MPG 2017 YanchangFm YangRenchao

Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 194e219
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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo
Research paper
Lithofacies and origin of the Late Triassic muddy gravity-flow deposits

in the Ordos Basin, central China
Renchao Yang a, b, Aiping Fan a, Zuozhen Han a, A.J. (Tom) van Loon a, c, *
a
Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Depositional Mineralization & Sedimentary Minerals, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao
266590, China
b
Laboratory for Marine Mineral Resources, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China
c
Geocom Consultants, Valle del Portet 17, 03726 Benitachell, Spain
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Fine-grained sediments from the Late Triassic Yanchang Fm. in the Ordos Basin (central China) were
Received 4 March 2017 studied by core analysis and geophysical logging. Part of the mudstones in this formation are stratified,
Accepted 1 May 2017 part of them are unstratified; the various mudstones can be subdivided into eight types on the basis of
Available online 3 May 2017
their structures and textures. They represent a variety of environments, ranging from delta fronts and
subaqueous fans to deep-water environments. Part of the sediments were reworked and became
Keywords:
eventually deposited from subaqueous gravity flows, such as mud flows, turbidity currents and hyper-
Gravity flows
pycnal flows that easily developed on the clay-rich deltaic slopes. The sediments deposited by such
Mudstone
Ordos basin
gravity flows show abundant soft-sediment deformation structures. Understanding of such structures
Soft-sediment deformation structures and recognition of fine-grained sediments as gravity-flow deposits is significant for the exploration of
Triassic potential hydrocarbon occurrences. Because fine-grained deposits become increasingly important for
Yanchang Fm hydrocarbon exploration, and because the sediments in the lacustrine Yanchang Formation were
deposited by exactly the same processes that play a role in the accumulation of deltaic and prodeltaic
fine-grained sediments, the sedimentological analysis provided here is not only important for the un-
derstanding of deep lacustrine sediments like the Yanchang Formation, but also for a better insight into
the accumulation of fine-grained prodeltaic deep-marine sediments and their potential as hydrocarbon
source rocks and reservoir rocks.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction (e.g. Schieber, 1994b; Macquaker and Bohacs, 2007; Hovikoski et al.,
2008; Ichaso and Dalrymple, 2009; Aplin and Macquaker, 2011;
The exploration of unconventional hydrocarbon occurrences Ghadeer and Macquaker, 2011, 2012). It is now commonly
has raised much interest in the transport and deposition of fine- accepted that mudstones with apparently monotonous lamination
grained lithified sediments such as shales, mudstones and silt- or with a massive character can have been deposited from gravity-
stones (Schieber, 1994a; Schieber et al., 2007; Hovikoski et al., induced flows that transported aggregate grains (e.g. Schieber,
2008; Bhattacharya and Maceachern, 2009; Aplin and Macquaker, 1994a,b; Macquaker et al., 2007; Ghadeer and Macquaker, 2011;
2011; Plint, 2014; Kostic, 2014). This has made clear that uncon- Plint, 2014). Flume experiments also show that mud with some
ventional petroleum occurrences are present not only in marine 85% water can be eroded to form platy intraclasts (Schieber et al.,
deposits but also in lacustrine shales (Pollastro, 2007). It was 2010). In addition, mud aggregates transported as bedload can
commonly believed for a long time that fine-grained sediments can form part of current ripples if transported at current velocities
accumulate only from suspension in relatively deep, quiet water, comparable to those that transport fine sand (Schieber et al., 2007;
but this view has been found incorrect already for several decades Schieber and Southard, 2009). The last mentioned works empha-
size that mud cannot only be transported and settle in quiet water,
but e more importantly e also in high-energy environments if
* Corresponding author. Geocom Consultants, Valle del Portet 17, 03726 Beni- transported by gravity flows, i.e. turbidity currents, hyperpycnal
tachell, Spain. flows or mudflows.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Yang), [email protected]
(A. Fan), [email protected] (Z. Han), [email protected] (A.J. van Loon).
The relationship between gravity flows and their depositional
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.05.005
0264-8172/© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Yang et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 194e219 195
characteristics is, however, still poorly understood (Sumner et al., resulted in a transgression of the lake during the early Late Triassic.
2009; Lamb and Mohrig, 2009; Talling et al., 2012; Pouderoux Sediment was supplied mainly from the Qinling, Liupan and Yin-
et al., 2012), especially for fine-grained deposits. A recent study shan Mountains (Fig. 1).
has clearly pointed out the difficulties of recognizing microstruc- The Yanchang Fm., the most important oil source of the basin,
tures and understanding the transport processes that resulted in consists of detrital fluvial/deltaic/lacustrine sediments of
mudstones (Plint, 2014). Bhattacharya and Maceachern (2009) 1000e1300 m thick. Its contact with the underlying Middle Triassic
provided a comprehensive review on the subject of mud trans- Zhifang Fm. is an unconformity in the marginal parts of the basin,
port in deltaic and shelf settings. Water-rich gravity-driven
downslope flows, in which mud was supported by turbulence due
to storm waves rather than by auto-suspension, have been docu-
mented from shelves (e.g. Ogston et al., 2000; Traykovski et al.,
2000, 2007). Diagnostic criteria for the recognition of deposits of
initially water-saturated muddy sediments in nearshore, tide-
dominated and wave-dominated settings have been proposed by
Ichaso and Dalrymple (2009) and MacKay and Dalrymple (2011).
Wave-enhanced sediment gravity flows and their deposits, as well
as beds with three distinctly different aspects (rippled, laminated
and structureless) have been identified from ancient shelves (e.g.
Macquaker et al., 2010; Plint, 2014).
Although modern examples of muddy gravity-flow deposits on
continental shelves have been described extensively (Talling et al.,
2007; Schieber et al., 2010; Plint et al., 2012; Plint, 2014; Talling,
2014), descriptions and interpretations of analogous ancient sedi-
ments are still scarce. In particular, Mesozoic deposits of water-rich
flows on deltaic slopes and in deep lacustrine environments have
rarely been documented. The main purpose of the present contri-
bution is the description of Mesozoic lacustrine fine-grained
gravity-flow deposits in the Late Triassic Ordos Basin and the
reconstruction of their depositional mechanisms, also because of
the importance of a good understanding of such deposits for hy-
drocarbon exploration. The present contribution is the last in a
series of three, and completes the sedimentological investigation of
the Yanchang Formation. The two earlier studies dealt with other
aspects that are important in the context of hydrocarbon explora-
tion in this formation, viz. recognition and genetic interpretation of
the soft-sediment deformation structures in the fine-grained slurry
deposits (Yang et al., 2016), and the influence of climate and tec-
tonics on the origin of the sandy hyperpycnites (Yang et al., 2017).
The reader is referred to the just-mentioned studies for details
about those aspects.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Structural development and stratigraphy
The sediments under study belong to the Late Triassic Yanchang

Formation, which forms part of the succession filling the Ordos
Basin. This basin is the second largest sedimentary basin in China
(Fig. 1A), covering 320,000 km2, including the surrounding Ceno-
zoic grabens. It is situated in the western part of the Sino-Korean
Block, and is bordered by the Yinshan, Luliang, Qinling, Liupan
and Helan Mountains (Fig. 1). Being situated on a stable Archean
crystalline basement, it developed during the Mesoproterozoic.
Sediments accumulated until (and including) the Tertiary, and
reach a total thickness of, on average, 4e5 km (Zou et al., 2012; Yang
and Deng, 2013).
During the Late Triassic, the paleocontinents in the south, which
Fig. 1. Location (A), geological setting (B) and Triassic succession (C) of the Ordos Basin
were one of the main source areas of the Yanchang Fm., were
(from Yang et al., 2017). The main map shows the regional topography and the
uplifted by the collision of the South China and the Sino-Korean structural framework of central China, and the peripheral mountains of the Ordos
Blocks (Weislogel et al., 2006; Dong et al., 2012); they were Basin. The yellow line from A to B shows the location of the section sketched in (B).
thrust to the north by intensification of the second episode of the Inset map (B) shows the uplift of the Qinling Mountains, thrusts, downwarping and
Indosinian orogeny. The collision and thrusting downwarped the inclination of the Late Triassic basin. Figure (C) shows the Middle-Late Triassic strata,
lithology and thicknesses of the 10 oil members, sedimentary facies, lake-level fluc-
Ordos Basin, resulting in steep slopes on both sides: 3.5e5.5 in the tuations, episodic tectonic movements, basin evolution and unconventional petroleum
south and 1.5e2.5 in the north (Fig. 1B) (Fu et al., 2013; Yang et al., levels of the Yanchang Fm. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
2017). Fast subsidence of the basement and deepening of the basin legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
196 R. Yang et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 194e219
but not in its center, due to the spatially irregular uplift during the gamma-ray values (usually < 80 API) and low acoustic-log values
first phase of the Indosinian orogeny (Deng et al., 2011; Yang and (usually < 220 mm s 1). Fine sandstones were deposited in dis-
Deng, 2013). Its top has been eroded away to varying degrees by tributary channels and also formed mouth bars (Fig. 3AeC). Thick
the third orogenic phase, so that the contact with the overlying mudstones are interbedded between the sandstones.
Early Jurassic Yan'an Fm. is unconformable (Fig. 1C). At the beginning of the YC 7 oil member, extensive, thick
Based on rock associations, tuff marker beds (K0 to K9) and log (20e80 m) kerogen shales (with gamma-ray log values usu-
characteristics, the Yanchang Fm. is divided into 10 oil members, ally > 150 API, and acoustic-log values > 260 mm s 1) were
numbered - from top to bottom - YC 1 to YC 10; they are not deposited in a still deep lake (Fig. 3AeC). Thin-bedded sandstone
formally defined stratigraphic units. Lake-basin development turbidites occur intercalated between the dark shales. Delta fronts
peaked during deposition of the YC 7 oil member, simultaneously developed in the southwestern part (from well H71 to well H56 in
with the peak in the development of the Mesozoic hydrocarbon Fig. 3A; from well H80 to well Z19 and well Z25 in Fig. 3B; and from
source rocks and of important unconventional petroleum reser- well H72 to H16 in Fig. 3C), and subaqueous fans (from well J30 to
voirs. We focus here on the YC 6, YC 7 and YC 8 oil members, which well J13 in Fig. 3A; from well J28 to well J4 in Fig. 3B) developed in
produce a highly significant part of the tight sandstone oil that is the southern part of the Ordos Basin.
exploited currently (Fig. 1C). In the YC 6 oil member, delta fronts developed in the southern
The fossils in the Yanchang Fm. indicate that the Ordos Basin basin, whereas turbidite fans moved forwards to the center of the
was located at a low latitude with a warm and humid climate (Ji lake. The sandstones alternate with mudstones in the southern
et al., 2010). The combination of rapid uplift, steep slopes, a hu- basin, as shown in the three profiles (Fig. 3AeC).
mid climate, and a location close to the source area was favorable Core data are used here to prepare vertical profiles and lateral
for the triggering of gravity flows, including debris flows, turbidity correlations. The data show that deposition and syn- and pene-
currents, and flood-related hyperpycnal flows. contemporaneous deformation of mudstones took place on delta
fronts with a high sedimentation rate (Fig. 3AeC). It is known that
2.2. Sedimentological context the delta-front deposits in the Yanchang Fm. represent extensive
depositional slopes (Li et al., 2010). Gravity flows were conse-
A shallow lake and deltas developed during the late Middle quently frequent, and soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS)
Triassic, as indicated by alternations of fine sandstones and mud- abound in their deposits (Yang et al., 2016). Logs of the cores show
stones in the YC 8 oil member. The lake became deep in the early that SSDS are frequent not only in the fine sandstones, but also in
Late Triassic, induced by the fast subsidence of the basement the mudstones (Fig. 4), but they are best visible where some fine
related to a more intense collision between the South China and the sandstone laminae alternate with the mudstones. In addition the
Sino-Korean Blocks (Weislogel et al., 2006; Dong et al., 2012; Zou logs show that the amount of sand increases from bottom (column
et al., 2012). A succession of dark kerogen shales with a thickness B, right-hand side of the figure) to top (column A, left-hand side of
ranging from 20 to 80 m developed at the beginning of the YC 7 oil Fig. 4), reflecting the gradual progradation of the delta and conse-
member. Deltas developed in the southern and northern parts, and quently also of the lobes of gravity-flow deposits.
the lake became deep in the central basin (Fig. 2). Numerous tuff-
aceous intercalations and thin turbidites, sandwiched between the 3. Mudstone types, facies and depositional processes
dark shales of the YC 7 oil member, imply frequent volcanic erup-
tions in the surrounding mountains, and turbidity currents that The fine-grained deposits of the Yanchang Fm., mainly mud-
reached the deep lake, respectively (Zou et al., 2012; Yang et al., stones, are not always laminated, nor are they always homoge-
2014). neous. Several microstructures can exist in the same layer; this
Most of the deep-water deposits of the lacustrine Yanchang Fm. holds for all fine-grained deposits, whether accumulated (in one
have been interpreted as debrites and turbidites (e.g. Zou et al., single core) on the slope of a lacustrine delta front, at the foot of a
2012; Yang et al., 2014; Li et al., 2016). Recently, sandstones in the deltaic slope or in a deep lacustrine environment.
deep-lacustrine YC 7 oil member have been recognized as hyper- Numerous cores show well-developed soft-sediment deforma-
pycnites (Yang et al., 2015a). It must therefore be deduced that tion structures (SSDS); these will be detailed briefly in a separate
debrites, turbidites and hyperpycnites all are present in the Yan- section below; for more details, the reader is referred to Yang et al.
chang Fm. (Yang et al., 2014, 2015b, 2017). It should be noted, (2016). Although cores offer the possibility to study the SSDS in 3-D,
however, that the just mentioned works dealt mainly with oil the interpretation of such deformations in cores remains difficult,
reservoirs in sandstones, and hardly paid attention to the and should be based on a detailed analysis of the sediment char-
mudstones. acteristics and of the transport and depositional processes
After deposition of the YC 7 oil member, the Ordos Lake became involved. For the analysis of the transport and depositional mech-
increasingly shallower during the Late Triassic. Lacustrine deltas anisms and processes of these fine-grained sediments, the various
and turbidite fans spread from the north and south to the central mudstone types are described here, each followed by an interpre-
Ordos Basin and resulted in the deposition of fine sandstones and tation. This makes it possible to group the various mudstone types
mudstones in the YC 6 oil member (Deng et al., 2011; Zou et al., into a limited number of facies and an even much smaller number
2012; Yang and Deng, 2013). of facies associations. Placing these facies and facies associations in
a vertical context (on the basis of the core data) will, in combination
2.3. Lateral relationships of the YC 6 e YC 8 oil members with the characteristics of the SSDS (and their genetic interpreta-
tion), eventually lead to an environmental interpretation.
Particularly because of the occurrence of large quantities of
hydrocarbons, the whole Ordos Basin has been e and is still being e 3.1. Criteria for identifying mudstone types
investigated through logs of thousands of wells and analysis of
numerous cores. The present contribution focuses, however, only The characteristics of the fine-grained deposits as an entity and
on the southern part of the basin, where it was found that delta- of the individual mudstone layers in the study area are described
front deposits are well developed in the YC 8 oil member, all over and analyzed in terms of their thickness, microstructures, texture,
from East to West (Fig. 3). The delta-front sandstones have low composition, the presence or absence of internal lamination,
Fig. 2. Preserved extent of the Ordos Basin, and sedimentary facies of the 7th oil member (YC 7) of the Yanchang Fm. (modified from Yang et al., 2017). The map also shows the
mountains around the basin, well locations (codes H and J indicate the Honghe and Jinghe areas, respectively; the numbers indicate the well number for each area), and locations of
the sections in Fig. 3.
grading, embedded sandstone, SSDS, and the nature of their upper primarily by the shape and continuity of their internal lamination.
and lower boundaries (Table 1). Eight mudstone types could thus
be identified; they are classified here into two general groups (cf. 3.2. Description and interpretation of the mudstone types
MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011): (1) unstratified mudstones (UM),
which are composed of lithologically homogeneous mudstone 3.2.1. Unstratified thin mudstone laminae (type UM1)
laminae and beds without internal lamination, and of heteroge- 3.2.1.1. Description. The thin unstratified mudstone type UM1
neous mudstones that contain silt, sand and intraclasts; and (2) (Table 1) consists of homogeneous dark to grey claystone- or
stratified mudstones (SM), which are internally laminated and siltstone-rich laminae less than 2 mm thick, commonly less than
which are characterized by variations in the silt and clay content, 1 mm (Fig. 5). These laminae, which are relatively rare in the
with uncommon sand-rich or organic-rich lenses or laminae. The Yanchang Fm., are intercalated between sandstone laminae or
six unstratified mudstone types are distinguished primarily on the layers. The lower and upper boundaries with the sandstone tend to
basis of sedimentary structures, texture, composition and thick- be clear; occasionally, the boundaries are vague or slightly
ness, whereas the two stratified mudstone types are distinguished deformed. The mud laminae extend laterally over more than 10 cm
Fig. 3. Correlations, logging profiles and sedimentary facies of the YC 8 to YC 6 oil members in the Ordos Basin. The positions of the figures, as well as the vertical extent of the main
environments are indicated.
Fig. 4. Cores, lithological logs and interpreted sedimentary facies of parts of the YC 7 oil member, well J6. The top part (column A) is coarser and contains more sand than a lower
level (column B). SSDS are frequent and well developed in both the sandstones and the mudstones.
(Fig. 5) and are comparable to mud laminae that are commonly thin, non-stratified mudstone layers that are sandwiched between
regarded as “wavy-laminated muds” in the case of more laterally fine sandstone laminae or thin layers is interpreted as a result of
continuous layers (MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011). They show passive gravitational settling of fine suspended particles in a peri-
limited bioturbation, and rare soft-sediment deformation odically quiet lacustrine environment; they are well comparable to
structures. the classic “slack-water drapes” that are also interpreted in this way
by numerous authors (cf. Hovikoski et al., 2008).
3.2.1.2. Interpretation. The thin mudstone laminae with a homo-

3.2.2. Unstratified thick mudstone laminae/layers (type UM2)
geneous texture, wide lateral extent, and limited bioturbation,
showing rare SSDS, indicate deposition in quiet water, most likely 3.2.2.1. Description. The unstratified thick mudstone laminae/
in a deeper part of the lacustrine environment. The draping of the layers (type UM2) are characterized by texturally homogeneous
200
Table 1
Mudstone types and facies in the Yanchang Fm., and their characteristics. SM1, SM2, UM1 and UM2 are modified after MacKay and Dalrymple (2011).
mudstone types thickness sedimentary structures texture and upper and lower depositional process characteristic examples
composition boundaries
unstratified mudstones UM1: unstratified thin <3 mm, mostly 0.5 no soft-sediment texture homogeneous; sharp or gradational passive gravitational
mudstone laminae e1 mm deformations; biogenic rich in claystone, lower boundaries settling
structures absent to siltstone, or organic
moderately abundant matter
UM2: unstratified thick >3 mm, usually 1e6 cm abundant soft- texturally mostly sharp quasi-laminar plug
mudstone beds sediment deformation homogeneous boundaries, the upper flows or unstable plug
structures claystone or siltstone boundary typically flows
shows loading
R. Yang et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 194e219

UM3: unstratified thick >3 mm, mostly from 1 various sizes of texturally sharp to vague Mass-transport
silty mudstone with to 20 cm mudstone intraclasts heterogeneous; sandy/ boundaries deposits of muddy
mudstone intraclasts silty mudstone, organic debris flows
and mudstone
intraclasts
UM4: unstratified thick >3 mm, mostly 1 thick mudstones with texturally sharp basal boundary mass transport by low-
mudstone with some e15 cm sand-rich lenses/balls/ heterogeneous; and loaded upper density, water-rich
siltstone and sandstone veins; abundant soft- claystone, organic boundary flows
sediment deformation matter and siltstone
structures
UM5: unstratified silty >3 mm, mostly 1e5 cm thick silty/sandy texturally gradual or vague transitional flows and
mudstone with finer- mudstones with finer- heterogeneous; silty/ boundaries turbulence-enhanced
grained horizontal grained horizontal sandy mudstone and transitional flows
veins veins of claystone or organic matter
organic material
UM6: unstratified mostly from 0.5 mm to normal grading and/or texturally sharp/vague turbidity currents, and/
graded mudstone 1 cm inverse grading heterogeneous; silty/ boundaries or hyperpycnal flows
sandy mudstone
stratified mudstones SM1: silty mudstone >2 mm, laminae from discontinuous, non- sandy mudstone with sharp, gradual or turbulent flows,
with low-angle cross- <1 mm to 2 mm parallel lamination, vague laminae or small passing from sharp to transitional turbulent
lamination passing into sandy veins and organic gradual flows, and transitional
mud, silt, and even into matter plug flows
muddy sands
SM2: thinly stratified >2 mm, laminae usually parallel and continuous claystone to coarse sharp, or gradational transitional plug flows
mudstones with <1 mm lamination siltstone with finely or quasi-laminar flows
parallel lamination disseminated organics
Fig. 5. Alternation of mudstones with some thin fine-grained sandstones in a core from well J10, depth 1126.87e1126.92 m. Some oil spots are present in the sandstones. UM1:
unstratified thin mudstone layers. UM2: unstratified thick mudstone layers. The gray silty mudstone levels of type UM2 in this core are 2e5 mm thick and show sharp lower
boundaries and deformed upper boundaries. The mudstones are homogeneous and rich in organic matter. SSDS, such as load casts and flame structures, are common at the
boundaries between mudstones and overlying sandstones.
claystone, organic-rich siltstone and rare fine sandstones, a general with low values for their suspended-sediment concentration (SSC)
lack of grading, a sharp lower boundary and a deformed upper can transport so many mudstone intraclasts and break them into
boundary (Fig. 5). It differs from type UM1 by the absence of in- small pieces turning them into floating debris, and subsequently
ternal lamination, a significant thickness, a homogeneous texture, deposit them (cf. Alves, 2015).
and the nature of its lower and upper boundaries. The deformations at the margins of the mudstone intraclasts
The SSDS range from subtle undulations of the upper boundary indicate that these clasts must still have been water-rich and plastic
to distinct flame structures. The lower boundaries of the UM2 during transportation and deposition. During mass transport of soft
mudstones are usually sharp and straight, with occasionally a sediments, liquefaction, admixture of eroded particles and intru-
subtle undulation or a weak grading from siltstone to mudstone. sion of sand veins are easily realized because of mechanical
Some brown oil spots occur dispersed in the fine sandstones with disturbance. The required differences in density, water content and
better porosities than the mudstones. viscosity of mixtures of sandy and muddy unconsolidated sedi-
ments are common during mass transport (Hansen et al., 2011;
3.2.2.2. Interpretation. The absence of internal lamination, the Ghadeer and Macquaker, 2011; Alves, 2015).
significant thickness, the homogeneous texture, and the nature of
the lower and upper boundaries make the fine-grained sediment of 3.2.4. Unstratified thick mudstone with siltstone and sandstone
this type differ from those of type UM1. The characteristics indicate (type UM4)
that they settled from suspensions with moderate (1e10 g L 1) to 3.2.4.1. Description. The unstratified thick mudstone with inter-
high (>10 g L 1) sediment concentrations. The particles settled bedded or lens-shaped siltstone and sandstone (type UM4) is
with higher settling velocities and a higher sedimentation rate than characterized by a higher content of clay and organic matter than
the mudstones of type UM1. This must be ascribed to the absence of type UM3. Some sandstone balls, veins and lenses are enclosed in
significant near-bed turbulence that might have sorted the grains the mudstone. Soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS), such
and that might have resulted in grading and/or lamination (cf. Baas as convolutions and ball-and-pillow structures, are well developed
and Best, 2002; MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011). (Fig. 8).
The well-developed SSDS, mostly load casts and flame struc- The mudstones show interconnected dark gray muddy and
tures, resulted from the high water content and the high pore irregular light gray muddy sand-rich lenses and sandy balls (Fig. 9).
pressure when the deformation took place. This points at high Some SSDS resemble load structures, but the contact planes be-
accumulation rates and still poorly dewatered sediments. tween the mud and the muddy sand are vague and not well
defined. The thickness of the pertinent layer is at least 3 cm, but its
3.2.3. Unstratified thick silty mudstone with mudstone intraclasts lower boundary was not present in the investigated core (Fig. 9).
(type UM3)
3.2.3.1. Description. The unstratified thick silty mudstones with 3.2.4.2. Interpretation. Mudstone type UM4 is interpreted as a de-
mudstone intraclasts (type UM3) vary largely in thickness, viz. from posit of a slurry flow that consisted largely of water-rich, plastic
3 mm to 20 cm. The most characteristic of this mudstone type are claystone that contained sandstone balls, pillows and veins during
the mudstone intraclasts that float in the silty mudstone matrix; transportation (see also Yang et al., 2016). The presence of convo-
they vary in size from 2 to 67 mm and have irregular shapes (Figs. 6 lute structures, sharp basal boundaries and shear surfaces implies a
and 7), occasionally showing deformations at their margins. number of successive events such as sliding and slumping that
resulted in deformation of the unconsolidated sediments. The
3.2.3.2. Interpretation. The UM3-type mudstones are interpreted mixtures of units with different grain sizes, the superposition of
as a result of mass transport and deposition by muddy debris flows. several stages of convolutions, and the presence of tuffaceous
The main argument is that neither plug flows nor turbidity currents lenses, mudstone intraclasts and organic matter indicate that the
Fig. 6. Characteristics of mudstones from well H12, depth 2052.50e2052.65 m.
sediments were deformed during mass transport rather than in situ mineral contents in the transitional flows and turbulence-
after deposition. A major difference with the UM3 mudstones is enhanced transitional flows than in turbulent flows; the higher
that the UM4 sediments are also mainly mudstones but addition- clay content increased the viscosity (Baas et al., 2016).
ally contain a substantial amount of sandy material. The mudstones of this type thus are interpreted to result from
transitional flows and turbulence-enhanced transitional flows.
3.2.5. Unstratified silty mudstone with finer-grained horizontal
veins (type UM5) 3.2.6. Unstratified graded mudstone (type UM6)
3.2.5.1. Description. The unstratified silty mudstone with finer- 3.2.6.1. Description. The unstratified graded mudstone (type UM6)
grained horizontal veins (type UM5) is a texturally heterogeneous consists commonly of an upward fining interval (UFI) or couplets of
silty/sandy mudstone with organic matter (Figs. 9 and 10). It is an upward coarsening interval (UCI) and an upward fining interval
transitional between the unstratified and the stratified mudstones. (Fig. 11). The sediments of this type are texturally heterogeneous
The laminae of this mudstone type are less than 2 mm thick claystones and silty mudstones with organic matter and/or organic
(mostly 0.5e1 mm), sandwiched between light gray sandy lenses (see also Yang et al., 2017). The mudstones are 2e17 mm
mudstone layers (Fig. 9). These gray laminae consist of mudstone thick, typically 3e5 mm. The boundaries between successive layers
with organic matter. Some of the laminae have vague boundaries, of mudstone type UM6 are sharp. They are well visible because of a
whereas other ones show a distinct contact with the silty/sandy change in the color and in the grain size. This mudstone type is well
mudstone. There are no clear soft-sediment deformation structures developed in a 10.8 cm core from well J13, in which also normally
in this mudstone type (Fig. 9). graded fine sandstone is present in the top part (Fig. 11).
The mutual contacts between SSDS and the host sediment differ
3.2.5.2. Interpretation. These unstratified thick, silt- and sand-rich in nature; they can be straight but also irregularly undulating.
mudstones indicate turbulence at the sedimentary surface of the
lake and at relatively high SSC values; the sedimentation rate must 3.2.6.2. Interpretation. Mudstone type UM6 has all characteristics
also have been higher than common for settling in still-standing of turbidites or hyperpycnites. The upward-fining intervals result
water; the presence of finer-grained horizontal “veins” indicates from settling from waning turbidity currents or from waning
that high concentrations of clay minerals existed in transitional hyperpycnal flows. The couplets of UCIs and UFIs are commonly
plug flows and turbulence-enhanced transitional flows, the current interpreted (Fig. 12) as hyperpycnal-flow deposits (Mulder and
velocity and turbulence of which changed frequently from low to Syvitski, 1995; Mulder et al., 2001, 2003; Soyinka and Slatt, 2008;
high near to the sedimentary substrate. The frequent oscillations of Lamb and Mohrig, 2009). A UCI implies that the sediments were
the velocities and degrees of turbulence resulted from higher clay- transported and settled under an increasing hydrodynamic regime
Fig. 7. Mudstone intraclasts in a core from well H52, depth 1843.46e1843.57 m.
of a hyperpycnal flow, whereas a UFI represents deposition during flowage, or because the transition from waxing to waning flows is
the weakening hydrodynamic regime of a waning flow. The inter- faint in the distal lobes of mudstone hyperpycnites.
layer erosional surfaces formed at the sudden beginning of a
flood-generated hyperpycnal flow. A complete hyperpycnite 3.2.7. Stratified mudstone with low-angle cross-lamination (type
commonly thus consists of a UCI and a UFI. Typical hyperpycnite SM1)
deposits are characterized by a specific sequence, composed of a
basal coarsening-upward unit, deposited during the phase of 3.2.7.1. Description. The stratified mudstone with low-angle cross-
waxing discharge, and the upper fining-upward units were lamination (type SM1) is 2 mm e 4 cm thick, showing low-angle
deposited during waning discharge (Mulder et al., 2003). Identifi- cross-lamination with foresets that downwards gradually pass
cation of hyperpycnites must therefore be based not only on the into siltstone or very fine sandstone (Figs. 9 and 10); some lentic-
presence of couplets of reverse and normal grading, but also on the ular siltstones may be present (Fig. 9). The individual laminae are
characteristics of intra-sequence erosional contacts (Mulder et al., usually less than 1 mm thick; they are discontinuous and not par-
2003), an erosional contact with the underlying sediments, a high allel to each other. Sand-rich or silt-rich ripple foresets with sharp
matrix content similar to that of fine-grained turbidites, and a cover asymmetrical or rounded asymmetrical crests dominate.
of shales or mudstones with horizontal lamination. The intra- The content of organic material in this mudstone type is usually
sequence erosional contacts form during flood peaks and some- fairly low, as can be deduced from the light color of the sediments.
times separate the UCIs from the UFIs (Soyinka and Slatt, 2008;
Lamb and Mohrig, 2009). Intra-sequence (intra-layer) erosional 3.2.7.2. Interpretation. The stratified mudstones with low-angle
contacts are, however, not or hardly recognizable in mudstone cross-lamination (SM1) are interpreted as deposited under condi-
hyperpycnites, possibly because they may be absent due to the loss tions of turbulent flow, transitional turbulent flow and/or transi-
of erosional capacity under low-turbulence conditions during tional plug flow, as indicated by the presence of low-angle cross-
lamination formed by traction currents. The flow velocity and the
on the ripple crests than in the troughs (MacKay and Dalrymple,

2011). This has been ascribed to turbulence suppression at the lee
side of the ripples, so that the unidirectional current with moderate
SSC values over a rippled bed tends to infill ripple troughs with
mud (Baas and Best, 2008).
3.2.8. Thinly stratified mudstone with parallel lamination (type

SM2)
3.2.8.1. Description. The thinly stratified mudstone with parallel
lamination (type SM2) is typically composed of distinctly alter-
nating thin laminae with varying clay and silt contents, with minor
amounts of sandstone or finely disseminated organic material. The
laminae build 2 mm to 3 cm thick laminae and layers (Figs. 9 and
10); they are parallel and laterally continuous, and they lack the
lenses that are present in type SM1.
The mudstones of this type are alternations of muddy sediments
of different colors. The content of organic matter is usually higher
than that of SM1. The distinct horizontal lamination is caused by
alternations of clayey and silty sediments. Changes in the grain size
are present within some thick grading laminae: light gray silty
mudstone and/or off-white siltstone passes upwards into gray
claystone.
Type SM2 units are 2e17 mm thick (Fig. 10), but the individual
mudstone laminae are mostly less than 1 mm thick. Their lower
boundaries tend to be sharp and straight, whereas the upper
boundaries are commonly sharp, rarely gradual.
These gray mudstones are characterized by parallel and
continuous lamination. The laminae are typically alternations of
dark gray clayey mudstones with organic matter, and stratified light
gray silty mudstones.
3.2.8.2. Interpretation. The parallel and laterally continuous

laminae are interpreted as rapidly deposited from quasi-steady
transitional currents or plug flows, under which conditions
traction-deposited bedforms are unstable, irrespective of the cur-
rent velocity (Lowe, 1988; Lowe and Guy, 2000; Baas and Best,
2008; MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011). The coarser silty laminae
are explained by migration and deposition of bedload in a plug
flow. The finer-grained laminae are interpreted by deposition of
fine suspended sediments in a quasi-steady transitional current or
by settling from suspension with SSC values that were higher than
Fig. 8. Soft-sediments deformation structures from well H62, depth 2150-87-
2151.01 m. those of SM1-type layers but lower than those of UM5-type layers.
The alternation of relatively sandy and relatively muddy
laminae was controlled by fluctuations in the magnitude and na-
hydrodynamic force were strong enough to transport grains as ture of shear stresses that occur in the lower, near-bed shear zone,
coarse as very fine sands, but not strong enough to transport larger beneath a mobile fluid-mud plug. Non-cohesive sediment (coarse
grains or to erode fine-grained deposits. The SSC values were suf- silt and very fine sand) and cohesive muddier sediment was
ficiently high (at least 1 g L 1) to create thick mudstone layers in a deposited during transitional flow regimes. Three physical mech-
relatively stable environment, but not so high that cohesive forces anisms have been invoked to explain the fluctuations of flow re-
and laminar flow predominated over turbulence (cf. MacKay and gimes and the alternations of parallel clayey and silty laminae
Dalrymple, 2011). (MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011): shear sorting of cohesive and non-
All low-angle cross-laminations dip in the same direction cohesive grains resulting from alternations between turbulent and
(Fig. 10). This indicates that the currents moved to the direction in laminar flow (see also Stow and Bowen, 1978; Kranck, 1984),
which the delta front and the prodelta prograded. The rounded repeated abrupt changes with different degrees of turbulence
sandy ripple crests and the unidirectional cross-laminae (e.g., (Bridge, 1978; Hesse and Chough, 1980; Allen, 1984) and Kelvin-
Fig. 10) indicate velocities well below upper-plane-bed conditions Helmholtz shear instabilities (Baas and Best, 2002; Baas et al.,
in transitional turbulent currents and traditional plug flows (cf. 2009).
Baas et al., 2011). The transition from sandier to muddier lamina-
tions in migrating current ripples has been produced experimen- 3.3. Mudstone lithofacies
tally by the reworking of bimodal sediment (consisting of sand and
mud) during transitional turbulent currents and during transitional The mudstones differ from each other regarding their compo-
plug flows (Baas et al., 2011; MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011). Ripples sition, microstructures, thickness, and the nature of their lower and
that are sandier at their crests and that pass downwards into upper boundaries. Whereas the mudstone types differ from one
muddier bottom sets indicate that the shear stresses were higher another on the basis of detailed sedimentary characteristics,
commonly as a result of particular hydrodynamic conditions, the
Fig. 9. Mudstone alternation in a core from well H72, depth 2193.69e2193.88 m SM1: stratified mudstone with low-angle cross-laminations. SM2: thinly stratified mudstone with
parallel laminations. The gray laminated mudstone at the left has a distinct vertical erosional contact with the sandstone in the upper right part. Composition, structures and grain
size in the left and right parts of the zigzag boundary are clearly different. Some gray mudstone laminae (mudstone type UM1) extend into the right part of the sandstone. UM1:
unstratified thin mudstone laminae. UM4: unstratified thick mudstone with enclosed siltstone and sandstone. UM5: unstratified silty mudstone with network of veins of claystone.
facies are built of two or more mudstone types that commonly combinations, and always alternate with fine sandstones or silt-
alternate with each other, thus indicating fairly similar transport stones. As it seems that there is no regular pattern in the number of
and/or depositional conditions with minor changes. vertically stacked unstratified mudstone types, nor in the number
of individual layers, we present here some examples.
3.3.1. Facies S The mudstone types UM1 and UM2 alternate with light brown
Mudstone types SM1 and SM2 are closely related in the Yan- fine sandstones in a 5.3 cm core sample of well J10 at a depth of
chang Fm. and therefore are distinguished jointly as one facies, 1126.87e1126.92 m (Fig. 5). The fine-grained deposits present in a
characterized by the stratification that both mudstone types show. 19.7 cm core from well H72 show complex microstructures. This
Consequently, this facies is named Facies S. core is made up of mudstone types UM1, UM4 and UM5 (Fig. 9).
As a representative example of Facies S, a 13.2 cm core sample Six layers with slightly different lithology, mainly mudstone
(from a depth of 911.08e911.21 m) from well J10 can serve (Fig. 10). types UM3 and UM4, are present in a 14.9 cm core from well H12
This facies is also well developed in a 19.7 cm core from well H72 (Fig. 6). The lowermost layer (L1) is a light gray muddy sandstone
(Fig. 9), where mudstone type SM1 usually overlies mudstone type (MS). A dark gray layer (L2) of fluidized mud (FM) overlies the
SM2 with a sharp lower boundary and is, in turn, overlain also by lowermost muddy sandstone, with a shear plane in between.
mudstone type SM2, with either a sharp or a gradual contact. SSDS Sandstone veins (SV) and small sandstone lenses (SL) occur within
are rare in Facies S. the unstratified thick mudstone (mudstone type UM4). The dark
gray fluidized mud layer (L2) is about 8.5 cm thick. Sandy mud (SM)
3.3.2. Facies U and mud intraclasts (MI) dominate the third mudstone layer (L3,
The various unstratified mudstone types occur in different mudstone type UM3). The sizes of irregular mud intraclasts in this
Fig. 10. Lithology and interpretation of mudstone types in a core from well J10, depth
911.08e911.21 m SM1: stratified mudstone with low-angle cross-lamination. SM2:
thinly stratified mudstone with parallel lamination. UM5: unstratified silty mudstone
with a network of claystone veins. UM6: unstratified graded mudstone.
layer range from 1 mm to over 5 cm. Some slight deformations of

mudstone aggregates occur in the lower part of L3, while some
aggregates are still connected with each other by thin necks. The
mud aggregates were ripped into small pieces by intrusion of sandy
mud in the middle part of L3; larger mudstone intraclasts are
present floating in the middle and upper parts of L3. The fourth
layer (L4, mudstone type UM4) consists of dark gray to black Fig. 11. Unstratified graded mudstone layers (UM6 type) with some intercalated
mudstone with an irregular boundary with the sandy mudstone of organic-rich layers in a core from well J13, depth 1250.05e1250.16 m.
L3. Light gray muddy sandstone and floating irregular mudstone
intraclasts dominate layer L5, with a relatively plane contact to the
underlying L4. The characteristics of the uppermost layer, L6
(mudstone type UM4), are similar to those of L4, but its thickness
cannot be determined because the core broke there. Economically
of interest is that a brown oil spot is visible at the leftmost and
lower part of L2 and L1 (Fig. 6).
In some cases, a succession of this unstratified facies (Facies U) is
built by a large number of layers that all belong to the same
mudstone type. A core of 10.8 cm from well J13, for instance, con-
sists of 17 layers of graded mudstone (type UM6); it ends in its
uppermost part with a normally graded fine sandstone (Fig. 11).
3.3.3. Facies M
Combinations of stratified and unstratified mudstone types are
fairly common in the Yanchang Fm. Mudstone type SM1, for
instance, can be overlain by types UM2, UM5 or UM6 (Figs. 9 and
10). Other examples are the types UM5 and UM6 that can be
overlain by type SM2 (Fig. 10), and type UM5 that can be overlain by Fig. 12. Thin section and interpretation showing couplets of reversed and normally
SM1 (Fig. 9). graded hyperpycnite layers Well Z2, 1230.15 m. White scale bar is 1 mm.
4. Soft-sediment deformation structures The SSDS in the mudstones under investigation can be sub-
divided into three groups: (1) slump and slump-like folds, (2) SSDS
The Yanchang Fm. locally contains abundant soft-sediment caused by liquefaction, and (3) SSDS caused by fluidization.
deformation structures (the acronym SSDS is used here for both
singular and plural). SSDS can be generated by a wide variety of 4.1. Slumps and slurry structures
triggers such as adjustment to gravity in successions with reversed
density gradients (e.g., Mills, 1983), earthquake-induced shock Numerous cores contain SSDS of thick mudstone units; an
waves (e.g., Martín-Chivelet et al., 2011; Berra and Felletti, 2011), example is core J6 (Fig. 13). Light gray muddy sandstones, for
slumping or slope failure (e.g., Yang et al., 2014; Alves, 2015), instance, are sandwiched at centimeter scale between off-white
sudden overloading by mass-transported sediments (e.g., Callot sandstone lenses and deformed sandstones in the lowermost
et al., 2008), and shear stress (e.g., Mills, 1983). In most cases a layer (L1), with floating small dark gray mudstone intraclasts. The
combination of these mechanisms must be held responsible for the overlying L2 (mudstone type UM4) is characterized by well-
development of SSDS (Mills, 1983). Large-scale deformations developed SSDS of mudstones, such as bent laminae, folding, and
commonly often appear to result from tectonic activity (Van Loon, contortions; it also contains black mudstone lenses and intraclasts,
2002; Ghosh et al., 2002), whereas deformations of intermediate or off-white siltstone layers and nodules. Moreover, several brownish
small size tend to result from exogenic processes such as glacio- lenses of tuffaceous mudstone are exposed in the middle part of L2.
tectonism, overburden-induced diapirism and numerous other The contact between L2 and the underlying L1 is sharp and rela-
processes (Van Loon, 2002), which are outside the scope of the tively straight. The contact with the overlying sandstone layer (L3)
present contribution. is irregular, however, because of flame and load structures. Layer L4
The above mentioned possible triggers (apart from glacio- (mudstone type UM1) is clearly less deformed than L2. The contact
tectonism) may almost all have contributed to the origin of the between mudstone L4 and the uppermost, sandy layer L5 is distinct
SSDS in the Yanchang Fm., but particularly liquefaction and fluid- and relatively flat. The lowermost left-hand part of the L1 sand-
ization by earthquake-induced shock waves probably played an stone in the right-hand photo shows an oil spot, which suggests
important e if not critical - role in the generation of SSDS in the that a potentially economically interesting occurrence of hydro-
Yanchang Fm. Volcanic eruptions and the consequent sudden carbons is worth further investigation.
overloading by volcanoclastics may also have generated deforma- A shallower core from well J10 shows similar deformations
tion of the still soft sediments on the delta slope, judging from (Fig. 14). The laminated mudstone contains lenses of light gray
intercalations of tuffaceous mudstones. Other SSDS originated muddy siltstone. The sediments were slightly deformed but the
during downslope movement, as indicated by superimposed folded deformations were later distinctly affected by bioturbation in the
layers and convolutions. Sand balls that were rotated and that lowermost mudstone layer (L1) (mudstone type SM2). Two bio-
became truncated, showing straight shear surfaces, indicate turbated places extend into the overlying sandstone layer (L2), even
downslope movement. Other deformations of the mudstones were into the deformed overlying mudstone layer (L3). Two of the bur-
generated by the intrusion of sandy flames between load casts that rows are filled with sand and gray mudstone pieces fallen from the
developed due to gravity-induced sinking into the water-saturated upper mudstone laminae; three other burrows are mainly filled
underlying sediment, due to reversed density gradients. with sandstone and siltstone. Complexly folded mudstone laminae
The actual triggers of slides and deformations remain relatively and off-white siltstone layers dominate layer L3 (mudstone type
poorly understood (Vanneste et al., 2014). Recent studies mention, UM4), which is 14.3 cm thick. In comparison to the deformations in
among several other processes, the following responsible main the lower part of layer L3, those in the upper part are less complex.
mechanisms: (1) seismically triggered tsunami and seiche waves The best developed SSDS occur where mudstone is the most
(Simms, 2007; Alsop and Marco, 2012); (2) overburden-induced important sediment type (Fig. 15). Swirl structures and contortions
excess pore-fluid pressure (Yamamoto, 2014; Alves, 2015); (3) of siltstone and mudstone laminae/layers are common, for instance
slope remobilization promoting earthquake-related turbidity cur- in mudstone type UM4 (Fig. 15A). One of the contorted layers shows
rents (Moernaut et al., 2017); and (4) earthquakes induced by alternations of off-white sandstone and gray (silty) mudstone
glacio-isostatic rebound (Van Loon and Pisarska-Jamrozy, _ 2014). (Fig. 15B), possibly representing a sand/mud alternation that un-
However, the first and the forth possibilities may be excluded for derwent loading. The amplitudes of the swirl and contortion
the SSDS in the Triassic Ordos Basin because no traces of tsunamis structures in comparable cores are in the range of 2e40 cm. The
or periglacial conditions have ever been found. contacts between successive deformed layers tend to be clear
An increase in pore-fluid pressure and pore-fluid migration can because of differences in color, and the nature and orientation of
be critical for slope instability and can trigger slope failure, espe- the deformed mudstone laminae. The contacts (usually shearing
cially within sediments close to the critical state (Yamamoto, 2014). surfaces) and directions of movement are indicated in Fig. 15C and
The occurrence of large slide blocks can mark a sudden release of D by white dotted lines and white arrows, respectively. Sand balls
overburden pressure (Alves, 2015), and pore-fluid behavior may be (SB), sand veins (SV) and pillow structures are well developed in
associated with shear stress controlling the pattern and location of mudstone type UM4 (Fig. 15CeF, 15H). Folded sand veins, balls and
slope failure (Yamamoto, 2014). A high depositional rate, a low pillows float in the muddy sediment and can be recognized as
permeability and a low shear strength within fine-grained deposits ‘foreign’ material because of their diverging lithology and/or the
provide the best conditions for the occurrence of SSDS (cf. Callot position of their internal laminations (Fig. 15EeF), which may help
et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2014). The water-saturated, clay-rich sedi- to unravel the deformational history. The presence of irregular,
ments of the Yanchang Fm. must, indeed, have been prone to internally deformed sand balls within an unstratified mudstone,
liquefaction and fluidization, allowing them to act as a lubricant thus forming intraclasts of different sizes, separated from the
that facilitated the sliding and downslope movement over the delta mudstone by sharp boundaries (Fig. 15H), for instance, requires
slopes in the Ordos Basin, so inducing numerous deformations (see complex deformational processes that acted at successive stages.
also Yang et al., 2016). This implies that a sudden release of the
overburden-induced pore pressure in the sediments on the delta 4.2. Liquefaction-induced SSDS
slopes where the sedimentation rate was high, must be held
responsible for of the majority of the SSDS in these sediments. Liquefaction-induced SSDS in the mudstones are represented by
Fig. 13. Soft-sediment deformation structures, tuffaceous mudstone lenses (TML), mudstone intraclasts (MI) and oil spots (OS) in a core from well J6, depth 1432.80e1432.97 m. The
core is built of thinly stratified mudstones with parallel lamination (type SM2) and unstratified thick mudstones with enclosed siltstones and sandstones (type UM4).
distinctly bent levels, as exemplified in the alternating units of gray Clockwise rotation of a 27 cm long core from well J4, depicted in
mudstone and light gray muddy siltstone within a core from well Fig. 17 from left to right, shows that four layers are present. Layer 1
H80 (Fig. 16). The core can be subdivided into three deformed units (L1) is an argillaceous sandstone with mudstone intraclasts (indi-
(DU), viz. DU1, DU2 and DU3. The different deformation phases are cated as MI in Fig. 17) with sizes ranging from 0.5 to 43 mm. The
clearly visible thanks to the difference in color between the light intraclasts were broken up into small pieces at their margins by
gray muddy siltstones and those with a darker color (which in- intrusion of sand (lowermost part of the leftmost photo). Small
dicates a higher mud content) where the main water-escape pieces of the intraclasts float in the sands roughly but not exactly
pathway of unit DU1 (mudstone type UM4) is situated. The parallel to the bedding plane. The contacts between the lower
laminae in the clusters of the deformed gray laminated mudstone argillaceous sandstone and the mudstone are distinct but irregular.
and the light gray siltstone point toward the top of DU1, i.e., most of Layer 2 (L2) is characterized by unstratified and heterogeneous
the gray mudstone laminae converge in the lower and right side of mudstone (type UM4), with lenses and lumps of organic-rich
unit DU1 upwards to the main water vent, which allowed the sediment inside. The lithology of Layer 3 (L3) is similar to that of
overpressurized pore water to escape upwards (Fig. 16). The de- L1. The mudstone laminae are bent and the mudstone intraclasts
formations in the uppermost part of unit DU1 are bent to the left, are rounded at their margins (rightmost photo), and the layer is
forming recumbent folds (white dotted arrows). It seems, more- intruded by muddy sands at its left side. It is also remarkable that
over, that a light gray, not very distinct connection exists between the boundary between L3 and the underlying L2 is irregular and
the silty mudstone at the uppermost right-hand part of units DU1 deformed because of a complex load structure and sand intrusion.
and DU2, which implies that DU1 was affected when DS2 was Dark gray organic matter makes the deformation and reworking of
deformed at a later stage. mudstone in the shape of irregular pieces in the middle of the
The unit DU2 (mudstone type UM4) deformations are charac- rightmost photo well visible. Complicated deformations and mix-
terized by concentrated mudstone laminae in its lower part, ing of sandy mudstone, mudstone laminae and muddy sandstone
amalgamated mudstone laminae in its middle part and distortions dominate the uppermost layer 4 (L4, mudstone type UM4). The
of gray mudstone laminae and light gray muddy siltstone in its deformations in the muddy sandstone are bent and folded into
upper part (Fig. 16). Some deformation of the mudstone laminae in different directions, which underlines the complexity of the
both DU1 and DU2 took place near their boundaries with unit DU3, deformation process. Splitting up and bending of mudstone
which allows establishing the sequence of deformation stages: first laminae show that, during the mass transport, the still soft sedi-
unit DU1 was deformed, then Unit DU2 was deformed and also ments adjusted to the local stress conditions and the space
affected the already deformed unit DU1, and finally unit DU3 was problems.
deformed, affecting also units DU1 and DU2. All these deformed
units are covered by a mudstone layer that shows, in contrast, little
deformation.
(Fig. 19). Three layers or lenses of reddish brown tuffaceous

mudstone occur interbedded. The contact between the uppermost
muddy sandstone in Fig. 19 and the lower mudstone is sharp and
distinct. The interfingering contact between the muddy sandstone
and the mudstone lamination at the right-hand side indicates a
complex deformation process. Irregular white to off-white calcar-
eous sand veins invaded the mudstone layers along contact planes
between laminae. In contrast, thin dark gray mudstone laminae
split into small pieces, penetrating the sandstone, and becoming
less and less discernable, so as to disappear gradually completely.
Other dark gray mudstone laminae remain almost unchanged in
the sandstone, without any significant deformation, although such
soft mud interlayers are prone to be deformed during adjustment
to deformation-induced space problems.
A core from well H62 shows in its lower part gray stratified
mudstone (mudstone type SM2), with some deformed lenses and
lumps of light gray sandstone (Fig. 8). Much larger lumps are pre-
sent higher up. These sandstone lumps are made up of light gray
muddy sand and off-white fine sand, and the largest one has a
shape and internal structure characteristic of a load structure; there
is, however, no trace of a parent layer of sandstone, and its top
seems somewhat eroded, which might imply that the load cast is a
remnant of the eroded layer, but it is also possible that this struc-
ture represents a fragment that was transported by a slurry. This
latter explanation seems more likely considering the large upper
lump which also seems to represent a load cast, but which has
undergone more deformation as well as some rotation.
5. Environmental interpretation
The various sedimentary structures and textures in the

mudstone that were generated during various conditions of
liquefaction and fluidization indicate different hydrodynamics and/
or transporting/depositional processes. The resulting deformations
and textures can help to reconstruct the prevailing processes in the
Fig. 14. Soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS) in thin mudstone layers (UM1) sedimentary environment.
with bioturbation structures (BTS) that penetrate the underlying layers (L2 and L3) of
Mudstone types UM1 and UM2 are texturally homogeneous;
mudstone with enclosed siltstone and sandstone (UM4) in a core from well J10, depth
1303.58e1303.77 m. they were mostly deposited at the margins of interdistributary bays
or, occasionally, on subaqueous natural levees when passive grav-
itational settling and/or quasi-laminar plug flow or unstable plug
4.3. Fluidization-induced structures flow dominated; these depositional environments are likely
because the UM1 and UM2 mudstones are usually interbedded
Sausage-shaped sand veins of different sizes are well developed with very fine sandstones and/or siltstones.
in the unstratified mudstone type UM4 (Fig. 18AeD, F), as well as in Mudstone types UM3 and UM4 are heterogeneous; they are
stratified mudstone type SM2 (Fig. 18E). Most of the contacts be- characterized by the occurrences of silt, sand, mud, organic matter
tween the sand veins and the host mudstones are sharp. Some of and mudstone intraclasts, accumulated at the lower end of a deltaic
them, however, are vague and irregular. Smaller sand veins/balls/ slope or at the lake bottom where gravity flows were prone to occur
branches exist around the main sand vein, indicating that part of and to settle since they were transported by muddy debris flows,
the sediment was deformed by liquefaction, whereas the sand slurry flows and/or fluidized mud flows until the slope became too
veins point at fluidization. Some irregular mudstone intraclasts are less inclined to allow farther flowage.
ripped up and have penetrated a vein (Fig. 18A). A vague light gray Mudstone type UM5 (unstratified silty mudstones with finer-
mudstone lamination is present in the sand vein and bends along grained veins) was deposited at the margins of subaqueous dis-
with the bending of the vein, which implies adjustment when the tributary channels or on natural levees, since these sediments were
bending occurred (Fig. 18B). Most sand veins deformed the host transported and deposited by hybrid flows (cf. Haughton et al.,
mudstone by extending upwards until the bottom of the overlying 2009) and partly by transitional flows (Baas et al., 2016).
sandstone layer was reached; this can be deduced from the dif- Mudstone type UM6 (unstratified graded mudstones) were
ferences in color at both sides of the contact see the white arrow in mostly transported by turbidity currents and/or hyperpycnal flows.
Fig. 18D. Stratified mudstone type SM2 is broken up into pieces of They were subsequently deposited on turbidite/hyperpycnite lobes
different sizes by intrusion of sands (Fig. 18E). Brown tuffaceous at their distal parts.
layers/lenses (TL in Fig. 18) are interbedded in mudstone type UM4 Mudstone types SM1 and SM2 (the two stratified mudstone
(Figs. 15B and 18B), which suggests that the deformation may in types) were deposited at subaqueous natural levees or in the pro-
some way have been related to the volcanism. delta area where relatively low-turbulence flows dominated, such
In the lower part of the core from well J10, the mudstone is as transitional flows, transitional plug flows and quasi-laminar plug
characterized by parallel and continuous dark gray laminae flows.
(mudstone type SM2), interbedded with light gray silty mudstone It can be inferred from the frequent alternations of mudstone
Fig. 15. Soft-sediments deformation structures (SSDS) in unstratified thick mudstones with enclosed siltstones and sandstones (type UM4). A: contorted structure; well H60, depth
2120.47 m. B: large deformation of sandy material in a mudstone; well J3, depth 1208.52 m. C: load cast (top) and lump of sandy material of indistinct origin (middle), both
truncated by shear surfaces; well H16, depth 1931.60 m. D: deformed sandy masses bound by a shear surface, well H62, depth 2147.32 m. E: strongly contorted massed of mainly
fine sand in a mudstone (type UM4); well H60, depth 2120.13 m. F: concentration of sand balls, pillows and veins, probably representing different phases of load casting and
subsequent deformation; well H56, depth 1857.93 m. G: isolated sand lumps floating in mudstone (type UM4); well H71, depth 2201.99 m. H: mudstone intraclasts in a sandy
intraclast; well Z25, depth 2053.92 m.
types SM1 and SM2 (Fig. 10) that the sedimentary environments either homogeneous and structureless, or heterogeneous and
were relatively stable over a fairly long time. The autochthonous internally stratified with alternations of more silt-rich and more
sedimentation was, however, fairly frequently interrupted by clay-rich/organic-rich layers. The amounts of disseminated sand,
turbidity currents and/or hyperpycnal flows, hybrid flows and un- mudstone intraclasts and organic detritus vary. The presence of
stable plug flows that resulted in a large number of event deposits; abundant SSDS indicates complex processes during and shortly
the frequently interbedded layers of the unstratified mudstone after deposition of the fine-grained sediments. The mudstones
types UM2, UM5 and UM6 (Figs. 5 and 10) are good evidence. range from less than 1 mm to 20 cm, which variation is one of the
most striking features.
6. Transport and depositional processes Relatively continuous sedimentation at a high rate rather than
slow settling from dilute suspensions is indicated by the rare bio-
The various mudstone types of the Yanchang Fm. accumulated turbation indices (cf. MacEachern et al., 2005; Neill and Allison,
in different environments, under different flow regimes, and 2005; Bhattacharya and Maceachern, 2009). Slow deposition of
through different depositional processes. The mudstone layers are the thick mudstone layers, which would have required long time-
Fig. 16. Mudstone deformations formed during at least three stages (units D1-D3) in a core from well H80, depth 2077.02e2077.21 m.
spans, is also unlikely because of the fairly high sediment supply, used to refer to watery flows transitional between turbidity cur-
reflected by the commonly rapid building of deltas, the low bio- rents and debris flows; most slurry-flow deposits have a matrix of
turbation indices, the predominance of relatively high-energy 10e35% of detrital mud, and they are commonly grain-supported
sandstones, and the mudstone intraclasts within these hetero- (Lowe and Guy, 2000). A slurry-flow deposit is defined in the
lithic successions, as well as because of the lack of grading and present contribution as a sediment that has undergone mass
horizontal lamination within the mudstone layers. Many mudstone transport with an ultra-high concentration of insoluble particles
layers are therefore interpreted as having been deposited rapidly in (such as sand, silt, marl and/or clay) of over 500 g L 1 that was
a relatively high-energy environment, rather than in low- driven by gravity, shear stress or yield stress, in which clay and silt
turbulence water. Most mud must have been transported and dominate (>50% by volume). A muddy debris flow is also a form of
deposited by gravity flows, such as turbidity currents, hyperpycnal mass transport driven by gravity; the deposits contain a large
flows, muddy debris flows and slurry flows. Plug flows, quasi- amount of mudstone intraclasts (15e70% by volume) floating in a
laminar plug flows and transitional plug flows must have trans- silty, muddy, or sandy matrix (>30% by volume).
ported and deposited the other mud layers. All above flow types have a high mud content in common, and
they are consequently jointly known as slurries, which produce
slurry deposits. These slurry deposits may result from passive
6.1. Reconstruction of the flow conditions gravitational settling of fine-grained particles from suspension,
derived from failure of soft sediments on a depositional slope (e.g.
Fluid muds are defined as bottom-hugging mobile subaqueous on a delta front), from slumps, muddy debris flows and turbidity
bodies of fine-grained sediment with a concentration of solids currents, from high discharges of floods in estuaries with a heavy
>10 g L 1 (Kirby and Parker, 1983), consisting primarily of clay- and suspension load, or from turbulence-enhanced transitional flows,
silt-sized-particles with variable amounts of organic material transitional plug flows or quasi-laminar plug flows.
(Ichaso and Dalrymple, 2009). The term ‘slurry flow' is commonly
Fig. 17. Deformations and mudstone intraclasts (MI) seen from different angles in a core from well J4, depth 1429.42e1429.68 m. MSD: muddy-sandstone deformations.
6.1.1. Deposition by passive gravitational settling mud with a higher concentration of solid particles than the mud of
It is commonly accepted that fine-grained sediments can accu- type UM1. The higher concentration of solid particles is supported
mulate only in a relatively stable environment due to passive by a higher turbulence, owing to waves and currents in the lake or
gravitational settling (Schieber, 1994b; Macquaker and Bohacs, by water influx from distributary channels. Such fluidized mud can
2007; Hovikoski et al., 2008; Ichaso and Dalrymple, 2009; Aplin move down deltaic slopes below the wave base and then be
and Macquaker, 2011; Ghadeer and Macquaker, 2011, 2012), such deposited.
as a deep lake or an interdistributary bay. The finding that both
seemingly massive and consistently laminated mudstones can
6.1.2. Failure of soft sediments on the delta slope
actually have been transported and deposited by vigorous currents
Breaching of landslide dams, slope failure of delta fronts and an
in the form of aggregate grains (e.g. Schieber, 1994a,b; Macquaker
increased activity of delta-derived sediment gravity flows (Hansen
and Keller, 2005; Ghadeer and Macquaker, 2011; Plint, 2014) im-
et al., 2011) play an important role in the filling of distributary
plies, however, that other types of transport and deposition can also
channels and erosional trenches. The development of slurry de-
result in mudstones.
posits requires slope failure, which in turn requires both accumu-
The unstratified thin mudstone laminae (mudstone type UM1)
lation of much sediment and a trigger (Yao et al., 2012). The
of the Yanchang Fm. are mostly alternating with siltstones and fine
requirement of accumulation of much sediment was certainly ful-
sandstones, however, and there are no aggregate grains in the
filled in the case of the sediments under study here, since so much
mudstones of this type. It is therefore inferred that they owe their
clastic material was supplied that the delta front in the basin grew
origin to passive gravitational settling of fine particles in the rela-
at a high rate. The requirement of a trigger was probably met as
tively stable environment of an interdistributary bay or on sub-
well. Turbidites and debrites commonly originate due to slope
aqueous natural levees when the influx from the distributary
failure. This may be triggered by a wide variety of processes such as
estuaries resulted mainly in vertical aggradation within low-
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storms and river floods (Sumner
turbulence water. This is consistent with what was found by
et al., 2012, 2013; Clare et al., 2014). The numerous tuff layers
measurements in the Ems estuary, which shows an abundance of
that are present within the deep lacustrine shales of the YC 7 oil
large flocs (usually with sizes of 200e700 mm, or > 1 mm) that
member of the Yanchang Fm. indicate that volcanoes erupted
appear shortly after a maximum flow velocity, and that survive high
frequently near the Ordos Basin during the Late Triassic (Yang et al.,
current velocities (Leussen, 2011). This example implies that mud
2014). The tectonic activity of the Qinling Mountains and the
can accumulate not only by settling of fine-grained particles but
upthrusting of the South China Block over the Sino-Korean Block
also by deposition of large flocs.
from south to north in the Late Triassic (Weislogel et al., 2006; Dong
The unstratified thick mudstone laminae and beds of mudstone
et al., 2012) not only down-warped the Ordos Basin, but also
type UM2 are easily formed by transport and deposition of fluid
controlled the sedimentary processes. Consequently, volcanic
Fig. 18. Fluidization of sand caused the intrusion of sand veins (SV) in unstratified thick mudstone of type UM4). A: large sand vein; well J12, depth 1366.95 m. B: sand vein and
tuffaceous lenses (TL); well J4, depth 1410.89 m. C: sand vein and tuffaceous lenses; well J2, depth 1400.58 m. D: sand veins in unstratified mudstone of type UM4; well Z19, depth
2117.63 m. E: sand veins and deformations in thinly stratified mudstone of type SM2; well J7, depth 1411.55 m. F: sand veins in unstratified mudstone of type UM4; well Z19, depth
2257.43 m.
activity, earthquakes and fault movements all occurred and may all important mechanism to transport considerable volumes of sedi-
have triggered the required slope failure. Slides and slumps of ment to deep-water basins, it has attracted much attention from
unconsolidated sediment on the delta slopes turned during their geologists for decades (e.g. Mulder and Syvitski, 1995, 2001, 2003;
downslope movement into debris flows and turbidity currents Parsons et al., 2001; Addington et al., 2007; Yoshida et al., 2009;
(Yang et al., 2014). Migeon et al., 2012). As an example, silty and sandy heterolithic
Although sandy debris-flow deposits are commonly character- prodelta deposits from allomember E of the Late Cretaceous Dun-
ized by deformed mudstone and sandstone masses within a sand- vegan Fm. in the Western Canada Foreland Basin were interpreted
rich mudstone matrix (Lowe and Guy, 2000), entirely muddy debris as characteristic hyperpycnites (Bhattacharya and Maceachern,
flows exist in the Yanchang Fm. as well (Figs. 8 and 9). Examples of 2009). Flood-generated hyperpycnal flows tend to occur more
some mudstones composed largely of aggregates of clay particles commonly than debris flows and turbidity currents, since their
imply that such particles could be reworked and redeposited as origination does not require huge volumes of sedimentary parti-
intraclasts with a clay, silt to coarse sand size (cf. Schieber et al., cles; nor do they need a special trigger mechanism such as an
2010; Plint et al., 2012; Plint, 2014). The size, orientation and dis- earthquake, volcanic activity, hurricanes or tsunamis that are
tribution of the mudstone intraclasts and their interconnections required to initiate the slope failure that commonly is the cause of
exclude the possibility, however, that they represent aggregates of turbidity currents and debris flows (Khripounoff et al., 2009; Yao
smaller grains. et al., 2012; Clare et al., 2014). Hyperpycnites, including muddy
Clay-rich sediment gravity flows played an important role in the hyperpycnites, are therefore more common in the geological record
sedimentary environment from the delta front to the deep lacus- than previously assumed (Soyinka and Slatt, 2008; Plint, 2014), and
trine area in the Ordos Basin. Clays contribute to the weakness of probably even present in larger numbers, though not necessarily in
beds as they are highly sensitive to deformation (Hansen et al., larger volumes.
2011). The clay-rich unconsolidated sediments on the delta slope Complex interactions of tectonic movements and climate tend
were consequently prone to deform, slide and slump, so as to to be the main controlling parameters of the annual occurrences of
initiate slurry flows. This resulted in the clay-rich event beds that hyperpycnal flows of relatively heavy river water (Bourget et al.,
were deposited rapidly by turbidity currents while debris and 2010; Pouderoux et al., 2012). The probably annual flood-related
slurries poured into trenches scoured by erosion. Slides probably hyperpycnal flows that helped to build the Yanchang Fm. must
triggered debris flows and turbidity currents that formed fine- have been controlled mainly by the climate; this is deduced from
grained sediment waves, since the fine-grained event beds spread the tectonics, topography and sedimentary environment, which
extensively in the deep lake. Such fine-grained sediment waves can show no traces of instability, at least over geologically short time-
form not only in a confined canyon-channel environment (Kostic, spans (Yang et al., 2017).
2014), but also play an important role in channel maintenance When a sediment-laden river enters a sea or a lake, the turbid
(Covault et al., 2014). Therefore, clay-rich gravity flows may have river water must flow through a backwater zone, a depth-limited
dominated the construction of turbidity channels and lobes in the plume, and a plunging zone before it can become a turbidity cur-
deep lacustrine environment of the Yanchang Fm. rent; these zones have not a stable position, but rather move to and
The positions of the clay-rich beds depend on the size and po- fro in response to fluctuations in discharge and to the concentration
sition of the mass-transport event(s), the position of the river of suspended particles (Lamb and Mohrig, 2009). In the Ordos Lake,
mouth, the bathymetry and the sedimentation rate (Hansen et al., these zones were, also jointly, probably quite narrow (i.e. <10 km)
2011) on the lake bottom. A turbidite interbedded between because of the steep basin slopes and a slope break at the delta
autochthonous laminated lacustrine sediments must be the result front.
of a single event. Several beds seem, however, to be built by a A basin must be fairly deep to allow the origination of turbidity
number of successive turbidites, suggesting the occurrence of series currents (Lamb and Mohrig, 2009), but hyperpycnites are also
of mass-transport events within a short time-span. The clay-rich known from a Cretaceous shallow (<40e60 m) lake (Zavala et al.,
mudstone types UM3, UM4 and UM6 were generated by failure 2006). This is understandable as not only the density differences
of soft sediments at the delta front, and were triggered by volcanic and the relative volumes (Mohrig and Buttles, 2007) of the two
activity, earthquakes, floods or active faulting. water bodies play a role, but also the topography. It seems, how-
Much sand and silt distributed in the mud as part of the matrix ever, that density differences are the most important parameter:
represent reworking of mass-transported deposits by muddy when the density difference of the two water bodies is too small,
debris flows. The mudstones of type UM3 came into being when hyperpycnites cannot originate during ‘normal’ conditions, but only
muddy debris flows ‘froze’ at the toe of the delta slope. Less sand when sufficient suspension load is present. Even then, however, the
and silt are embedded in the mud as lenses, veins and balls. Such various other conditions that facilitate the downslope movement of
material is present in the mudstones of type UM4, however, and the sediment-laden mass of river water must also be met.
may have been transported and deposited by slurry flows or flu- Mudstone type UM6 came into being when large amounts of
idized mudflows. Both mudstone types UM3 and UM4 were suspension load in hyperpycnal flows settled during loss of flow
probably deposited in low parts of the lake near the toe of delta momentum and turbulence on the large, forwards and laterally
slopes, possibly in subaqueous distributary channels and erosional extending distal lobes. It cannot be stated with certainty whether
trenches. The material transported by turbidity currents, in stacked mud layers of type UM6 were deposited by successive
contrast, could be transported farther than the debris flows, and hyperpycnal flow events, or by only a single flooding event, because
was deposited on the distal lobes. The muds of type UM6 represent grading patterns in hyperpycnites can record multiple flow accel-
the most distal sediments; they settled from suspension on the erations and decelerations even during a simple single-peak flood
distal lobes. (Lamb and Mohrig, 2009). Hyperpycnites may be an important
constituent of the mudstones of type UM6 in the Yanchang Fm.
6.1.3. Discharge through hyperpycnal flows Their large suspension load and erosion during plunging may, as
Hyperpycnal flows are turbid river plumes that can plunge explained by Brunner and Normark (1999) and Kane and Ponte n
downslope to form turbidity currents where they enter a water (2012), be responsible for the long longitudinal extent of the
body of lesser density (Mulder and Syvitski, 1995; Mulder et al., hyperpycnites.
2001; Mulder et al., 2003; Lamb and Mohrig, 2009). Being an Flow transformations (Kane and Ponte n, 2012) are common on
Fig. 19. Soft-sediment deformation structures in a core from well J10, depth 1143.37e1143.49 m. Sandstone has penetrated the thinly stratified mudstone of type SM2.
subaqueous fans. Hyperpycnal flows may transform into debris 7. Geological significance
flows or trigger debris flows as indicated by the large amounts of
mudstone intraclasts and of fine-grained material eroded from le- 7.1. Significance for the analysis of fine-grained environments
vees that may be present in hyperpycnites (Sawyer et al., 2014).
Moreover, cohesionless turbidity currents are able to affect cohe- Continental mudstones were for a long time considered so
sive soft muddy substrates (Baas et al., 2014), resulting in muddy simple that there seemed no reason to study their sedimentary
debris flows and erosion. Hyperpycnites therefore can co-exist with features and depositional mechanisms in detail. They were usually
debrites and turbidites, as evidenced in the case of the Yanchang considered as passively formed drapes by gravitational settling
Fm. (Yang et al., 2014). Mudstone types UM3 and UM4 may from suspension in standing water or under low-energy conditions,
consequently occur aside or interbedded with mudstones of type such as present in deep lakes, interdistributary channels and small
UM6. ponds. On the basis of recent studies (e.g. Aplin and Macquaker,
2011; Ghadeer and Macquaker, 2011, 2012; Baas et al., 2016) and
the above descriptions and interpretations, it is now obvious,
however, that fine-grained sediments such as muds and silts cannot
only be deposited in standing water, but also by high-turbulence
6.1.4. Deposition by stratified cohesive flows currents.
Deep lakes are among the most important sedimentary envi- Gravity flows and transitional flows in deep-water environ-
ronments for the accumulation of fine-grained deposits, owing to ments, such as deep lakes and the deep-sea, have not always a low
the high concentration of suspended fine-grained particles, espe- energy and a low turbulence (MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011; Baas
cially during gravity-flow events. Moreover, various kinds of clay et al., 2016). High-energy events occur frequently in deep-water
minerals are easily transported from nearby source areas to these sedimentary environments, and thus fine-grained event deposits
depositional sinks. The clay minerals are transported and deposited are much more abundant in the geological record than previously
in the form of cohesive mixtures of mud, silt and sand. During the thought. As a result, gravity-flow-generated fine-grained deposits
transformation from turbulent to stratified flow, the viscosity of the in deep lakes must be recognized on the basis of detailed analysis of
current increases with increasing clay-mineral content, and the outcrops and cores. Various types of mudstones generated by
instantaneous velocity oscillates frequently from higher to lower, gravity flows and transitional flows have to be thoroughly consid-
and vice versa, near to the depositional substrate. These stratified ered when the depositional processes of fine-grained deposits in
flows have been presented as turbulence-enhanced transitional lacustrine environments are analyzed. At least four possibilities
flows, lower transitional plug flows, upper transitional plug flows regarding the depositional process of fine-grained sediments
and quasi-laminar plug flows (Baas et al., 2016). should always be considered: (1) draping resulting from suspen-
Mudstone Facies S (mudstone types SM1 and SM2), Facies U sions of high-SSC currents; (2) gravity flows of slurries generated by
(mudstone types UM2 and UM5), and Facies M may represent such slope failure; (3) high SSC resulting from the discharge of flood-
transitional flows. Mudstone type SM1 may have been deposited by induced hyperpycnal flows; and (4) cohesive stratified flows with
turbulent flows, transitional turbulent flows, and transitional plug a high concentration of clay minerals. These four possible origins of
flows. Mudstone type SM2 may have been produced by quasi- fine-grained deposits are shown here in a three-dimensional
laminar flows or transitional plug flows with moderate to high sedimentary model (Fig. 20), which also shows the most likely
suspended-sediment concentrations (SSC) and appreciable current places where soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS) are
energy (cf. MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011). Mudstone type UM2 was common. Analysis of SSDS may therefore be a useful tool for the
deposited by quasi-laminar plug flows or unstable plug flows, and analysis of the precise depositional process.
mudstone type UM5 was mostly formed under conditions of Compared to lacustrine environments, the fine-grained sedi-
transitional plug flows. Considering that mudstone Facies M is ments in the deep sea are usually deposited much farther away
composed of both stratified and unstratified types, part of them from their (continental) source area. They represent, just like their
must be ascribed to these stratified flows with a high mud content lacustrine counterparts, different transport and depositional
and a high viscosity.
Fig. 20. Three-dimensional sedimentary model showing generations of slurry deposits from source to sink and SSDS.
mechanisms, which can be unraveled only by detailed facies as turbulence, velocity, viscosity and stratification, and thus on
analysis. Fine-grained marine deposits can originate in the same transportation and deposition. Neither pure sand nor pure silt
way (see the model presented in Fig. 20) but can be even more constitutes the suspended material in any flows in natural envi-
complex because of the potentially much larger influence of tides ronments, and thus it must be kept in mind that fine particles are
and waves in marine environments. Wave- and tide-enhanced present in suspension in each gravity flow and in each current.
sediment gravity flows and their deposits (e.g. Macquaker et al., Viscous flows made up of mixtures of mud, silt and sand are the
2010; Plint, 2014) thus need even more detailed analysis to be most common in both ancient and modern sedimentary
recognized in ancient and modern shelf successions than do their environments.
lacustrine and deep-marine counterparts.
7.3. Significance for hydrocarbon exploration

7.2. Increased insight into the formation of micro-structures in
mudstones Shales and mudstones become economically ever more impor-
tant because of the exploration for unconventional hydrocarbon
The sedimentary features of mudstones, particularly horizontal occurrences in these rock types. Moreover, exploration for tradi-
lamination and massive bedding, have long been considered to tional sources is currently increasingly moving to deep-water en-
prove settling from suspension in standing water. Fairly recently it vironments, where fine-grained deposits dominate. Detailed
has become clear, however, that fine particles can be transported analyses of fine-grained deposits, particularly regarding their
and deposited by various types of flow (e.g. Macquaker et al., 2010; genesis and distribution, become consequently ever more impor-
MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011; Plint, 2014; Baas et al., 2016). Micro- tant. This requires not only interpretation of the genesis of mud-
structures have been recognized in mudstones not only from ma- stones on the basis of their various characteristics, including micro-
rine environments (MacKay and Dalrymple, 2011) and from structures, but also a classification that is applicable for both sed-
lacustrine environments (this contribution), but also from labora- imentologists and petroleum geologists. For the purpose, we pro-
tory experiments (Baas et al., 2016). It has now turned out possible posed here to distinguish between stratified mudstones (our Facies
to identify several types of micro-structures in fine-grained mud- S), unstratified mudstones (our Facies U) and mixed stratified and
stones that allow interpretation of the transport and depositional unstratified mudstones (our Facies M), with our mudstone types
processes that resulted in these structures, especially after quan- SM1, SM2, UM1, UM2, UM3, UM4, UM5 and UM6, which not only
titative studies of stratified flows with cohesive mixtures of mud include most mudstones in lacustrine environments, but also in
and sand (Baas et al., 2016). The concentration and size fractions of marine environments, so that this distinction into mud types is
clay minerals have significant impact on the flow properties, such applicable for the great majority of mudstone successions.
majority of the coarser, rigid grains to the deep, central part of the
Late Triassic Ordos Lake (Fig. 21). The resulting thin-bedded muddy
siltstones, silty mudstones and shales deposited by hyperpycnal
flows and turbidity currents are main reservoirs of shale oil and
shale gas in the Yanchang Formation.
Particularly the coarse, resistant quartz and feldspar grains
deposited by debris flows, turbidity currents and river-derived
hyperpycnal flows help preserve the porosity of the overall fine-
grained deposits, which is a key characteristic allowing horizontal
well fracturing for unconventional petroleum exploitation (Law
and Curtis, 2002; Pollastro, 2007). The estimated reserves of oil
and gas in the shales of the YC 7 oil member of the Yanchang Fm.
amount to 109 tons and about 12 1012 m3, respectively (Yang
et al., 2017). This implies that the fine-grained gravity-flow de-
posits in the Yanchang Fm. have great potential for unconventional
petroleum exploitation. Considering the extensive occurrence of
fine-grained deposits accumulated by gravity flows and transitional
flows in ancient deep-lacustrine and deep-sea environments, these
types of mudstones have a tremendous potential as reservoir rocks
for unconventional hydrocarbons worldwide.
8. Conclusions
Interaction between topography, water depth, the supply of

sediment in suspension on the one hand, and tectonics and climate
on the other hand influences the construction of deltas in lacustrine
settings. This, obviously, is reflected in the sediments. The active
tectonics and the humid climate favored the formation of gravity
flows such as debris flows, turbidity currents and hyperpycnal
flows in the Late Triassic Ordos Lake, resulting in well-developed
debrites, turbidites and hyperpycnites, particularly where the
sedimentation rate was high so that the delta fronts could prograde
rapidly. The subaqueous gravity flows transported and deposited
not only coarse grains such as sand, but also fine-grained particles
such as silt and clay. Thus, mudstone debrites, turbidites and
Fig. 21. Thin section and interpretation of normally graded turbidite layers. Well Z2, hyperpycnites co-exist here with sandy debris-flow deposits,
1230.14 m. White scale bar is 1 mm. sandstone turbidites and sandstone hyperpycnites.
Deformation of the still soft sediments took easily place on the
clay-rich delta slopes during the flows of slurries and other forms of
Part of the mudstones appear to represent gravity-flow deposits.
mass flow. The flows and the resulting SSDS may have been trig-
Discussions on their origin and distribution are important for the
gered by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, shear stress of gravity
exploration of unconventional hydrocarbons and for reservoir
flows, and/or the sudden release of overburden-induced excess
prediction. Main reasons are: (1) gravity-flow deposits can contain
pore-fluid pressure. A tectonically active setting, a depositional
and preserve organic matter, as detailed below; (2) gravity flows
slope and a high sedimentation rate facilitated the development of
can transport relatively coarse grains to deep-water environments;
soft-sediment deformations on the lacustrine delta fronts. Alter-
and (3) gravity-flow deposits commonly have comparatively high
nations of water-saturated sands and soft muds with, consequently,
porosities and thus can contain relatively large amounts of hydro-
reversed density gradients were additional favorable factors for
carbons, and they tend to have good fracturing properties, which is
deformation processes.
particularly important for petroleum reservoirs.
The mudstones in the Yanchang Fm. can be divided into strati-
Gravity-flow deposits can contain high concentrations of
fied and unstratified mudstones; these can, respectively, be sub-
organic matter because gravity flows easily transport fine-grained
divided into 6 and 2 mudstone types. These fine-grained deposits
sediments and organic matter from shallower environments (e.g.
accumulated not only in areas with loweturbulence water, but also
the shelf) to their deep sink. On the continent and in deltaic envi-
under conditions with a higher hydrodynamic regime: part of the
ronments, flood-induced hyperpycnal flows directly discharge
unstratified, massive mudstones were transported and deposited
tremendous amounts of organic matter derived from continental
by strong currents in the lacustrine basin in the form of aggregate
vegetation. This organic matter and sediment input not only in-
grains. Other fine-grained deposits were transported and deposited
creases the TOC content directly, but also provides abundant nu-
under various flow regimes, such as by passive gravitational
trients that promote biological activity, which gives a positive
settling, quasi-laminar flows, unstable plug-flows, transitional plug
feedback by increasing the amount of organic matter in the sedi-
flows, mass flows in the form of muddy debris flows and slurry
ment. The TOC values of such gravity-flow-generated mudstones
flows, turbidity currents, hyperpycnal flows, hybrid flows, and
vary from 4.5% to 14.8% in the Yanchang Fm. (Yang et al., 2017). In
transitional flows. The mudstones were deposited in various envi-
addition, the high sedimentation rates resulting from gravity flows
ronments, ranging from delta fronts and subaqueous fans to deep
result in rapid burial and thus facilitate preservation of organic
lakes, with consequently different structures and textures.
matter. Fine-grained gravity flows thus favor hydrocarbon gener-
A better insight into the genesis of fine-grained gravity-flow
ation. Gravity flows were responsible for the supply of the large
deposits is important for a correct analysis of both lacustrine and
marine sediments and thus for understanding the characteristics of Ghadeer, S.G., Macquaker, J.H.S., 2011. Sediment transport processes in an ancient
mud-dominated succession: a comparison of processes operating in marine
these depositional environments. Particularly analysis of micro-
offshore settings and anoxic basinal environments. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 168,
structures and SSDS may help to understand the processes 1121e1132.
involved in the transport, deposition and early diagenesis of Ghadeer, S.G., Macquaker, J.H.S., 2012. The role of event beds in the preservation of
mudstones. Such an understanding of deep lacustrine and deep organic carbon in fine-grained sediments: analyses of the sedimentological
processes operating during deposition of the Whitby Mudstone Formation
marine fine-grained sediments has great significance for the (Toarcian, Lower Jurassic), preserved in northeast England. Mar. Pet. Geol. 35,
exploration of unconventional hydrocarbons. 309e320.
Ghosh, S.K., Sengupta, S., Dasgupta, S., 2002. Tectonic deformation of soft-sediment
convolute folds. J. Struct. Geol. 24, 913e923.
Acknowledgements Hansen, L., l'Heureux, J.S., Longva, O., 2011. Turbiditic clay-rich event beds in fjord-
marine deposits caused by landslides in emerging clay deposits e palae-
oenvironmental interpretation and role for submarine mass-wasting. Sedi-
We express our gratitude to all colleagues who commented on
mentology 58, 890e915.
earlier versions of our manuscript, thus helping us to improve the Haughton, P., Davis, C., McCaffrey, W., Barker, S., 2009. Hybrid sediment gravity flow
present contribution. This study was supported by the National deposits - classification, origin and significance. Mar. Pet. Geol. 26, 1900e1918.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 194e219

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

Lithofacies and origin of the Late Triassic muddy gravity-ﬂow deposits

2.1. Structural development and stratigraphy

The sediments under study belong to the Late Triassic Yanchang

3.2.1.2. Interpretation. The thin mudstone laminae with a homo-

R. Yang et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 85 (2017) 194e219

Fig. 6. Characteristics of mudstones from well H12, depth 2052.50e2052.65 m.

Fig. 7. Mudstone intraclasts in a core from well H52, depth 1843.46e1843.57 m.

on the ripple crests than in the troughs (MacKay and Dalrymple,

3.2.8. Thinly stratiﬁed mudstone with parallel lamination (type

3.2.8.2. Interpretation. The parallel and laterally continuous

layer range from 1 mm to over 5 cm. Some slight deformations of

(Fig. 19). Three layers or lenses of reddish brown tuffaceous

The various sedimentary structures and textures in the

7.3. Signiﬁcance for hydrocarbon exploration

Interaction between topography, water depth, the supply of

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