has improved it has been able for AOI systems to very accurately predict defects and have a small number of no defect found scenarios. As such AOI systems form a very useful element in a sophisticated manufacturing environment.

AOI image capture and analysis

One of the key elements of an AOI, automated optical inspection system is the image capture system. This captures an image of the printed circuit board, PCB assembly which is then analysed by the processing software within the AOI system. There are many variants of image capture system dependent upon the exact application and the complexity / cost of the AOI system. Imaging systems may comprise a single camera or there may be more than one to provide better imaging and the possibility of a 3D capability. The cameras should also be able to move under software control. This will enable them to move to the optimum position for a given PCB assembly. In addition to this the type of camera has an impact on performance. Speed against accuracy is a balance that has to be struck and will impact on the camera type used:

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Streaming video: One type of camera used for automated optical inspection, AOI, takes streaming video from which complete frames are taken. The captured frame then enables a still image to be generated on which the signal processing is performed. This approach is not as accurate as other still image systems but has the advantage of very high speed.

Still image camera system: This is generally placed relatively close to the target PCB and as a result it requires a good lighting system. It may also be necessary to be able to move the camera under software control.

When analyzing an image of a board, the AOI system looks for a variety of specific features: component placement, component size, board fiducials, label patterns (e.g. bar codes), background color and reflectivity, etc. As an important element of its task the AOI system also inspects the soldered joints to ensure they indicate that the joints are satisfactory. When analyzing the boards the AOI system must take into account many variations between good boards. Not only do components vary considerably in size between batches, but also the color and reflectivity. Often there are also differences in the silk screening where ink thickness and color typeface may change slightly.

AOI light source

Lighting is a key element in the AOI system. By choosing the correct lighting source it is possible to highlight different types of defect more easily. With the advances that have been made in lighting technology in recent years, this has enabled lighting to be used to enhance the images available and in turn this enables defects to be highlighted more easily with a resultant reduction in processing required and an increase in speed and accuracy. Most AOI systems have a defined lighting set. This will depend upon the operation required and the product types to be tested. These have usually been optimized for the anticipated conditions. However sometimes some customization may be required, and an understanding of lighting is always of use. A variety of types of lighting are available:
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Fluorescent lighting:

Fluorescent lighting is widely used for AOI, automated

optical inspection applications as it provides an effective form of lighting for viewing defects on PCBs. The main problem with fluorescent lighting for AOI applications is that the lamps degrade with time. This means that the automated optical inspection system will be subject to a constantly changing levels and quality of light

LED lighting:

The development of LED lighting has meant that AOI, automated

optical inspection systems are able to adopt a far more stable form of lighting. Although LED lighting does suffer from a reduction in light output from the LEDs over time, this can be compensated for by increasing the current. Using LED lighting, the level of lighting can also be controlled. LEDs are therefore a far more satisfactory form of lighting than fluorescent or incandescent lights that were used years ago

Infra-red or ultra-violet: On some occasions infra-red or ultra-violet lighting may be required to enhance certain defects, or to enable automated optical inspection to be carried out to reveal certain types of defect.

Apart from the form of lighting, the positioning of the lighting for an automatic optical inspection system, AOI, is equally important. The light sources require positioning to not only to ensure that all areas are well light, which is particularly important when certain components may cast shadows, but also to highlight defects. Careful adjustment may be needed for different assemblies.

AOI, automated optical inspection system programming

In order to be able to test a PCB assembly using AOI, automatic optical inspection, the details for an acceptable board must be stored within the system. This programming activity must be carried out correctly if the AOI system is to be able to correctly detect any defects on the PCB assemblies passing through. There are several methods that can be used to program an AOI system:

Use of "Golden Board": One method is to provide a known good board as a target for the AOI, automated optical inspection system to use. This is passed through the system so that it can learn the relevant attributes. It will look at the components, the
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solder profiles of each joint, and many other aspects. In order to provide the system with enough variance data several boards are often required.

Algorithm based programming: PCB data is provided to the system and it then generates its own profile for the board. This scheme will also require real boards, but fewer are generally required.

There are advantages and disadvantages to both systems. It is a balance between set-up time, maintenance, accuracy and the requirements for the particular AOI, automated optical inspection system. Typically the requirements will be largely dependent upon the machine in use. It is essential that any printed circuit board manufacturing area is able to check the quality of the boards coming off the end of the line. Only in this way are they able to monitor quality and when problems are detected to rectify the process so that further boards are not affected by the same problems. In this way automatic optical inspection and where necessary X-ray inspection are two essential tools for the manufacturing industry.

X-RAY INSPECTION
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Automatic optical inspection works very well in electronics manufacturing for printed circuit boards where joints are visible. However many PCBs today are using technologies such as ball grid array, BGA integrated circuits and chip scale packages, CSPs where the solder connections are not visible. This has arisen as a result of the need for greater numbers of interconnections to integrated circuit packages and as a general result of increasing complexity. In these and many other instances it is necessary to carry out checks using automated X-Ray inspection, AXI, equipment that can not only check the solder joints under components, but also reveal many defects in solder joints that may not be visible with ordinary optical inspection equipment. In recent years, the need for automated X-Ray inspection equipment has grown considerably and as a result, a much wider range of equipment is available. Additionally the techniques used in automated X-Ray inspection equipment has improved and this has enabled far greater levels of detection to be achieved for printed circuit board, PCB manufacture. As one significant improvement in AXI, automated X-ray inspection, not only are 2D or two dimensional techniques available, but machines utilizing 3D technology are available and give significant improvements in performance.

AXI technology features

AXI, automated X-ray inspection systems are able to monitor a variety of aspects of a printed circuit board assembly production. They would normally be placed after the solder process to monitor defects in PCBs after leaving the soldering process. They have the distinct advantage over optical systems that they are able to "see" solder joints that are under packages such as BGAs, CSPs and flip chips where the solder joints are hidden. AXI, automated X-ray inspection systems are not only able to "see" through the chips, but they are also able to provide an internal view of the solder joints. In this way they are able to detect voiding within a solder joint that may otherwise look perfectly acceptable. This means that AXI, automated X-ray inspection systems are able to provide additional information over that which could be provided by purely optical systems to ensure that solder joints are being made to the required standard.
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AXI, automated optical inspection can inspect the features of solder joints providing information on the way the soldering process is operating. Parameters such as solder thickness, joint sizes and profiles can be undertaken on specific joints on boards. These can then be used to provide data on the solder process and how well it is operating. AXI systems are also able to see the heel of the joint which AOI systems are unable to see as they are masked by the leads from the ICs as shown.

Solder joint geometry for a typical Quad Flat Pack IC When an automated X-ray inspection system, or an optical system is used within an electronics PCB manufacturing process, the defects and other information detected by the inspection system can be quickly analyzed and the process altered to reduce the defects and improve the quality of the process. In this way not only are actual faults detected, but the process can be altered to reduce the fault levels on the boards coming through. Accordingly they ensure that the highest standards are maintained and they are particularly useful when new boards are being set up and the process needs to be optimized. It should be realized that AXI is only one of the number of tools that can be used within an electronics PCB manufacturing organization. Two other tools, namely AOI, automatic optical inspection, and ICT, in-circuit test can provide similar information in many areas. The table below provides a comparison of the different types on information that each form of automatic test equipment, ATE can provide. Automated X-ray inspection, AXI has an important place in many electronics PCB manufacturing organizations. AXI is able to provide a fast and in-depth and accurate inspection of PCBs passing through the production facility and in this way provide real-time feedback that enables the production system to be optimized to enable high quality reliable circuits to be produced. Although more expensive than some other forms of inspection, AXI
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has many advantages and these need to be carefully balanced against the costs to ensure whatever choice is made, it is correct for the particular production environment.

IN-CIRCUIT TESTING, ICT

In-Circuit Test, ICT is a powerful tool for printed circuit board test. Using a bed of nails incircuit test equipment it is possible gain access to the circuit nodes on a board and measure the performance of the components regardless of the other components connected to them.
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Parameters such as resistance, capacitance and so forth are all measured along with the operation of analogue components such as operational amplifiers. Some functionality of digital circuits can also be measured, although their complexity usually makes a full check uneconomic. In this way, using ICT, In-Circuit Test, it is possible to undertake a very comprehensive form of printed circuit board test, ensuring that the circuit has been manufactured correctly and has a very high chance of performing to its specification.

Basic concept of ICT, in-circuit test

In circuit test equipment provides a useful and efficient form of printed circuit board test by measuring each component in turn to check that it is in place and of the correct value. As most faults on a board arise out of the manufacturing process and usually consist of short circuits, open circuits or wrong components, this form of testing catches most of the problems on a board. Even when ICs fail, one of the major reasons is static damage, and this normally manifests itself in the areas of the IC close to the connections to the outside world, and these failures can be detected relatively easily using in-circuit test techniques. Naturally an in-circuit test does not give a test of the functionality of a board, but if it has been designed correctly, and then assembled correctly, it should work. In-circuit test equipment consists of two main parts. The first is the tester itself. This consists of a matrix of drivers and sensors that are used to set up and perform the measurements. There may be 1000 or more of these driver sensor points. These are normally taken to a large connector conveniently located on the system. This connector interfaces with the second part of the tester - the fixture. In view of the variety of boards this will be designed specifically for a particular board, and acts as an interface between the board and the in circuit tester. It takes the connections for the driver sensor points and routes them directly to the relevant points on the board using a "bed of nails".

Bed of nails tester

A bed of nails tester is a traditional electronic test fixture which has numerous pins inserted into holes in an Epoxy phenolic glass cloth laminated sheet (G-10) which are aligned using tooling pins to make contact with test points on a printed circuit board and are also connected
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to a measuring unit by wires. Named by analogy with a real-world bed of nails, these devices contain an array of small, spring-loaded pogo pins; each pogo pin makes contact with one node in the circuitry of the UUT (Unit Under Test). By pressing the UUT down against the bed of nails, reliable contact can be quickly, simultaneously made with hundreds or even thousands of individual test points within the circuitry of the UUT. The hold-down force may be provided manually or by means of a vacuum pulling the UUT downwards onto the nails. Devices that have been tested on a bed of nails tester may show evidence of this after the fact: small dimples (from the sharp tips of the pogo pins) can often be seen on many of the soldered connections of the PCB. Typically, four to six weeks are needed for the manufacture and programming of such a fixture. Fixture can either be vacuum or press-down. Vacuum fixtures give better signal reading versus the press-down type. On the other hand, vacuum fixtures are expensive because of their high manufacturing complexity. The bed of nails or fixture as generally termed is used together with a in-circuit tester such as MTS 300 from Digital test (Germany), i3070, 3070 from Agilent (USA), Teradyne Spectrum Series and continuation of the former Genrad Test station series under the Teradyne flag (USA), SPEA (Italy) 3030 series, IFR 4200 series, was Marconi Test prior to acquisition by IFR (USA), TRI (Taiwan), Okano (Japan), SEICA, HIOKI(Japan) and Checksum (USA).

Driver-sensors for ICT

Driver-sensors are the active circuits that are used for making the measurements. Normally drivers and sensors are always present in pairs in an in-circuit test system. As the name suggests the drivers supply a voltage or current to enable a node in the circuit to be driven to a particular state. They normally have a reasonably high capability to enable the node to be driven to the required state despite the condition of the surrounding circuitry. Typically they may need to force the output of a digital IC to a given state despite the natural output state of the device. To achieve this, the output impedance of the driver must be very low. Sensors are used to make the measurements. Like most other measuring devices these need to have a high impedance so that they do not disturb the circuit being measured.
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Guarding
The key to the success of in-circuit testing is a technique known as guarding. It is very easy to measure the value of a component when it is not in a circuit. For example a resistor value can be measured by simply placing an ohmmeter across it. However when the component is in a circuit, the situation is somewhat different. Here it is most likely that there are other paths around the component that will alter the value that is measured. To overcome this problem and gain a far more accurate indication of the value of the component a technique known as guarding is used. Here the nodes around the component under test are earthed and in this way any leakage paths are removed and more accurate measurements made.

ICT programme generation

One of the advantages of the in-circuit tester is that programme generation can be made much simpler than that of a functional tester. It is possible for much of the programme to be generated automatically from knowledge of the circuit. This can be provided very easily from the printed circuit files. The information about the nodes along with the circuit value information can be combined to give a programme that can then be altered manually to provide

Multiplexing
Today's printed circuit boards can be very complicated. On larger boards the node count can easily rise over a thousand and may reach several thousand on some. To have dedicated pins on the tester for each node can be very costly as each one requires its own driver sensor. To reduce this manufacturers introduce a system known as multiplexing. Here a particular node may be placed through a switching matrix so that it can address more than one node. The number of nodes that are addressed by each tester primary node is known as the multiplex ratio.

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Whilst it may appear to be an excellent idea to reduce costs, it reduces the flexibility of the tester. Only one of the multiplexed nodes can be accessed at any time. This can cause restrictions in the programming and also in the fixture itself. Considerable thought has to be given to the fixture construction to ensure that two pins on the same multiplex are not required at the same time. It may also cause problems if the pins are allocated automatically by software that generates the test programme and fixture wiring diagram. When buying a machine it is worth checking whether multiplexing is used and what the ratio is. With this information a judgment can be made of the cost saving against the reduction in flexibility.

Fault coverage
With access to all the nodes on the board, manufacturers generally quote that it is possible to find around 98% of faults using in circuit test. This is very much an ideal figure because there are always practical reasons why this may not be achieved. One of the major reasons that it is not always possible to gain complete coverage of the board is Low value capacitors are a particular problem as the spurious capacitance of the test system itself means that low values of capacitance cannot be measured accurately if at all. A similar problem exists for inductors but at least it is possible if a component is in place by the fact that it exhibits a low resistance. Further problems are caused when it is not possible to gain access to all the nodes on the board. This may result from the fact that the tester has insufficient capacity, or it may result from the fact that a point to which the tester needs access is shielded by a large component, or anyone of a number of reasons. When this occurs it is often possible to gain a level of confidence that the circuit has been correctly assembled by what may be termed "implied testing" where a larger section of circuit containing several components is tested as an entity. However the confidence will be less and location of faults may be more difficult.

Pros and Cons of ICT

One advantage of an ICT as a first line form of printed circuit board test is that most board faults arise from problems in manufacture. These might arise from the incorrect component
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inserted, a wrong value resistor, a diode in the wrong way. These are very easily and quickly located using ICT. An In-Circuit tester is also very easy to program and no long diagnostic routines are required to locate any problems. While the fixtures can be reasonably expensive the production of these as well can be automated to a large degree. However against this any changes to the board layout as a result of up-issuing the board can result in changes to the fixture that may be difficult to implement. Another advantage of ICT as a form of printed circuit board test is that the test results are easily interpreted. This enables them to be used by a variety of people. As a result their running costs are less than some other systems that might need highly skilled diagnostic technicians and as a result this makes them attractive for use on the shop floor to locate most of the problems. There are some other limitations. The first is that they obviously cannot provide a full functional check of the specification of the board. During the ICT printed circuit board test, the board is not being exercised in its operational mode, its operational parameters cannot be checked. Another problem that is becoming more difficult to overcome is that access to the nodes is becoming more difficult. Many years ago it was possible to place special pads onto the boards to enable the fixture pins to connect to the board easily. Now boards are so compact that there is no possibility of being able to apply special pads to each node. Also the size of component connections is becoming much smaller and this means that probing these points is far more difficult. However it is still possible to achieve a good coverage on many boards. One problem that concerned people, especially some years ago was that of back driving. When performing a test some nodes have to be held at a certain level. This meant forcing the output of possibly a digital integrated circuit to an alternative state purely by applying a voltage to over-ride the output level. This naturally put a strain on the output circuitry of the chip. It is generally assumed that this can be done for a very short period of time - sufficient to undertake the test - without any long-term damage to the chip. However with the geometries in ICs shrinking, this is likely to become more problematical.
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Roving probe
To reduce the fixture costs, provide additional flexibility and enable board changes to be accommodated by updates to a software programme, a type of in circuit tester known as a roving probe or roving prober may be used. Instead of having a bed of nails fixture a simple fixture to hold the board is used and probes that move under software control are used to probe the relevant points on the board. These systems normally have a number of probes, some that can access both sides of the board. These systems provide a slower form of printed circuit board test than the systems that use a bed of nails fixture because there is a delay between measurements as the probe moves to the next position and this will naturally reduce the throughput. However the system is cheaper for the maintenance and introduction of new boards because of the reduced fixturing costs and reduced cost of changes. In circuit test has many advantages and is an ideal form of printed circuit board test in many respects. However as a result of the rapidly shrinking component sizes and the resultant difficulties in gaining access to all the nodes on boards testing using ICT has been steadily becoming more difficult. Accordingly many people have been predicting the imminent demise of ICT as a form of printed circuit board test. It remains to be seen how long this will take.

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S790
The S790 is a combinational test system which is very modular and capable of handling a number of test requirements. This means that the digital and analog pin cards, power supplies, analog instruments, fixtures, test programs, etc. are all capable of being configured to an individual users requirements.

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S790 VXI SYSTEM

The architecture of this system is based around a VXI rack and the National Instruments CPU30 slot zero controller. A CATE workstation connects to the tester via an Ethernet link. By using the CPU30 card VXI instrumentation can be easily introduced and controlled by the system. The instrumentation can also be synchronized and pipelined to facilitate faster programming. IEEE instrumentation can also be controlled and interfaced to the system using the CPU30 card. The heart of the 790-VXI or 760 VXI capability is the National Instruments VXIcpu-30 card. This card is the embedded processor which runs the VXworks operating system. The terminology is overviewed below: VME - this is a 'standard' for backplane communications for small computer boards. It is a multi master bus on which any device with bus master capability can arbitrate for control of the data transfers. There is no central bus controller unlike the IEEE system. VXI - this is the VME bus eXtension for Instrumentation. It is a standard based on the VME bus maintaining the modular approach but extending it for instrumentation. VXworks - the operating system for the VXIcpu-30 card. MXI - Multi system Extension Interface. This is an ultra high speed communication link between devices and operates at speeds up to 20 MBytes per second. It is based on the VME and NUBus and is a general purpose interface bus. VXI instruments - single card instruments fitting into a VXI crate. They do not have a front panel but can be used alongside, or instead of, IEEE instruments. The VXI specification defines protocols for data transfer, clear, trigger, local lockout, SRQ and serial poll facilities. The VXI logical address is equivalent to the GPIB address.

VXI TECHNOLOGY

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VXI Technology is used to control the programmable instruments fitted to the s790 VXI test system. VXIbus is an abbreviation of VME extension for Instruments bus which is based upon industry-standard VMEbus computer architecture extends modular systems approach to instruments. The goal of the VXIbus is to define technically a modular instrument standard open to all manufacturers and be compatible with present industry standards. The VXIbus specification details technical requirements for compatibility of: main-frames backplanes power supplies instrument modules for interconnecting and operating different manufacturer's products within the same card chassis if they comply with the VXIbus specification. VXI can be thought of as bringing the UNIX and ETHERNET type standard to testing in the future.

Advantages of VXIbus:
VXIbus specification allows modular ATE to be developed, detailing both mechanical and electrical parameters to which instruments and racks must adhere. Longer system support -- through wider choice of product and inter-operability of manufacturer's devices. Standard VMEbus cards will operate within the VXIbus system. Accommodates different system hierarchy -- the user is not locked to one type of processor, operating system software or interface to host computer. As long as a system can 'drive' the protocol a user should be able to swap the VXIbus hardware from system to system. Shared system resources -- VXIbus uses a common backplane chassis between instruments, which also provides power supplies and cooling. Since the instrument manufacturer does not need to include these on the board(s), less components are required which should result in lowering of costs. Higher level of performance -- VXI instruments have significant improvements over more traditional instrument control by being able to pass commands and data between controller / instruments at higher speeds, also higher degree of accuracy / synchronisation when one module needs to start / stop operations on another.
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FUNCTIONAL TESTING
Functional Digital Testing
Functional Test Programs are used to test whole circuit boards, modules or clusters which may be made up of digital or analog circuitry. Functional programs can be either Go/Nogo or Diagnostic and are often classified as Digital, Analog or Hybrid although of course in the CATE environment the different types of tests may be mixed to suite your requirements. Generation process for Digital Test Programs The information is divided into the following sections: Predictive Digital Go/Nogo Test Programs Learned Digital Go/Nogo Test Programs Digital Diagnostic Test Programs

Predictive Digital Go/Nogo Test Programs Predictive programs are made up of tests that use Digital Test Channels(DTC) to drive and sense logic levels at the inputs and outputs of the Unit Under Test. The input and the output logic states for each test pattern (vector) are defined by the programmer. If you have no Board Description, the test patterns must be entered as source code in Mediator files. If you have a test database that contains a compiled Board Description and Wire List, the test
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vectors can be placed in Digital Workbenches which will display the logic patterns graphically. Learned Digital Go/Nogo Test Programs Learned Digital programs are made up of tests that use Digital Test Channels(DTC) to drive and sense logic levels at the inputs and outputs of the Unit Under Test. The input states are defined by the programmer. The output states are learned from a good unit by running the test system in a Learn Test Outputs mode. If you have no Board Description, the test patterns must be entered as source code in Mediator files. If you have a test database that contains a compiled Board Description and Wire List, the test vectors can be placed in Digital Workbenches which will display the logic patterns graphically. Digital Diagnostic Test Programs Digital diagnostic programs are made up of tests that use Digital Test Channels(DTC) to drive and sense logic levels at the inputs and outputs of the Unit Under Test. The input states are defined by the programmer. The output states are normally simulated but may be learned from a good unit by running the test system in a Learn Test Outputs mode. The fault diagnosis process uses the system Fast Probe to check the logic activity of networks by backtracking along a fault path. To do this the Analyst software uses Good Activity trace data. The trace data contains information about the logic levels on each network and for each test vector in the program. Trace data may be simulated or learned from a good unit.

Functional Analog Testing

Functional Test Programs are used to test whole circuit boards, modules or clusters which may be made up of digital or analog circuitry. Functional programs can be either Go/Nogo or Diagnostic and are often classified as Digital, Analog or Hybrid. Generation process for Analog Test Programs The information is divided into the following sections: Analog Go/Nogo Test Programs Hybrid Diagnostic Programs Manual Analog Diagnostic Programs
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Analog Go/Nogo Test Programs Analog test programs are made up of tests that contain instructions to connect instruments and make measurements. The signal routing, instrument set-up, measurement and limits of the test are defined by the programmer. Mediator variables are used to hold the results of a measurement. The program code is usually placed in Instrument Workbenches. The Power supply set-ups may be placed in a separate Mediator file in the test plan or in a generic event of the workbench.

Hybrid Diagnostic Programs Hybrid diagnostic programs can be a mixture of digital and analog tests. They make use of the automatic probing facilities of the CATE software and because of this, we must have a compiled Board Description in the test database in which we are going to create the Test Plan. Manual Analog Diagnostic Programs Manual analog diagnostic programs are made up of only analog tests. Because they do not make use of the automatic probing facilities of the CATE software there is no requirement to have a compiled Board Description in the test database. The fault detection process and diagnostic information is written by the programmer.

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ANALYST
To successfully diagnose faults on complex, often high speed, electronics, DiagnoSYS testers have a number of software and hardware tools available which permit diagnosis usually to a single failing device or manufacturing fault. These tools are controlled by a Diagnostic System called ANALYST.

Purpose of a Diagnostic System

Once a test program has identified that a UUT is faulty, it is normally necessary to identify the source of the fault so that repairs may be carried out. On simple UUT's it may be possible to identify the failure from the fault symptoms, or from diagnostic messages included by the programmer. Many UUT's however, are too complex for this simple approach. ANALYST interprets the information gained from running a test program against a faulty UUT and compares it against previous failure, and stored good activity, information. From this information ANALYST is able to identify the failure area with a high degree of accuracy. ANALYST is designed to adapt to the nature of the UUT, and to the facilities available on the tester. When the UUT fails, the test program produces a fault signature. Fault signatures are inspected by ANALYST and compared against any Fault Dictionaries available (usually obtained from digital simulation). If a matching fault signature is found, ANALYST can produce a diagnosis from this information.

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A fault dictionary cannot always provide sufficient information to diagnose to one specific fault. In this case, or if no fault dictionary is available, ANALYST uses a guided probe to backtrack a failure location. ANALYST uses a series of information to aid its diagnostics: Test Program: provides the stimulus and the output changes to a UUT via test channels. The test channels monitor these changes (or in the case of a faulty condition, the lack of changes) to determine the functionality of the UUT - i.e. PASS or FAIL. UUT: Unit Under Test provides information to be compared with the information already held on the test database from both the edge connector and the internal networks. System Probe: is used to gather the information from the networks of the UUT for comparison with the known good activity stored on the database and determines if it is faulty or not. Diagnostic Algorithm: guides the system probe to the networks which are on the fault path (i.e. where the fault propagates to the edge connector to cause the UUT to fail and stop the program). Network Activity: is a record of the activity for each network on the UUT. It is stored on the database and compared with the data measured by the System Probe on a faulty UUT network. Analyst compares the two sets of data and makes decisions on probing routes or diagnostic messages. Diagnostic Messages: are displayed by the system on the screen and/or ticket printer during the diagnostic process. Operator Messages: are displayed during the diagnostic process to guide the operator to the fault on the UUT. FAST-PROBE: is a hand held probe positioned by the operator according to probing instructions supplied by ANALYST. FAST-PROBE can be used to collect high speed digital activity, signature analysis data and analogue activity information from the UUT, which ANALYST compares with stored good information to track failures. NAIL-PROBE: is similar to FAST-PROBE in operation, except that it uses existing fixture nails to probe the UUT. ANALYST can gather information from NAIL-PROBE automatically, thereby reducing or avoiding the need for operator probing and thus
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speeding up the diagnosis time. Since it lacks the mobility of FAST-PROBE, NAILPROBE cannot be used in the additional modes of FASTPROBE nor can it diagnose open track faults. USER PROBE: A special user probe can be supplied on suitably configured testers, which may be used in conjunction with ANALYST. CDP: Fault diagnostics can be much simplified, particularly on bus structured boards, if ANALYST knows which devices are driving at a given point, and the direction in which they are driving. ANALYST can use CDP information to concentrate on devices which are active at the time of a failure, leading to a reduction in operator probing and faster diagnostics. FAULT DICTIONARIES: are used by ANALYST to produce the most comprehensive fault diagnosis possible, and to minimize the amount of probing required to backtrack a fault. The backtracking algorithm knows the logical dependency of the devices on the UUT, from the compiled netlist information in the database. Using this information the algorithm performs a search of the UUT, following the earliest first fail. The algorithm starts from a failing input pin of a device, probes the pin and selects a possible driver for the pin. The inputs of this driver are then located and probed. LOCATOR: is a software package which may be called by ANALYST to provide topological information to an operator. A layout of part of the board is shown with a clear identification of the setting up/probing points referred to in the display window.

Inconsistent Activity and Misprobe Check

Operator Mis-probes UUT Trace Inconsistencies UUT Track Open Checks ANALYST has a collection of tools which collectively detect operator misprobes, giving a further reduction in the number of probe operations needed. The misprobe check does not merely discover operator misprobes, it also detects inconsistent UUT activity and track-open faults. On the fly misprobe checks perform multiple probes on the same networks in order to check that the track is continuous and that the operator is probing correctly. The misprobe
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check is therefore a collection of tools which ensure that the operator miss-probes, trackopens and inconsistent UUT activity are still discovered and dealt with, while still only performing one probe operation per network.

BOUNDARY SCAN TESTING

Boundary scan tests may be generated manually but are usually created using the Scan Program Generator (SPG). The basic tests check the integrity of the chain on a UUT. Other tests can be generated that check for short circuits and open circuits on the PCB. Scan test facilities are integral to the s790 and s790VXI test systems but can be run on upgraded s700 test systems that have been fitted with VXI Scan Cards. Boundary Scan aims to overcome access problems to components and to confirm: - correct operation of devices - correct interconnection between devices - correct interaction between devices

Boundary Scan is used because modern technologies limit physical access through: - high pin count packages. - requirement for high accuracy pin placement. - surface mount technology means poor access. - conformal coating difficult to probe. - double sided boards can't use BONs. Need for visibility and Control to:
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reduce debug and test time. reduce test development time. reduce cost of test

LANGUAGES
Component Description Language
The Component Description Language provides component description facilities and library management for test systems using components conforming to the IEEE 1149.1 standard. It enables the descriptions of scan components to be placed in a library and allows the modification of existing components held in the library.

Board Description Language

The Board Description Language is a source language used to describe the individual components on a board and the interconnections between them. With respect to boundary scan, it contains details of what components form the scan chain and how the test access port (TAP) connections are made. The source file must be compiled into object form for use with the Scan Program Generator.

Fixture Data Language

The fixture data language is a source language used to prepare descriptions of test fixtures. The source file must be compiled into object form for use with the Scan Program Generator.

Boundary Scan Definition Language

This is a subset of VHDL (Very High Speed Hardware Description Language) and is used to describe the testability features of devices that comply with the IEEE1149.1 standard.

BSDL to CDL Translator

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This allows the translation of Boundary Scan Description Language into DiagnoSYSs Component Description Language. The main purpose of the translator is to generate the scan test section of the component description.

CONTEXT DEPENDENT PROBING

Context Dependent Probing (CDP) is used during Functional Digital Diagnostic Testing. CDP gives benefits of a reduction in the number of probing operations needed to diagnose a failure and provides accurate diagnostics in less time, which in turn gives cost benefits of higher throughput. The number of probe operations needed to diagnose a fault can be reduced by a ratio of 5:1 or more. CDP identifies which component(s) could contribute to a fault thereby determining which component(s) to probe or ignore. Context Dependent Probing (CDP) further improves the diagnostic capability of the ANALYST probing algorithm by reducing the number of probes taken to diagnose a fault. Improvements of 5:1 and more are feasible with these techniques. CDP uses a 'diagnostic data build' technique which takes information from the Component Descriptions for the devices on the board, the Trace Data file and the Board Description to 'build' the diagnostic data for a database. This information is used to identify control pins for a device to be probed and therefore allow Analyst to probe these pins first. It also gives information which allows Analyst to decide the order in which devices connected to a network should be probed if that network should fail. This is done by matching Trace Data for control pin(s) for devices with truth-table information taken from the Component Description for each device, enabling an analysis to be made as to whether each device is driving, sensing or tri-state at the failing measure index. Device inputs can also be set to 'ignore' status, by this analysis, if they do not affect the device outputs at the failing measure index. Diagnostic data is held in a Diagnostic Details file which can be user modified via menu selections in the Probe Display window.

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SIMULATORS
A simulator provides a software model of a circuit. It allows the programmer to write input test vectors (patterns) and present them to the simulator which then calculates the internal and external nodal activity generated. The simulator has full knowledge of the logical activity in the circuit which makes it possible to automatically check the ability of the manually written test vectors to detect and diagnose faults within the circuit.

Fault Lists and Fault Dictionary

The simulator generates a list of all possible faults in the circuit called a Fault List. It then applies each fault in turn to the software model and then runs the test program to check whether or not they are detected and then diagnosed. When a fault is detected it is marked as found and the resulting vector on the outputs of the circuit is recorded against the fault cause in a Fault Dictionary.

CADDIF
Simulator Links translate the Simulator created files into an intermediate format called CADDIF (Computer Aided Design Data Interchange Format) via a Simulator Port. The CADDIF standard Defines a neutral format for test data allowing it to be independent of either the tester or simulator computer platform. The CADDIF standard is public domain information which allows an open architecture concept between simulators and ATE in general.

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CONCLUSION
ATE automatic test equipment is a vital part of the electronics test scene today. Automatic test equipment enables printed circuit board test, and equipment test to be undertaken very swiftly - far faster than if it were done manually. As time of production staff forms a major element of the overall production cost of an item of electronics equipment, it is necessary to reduce the production times as possible. This can be achieved with the use of ATE, automatic test equipment. Automatic test equipment can be expensive, and therefore it is necessary to ensure that the correct philosophy and the correct type or types automatic test equipment are used. Only by applying the use of automatic test equipment correctly can the maximum benefits be gained. Each type of automatic test philosophy has its strengths, and accordingly it is necessary to choose the correct type of test approach for the testing that is envisaged.

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