FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMICS CHAPTER 4 - ROAD LOADS

Effective tire cornering stiffness is favorably influenced directly by using tires Considering the vehicle as a whole, the total rolling resistance is the sum
with high cornering stiffness and by eliminating compliances in the steering or of the resistances from all the wheels:
suspension which allow the vehicle to yield to the crosswind. However, the
moment arm is strongly diminished by forward speed, thereby tending to (4-1 2)
increase crosswind sensitivity as speed goes up. where:
The static analysis discussed above may overlook certain other vehicle Rxf = Rolling resistance of the front wheels
dynamic properties that can influence crosswind sensitivity. Roll compliance,
particularly when it induces suspension roll steer effects, may playa significant Rxr = Rolling resistance of the rear wheels
role not included in the simplified analysis. Thus a more comprehensive fr = Rolling resistance coefficient
analysis using computer models of the complete dynamic vehicle and its
aerodynamic properties may be necessary for more accurate prediction of a W Weight of the vehicle
vehicle's crosswind sensitivity.
For theoretically correct calculations, the dynamic weight of the v ·hick.
including the effects of acceleration, trailer towing forces and the v 'flin t!
component of air resistance, is used. However, for vehicle perfOJ'lIl;tIH'I'
estimation, the changing magnitude of the dynamic weight complical ' S IIII'
ROLLING RESISTANCE calculations without offering significant improvements in accuracy . hlJ Ih"1
more, the dynamic weight transfer between axles has minimal intluenc '0111111'
The other major vehicle resistance force on level ground is the rolling
total rolling resistance (aerodynamic lift neglected). For these reasons, slali,'
resistance of the tires. At low speeds on hard pavement, the rolling resistance
vehicle weight is sufficiently accurate for computation of rolling resistarll.:l' ill
is the primary motion resistance force. In fact, aerodynamic resistance
most cases.
becomes equal to the rolling resistance only at speeds of 50-60 mph. For off- .
highway, level ground operation, the rolling resistance is the only significant All of these considerations apply, in a strict sense, only for strai/!,ht- lilll'
retardation force. motion. For vehicles which are subjected to lateral forces (corn'rilll' III
aerodynamic loading), the direction of rolling resistance deviat 'S frllll\ IIII'
While other resistances act on Iy under certain conditions of motion, rolling
direction of actual travel, and the tractive force must overcome th ' Vl'l 'llll i II
resistance is present from the instant the wheels begin to tum. Rolling
resultant of the side force and rolling resistance.
resistance, in addition, has another undesirable property-a large part of the
power expended in a rolling wheel is converted into heat within the tire. The
consequent temperature rise reduces both the abrasion resistance and the Factors Affecting RoIling Resistance
flexure fatigue strength of the tire material, and may become the limiting factor
in tire performance. The coefficient of rolling resistance, fp is a dimensionless fa ' 1111' Ihul
expresses the effects of the complicated and interdependent physical prop"11 it',
There are at least seven mechanisms responsible for rolling resistance: of tire and ground. Establishment of standardized conditions for m ' , ISlln'II11'1I1
of the effects of variables like the structure of the ground material. 'olllpllsil illll
I) Energy loss due to deflection of the tire sidewall near the contact area
of the rubber, design elements of the tire, temperature, etc., prov 'S di fli clI It if'
2) Energy loss due to deflection of the tread elements
3) Scrubbing in the contact patch not impossible. Some of the more important factors are discllss '<.I hl'lllw .
4) Tire slip in the longitudinal and lateral directions
5) Deflection of the road sUlfac . Tire Tempt:ratllrt'
6) Air drag on thl' inside and Illlt si de Ill' Ihl' lire
Ik ';IIISI' 111111 h "I IIII' ""11111'. les islalll-'l' 1111 pavl'd slllfal'l's lIi~,, 's 1111111
7) fo:lIl' Q·.Y IIISS 1111 hllllll'~'
dd "" ., illll !Il1d "111''1' v I,,·.·. II I IIII' till' lIIall' l i,t! , IIll' Il' lIljll'l lI lllI" III IIII' Iill' , 1111
____ Ill III

 FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMICS CHAPTER 4 - ROAD LOADS

have a significant effect on the resistance experienced. In the typical situation 0.4 ,..------..-----r----,..------,
where a tire begins rolling from a cold condition, the temperature will rise and
the rolling resistance will diminish over a first period of travel. Figure 4.29
shows the relative changes in temperature and rolling resistance that will occur <Ii
g 0.31-----+-----+---..""
[18]. In the figure the tire must roll a distance of at least 20 miles before the crl
U;
system approaches stable operation. In typical tire tests it is therefore common 'iii
Q)
to warm up the tire for 20 minutes or more before taking measurements that a:
may be affected by the warm-up condition. For the short trips representative g> 0.21----­
of much automotive travel, the tires never warm up to benefit from the lowest (5
a:
possible levels of rolling resistance. a
-:i5 0.1f---­
'u
120 100 :E
Medium Hard Soil
Q)
o
Temperature Rise u. ()

en 80 0
10 20 30 40
~
L­ <D
CI)
0 Inflation Pressure (psi)
<D
60
a:
L­

I-­
110 <D
L­
Fig. 4.30 Coefficient of rolling resistance versus inflation pressure [16].
<D .....~::J
-
.~
~
<D
105 40
L­
<D
0­
E
inflation pressure, while decreasing ground penetration, increases tire-flexure
a: work. Thus the optimum pressure depends on the surface deformation
<D
Tire Dra I­ characteristics. In general, the "increased traction" obtained by lowering tire
100 20 pressure on a sand surface is actually achieved through a reduction in rolling
resistance.

On medium plastic surfaces such as dirt, the effects of inflation pressure on

20 40
tire and ground approximately balance, and the coefficient remains nearly
Miles Run at Maintained Inflation independent of inflation pressure. On hard (paved) surfaces, the coefficient
decreases with higher inflation pressure since flexure work of the tire body will
Fif.(. 4.7Q Relative tire temperature and rolling resistance during warm-up.
be greatly reduced.

Tire Inflation Pressure/Load Velocity

To a large extent, the tire inflation pressure determines the tire elasticity
The coefficient is directly proportional to speed because of increased
and. in combination with the load, determines the deflection in the sidewalls
flexing work and vibration in the tire body, although the effect is small at
lind 'nntacl r ·gion. The overall effect on rolling resistance also depends on t.he
moderate and low speeds and is often assumed to be constant for calculation.
·Jasti 'ity of th ground. f'igun.: 4.30 shows how til ' 0 ·ffi 'i 'nt chan r 's with
Th innll nc of speed becomes more pronounced when speed is combined
i"llatillll pressur(' 1111 din~' rl'lIt type s III' slII' fa c 'S .
wilh !t)w,'r illlllliol1 pr ' SSII!' '. Fi ure 4.31 shows the rolling resistance versus
(hI ,'.01'1 ,' .1111:1 (,(, ,' , l i ]..I' '.lIl1d, lIil',1I illll.lti(lil 11II'S:.II I t' S lI' slIll ill i llt ' II' a~wd sl"'I'd I'llI'll ladial. hi as Iwll(·d. alld hias ply IiI' S 1 2~ 1. The sharp upturn in
1' 1(lIIIld 111"111"11 111 1(111 W(l 11< , 11111 IlwII'I(lJ(" 111 1' 111 ' 1 I "1 ' 1111 11'11'" ( '(llI vl ' I '.I' ly . l(l wl ' p " (11 ;11 It'il'lIl l1 ll1 il',h :-'11('1''' ', i" I 111 ,'.1"1 ( " IIl1il',h (' IIl' f)'.y sialldilll', waVl' (kwlopcd

-----~--------_ _~ I 11. II I
 I I INDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMICS CHAPTER 4 - ROAD LOADS

IIll hl: lire carcass just behind the tire contact patch. If allowed to persistforeven
Jlltl Inate periods of time, catastrophic failure can result. Thus formation of a Case &
.04 Side Rubber Tread
f Ilidillg wave is one of the primary effects limiting a tire's rated speed.
~ ""dl' rn tires rated for high speed normally include stabilizers in the shoulder Production Production
Production High-hysteresis
II' 110 control the development of standing waves. High-hysteresis High-hysteresis
C
<I>
'(3
.05.----------------------------. ~
o .03
o
<I>
cQ)
o
C
co
'0 .04 iii
:E
'e<I>n
Q) a:
0
Cl
U
,§ .02
(5
~ a:
Ct)
.03
,i ii
/ f!
II.)

.01
Bias------­ 30 40 50 60 70 80
Bias-Belted Temperature (0 C)
Radial-----­ Fig.4.32 Rolling resistance versus temperature/or tires with different polymers.

20 40 60 80 100 Tire Slip

Speed (mph)
Wheels transferring tractive or braking forces show higher rolling resis­
" II N " I/ II/.: resistance versus speed.
tance due to wheel slip and the resulting frictional scuffing. Cornering forces
produce the same effects. Figure 4.33 shows the rolling resistance effects as
1", , 1,,1,., (,land Design a function of slip angle [23]. At a few degrees of slip, equivalent to moderate­
high cornering accelerations, the rolling resistance coefficient may nearly
lit. 111 111'1 ials and thickness of both the tire sidewalls (usually expressed double in magnitude. The effect is readily observed in normal driving when
1111"10 ) ,llId 1111" Iread determine the stiffness and energy loss in the rolling tire. one will "scrub" off speed in a corner.
I I III I I' IJows the rolling resistance of experimental tires constructed of
.III" .. III I YI'I'Iw f rubber in the sidewalls and tr~ad areas [23]. The plot vividly
1111 "III II II' losses deriving from hysteresis in the tread material. Although Typical Coefficients
Ii " .. I 1/1 Ill' tread rubber is important for good wet traction, it degrades
The multiple and interrelated factors affecting rolling resistance make it
111111111 / I ' 1I. ln ll performance.
virtually impossible to devise a formula that takes all variables into account.
\ ' if ill 11111. smooth-tread tires show coe fficient values up to 20 percent Be fore a value for rolling resistance coefficient can be chosen for a particular
I.. "' II I II I II 'W lires. F ine la minalions. on Ih other hand, increase the aprl ication, the ove rall degree of accuracy required for the calculations should
, , .. /I II I, III I. 11111 'h as 25 p 're 'nl. Till' cord mal(' ri a l in til sid "wall has only b' slahlisht;d.
I III il l, I "'1' 1, hilI IIll' I,.·ord allglt' Hlld lili ' lwlr 1II IIIHTlie s (hrllnl Vl'rSIiS radial­
Sl' VC' IlI l "'1l1 l1l iIlIlS 1'111' c'slilllilling rlllling n' sislance ha ve bee n developed
1,1 III, ) It.IV!' I ~ i /~ lI i ll(, : 1I11 illlh H'I IIC
~ IVI'I II ... Y"III I• • '1IIdi(··. 1I111111' IlIlIill/"III,,,s c'h:lI m'll'risli 'S of :.;nlid I'lIhhl' rli .. ' s
II II
FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMICS CHAPTER 4 - ROAD LOADS

equations are usually inflation pressure, speed and load, The accuracy of a
calculation is naturally limited by the influence of factors that are neglected,
At the most elementary level, the rolling resistance coefficient may be
estimated as a constant. The table below lists some typical values that might
be used in that case,
Surface
Vehicle Type Concrete Medium Hard Sand

Passenger cars 0,015 0,08 0,30

Heavy trucks 0,012 0 .06 0,25

Tractors 0.02 0.04 0.20

At lower speeds the coefficient rises approximately linearly with speed.

Thus equations have been developed which include a linear speed dependence,
FiR. 4.33 Rolling resistance coefficient versus slip angle. such as below:

123 J led to an equation of the form:

fr = 0.01 (l + V/lOO) (4-14)

f r -- Rx
W -
_ CW-
D '\j~
fht (4-13) where:
V = Speed in mph
wiJ(;re :

Rx = Rolling resistance force Over broader speed ranges, the coefficient rises in a manner that is closer
W = Weight on the wheel to a speed-squared relationship. The Institute of Techhology in Stuttgart has
C = Constant reflecting loss and elastic characteristics of the tire developed the following equation for rolling on a concrete surface [16] :
material
D = Outside diameter
ht
= Tire section height (4-15)
w = Tire section width

where:
From this formulation, rolling resistance is seen to be load sensitive, V = Speed in mph
increasing linearly with load. Larger tires rcJuce rolling resistance, as do low
,",spect ratios (h/w ). Some confirmation of the general trends from this equation f0 = Basic coefficient
app 'ar in til > lit fatur from stud i ' S or th rnllin T r 'sistance of conventi onal fs =Speed effect coefficient
passl'IlI'.l'r (' ar tin's of dilT ' (' 'lit si:t.l's IIl1d 'r tlw sam' load COI)(\itiolls 12. I.

(IIIH'I 1' l llIal illll ,' , 1111 II I!' 11111i1l1' 1I ' ~, i .' , I : IIIl 'I' l' ll('ll 1" il' lIl till p asSI' III'.I" c a l' l i' I'S Th' Iwo 1'1 lI'ffi I' il' II IS, fo ;\ 11(\ f:-.. d 'P 'lid on innation pressure and are
"dlll i/, 11 11 I (11)( II ' '' ' ·.r lll. .. ''' , II,I VI ' 111" ' 11 d, ' v,'IIII,,'d, ' \'I II' v \I i I"" " , i ll 11 1('1'( tI, ' ll ' lIlI i l ... d 1111111 IIII' 1'1 .11'" ·.lIl1w lI ill l;il'.1I1 1' /I, lIL

III
 FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMlCS CHAPTER 4 - ROAD LOADS

0.020 normally referred to as "road load." The road load force is thus:

en 0.015 ~ RRL = fr W + 112 P y2 Co A + W sin {} (4-17)

~~
C
Q) The sum ofthese forces is plotted for a typical large vehicle in Figure 4.35.
'(3
:E 0.010 The rolling resistance has been assumed constant with a coefficient of0.02 and

~
Q)

----
0 fO a vehicle weight of 3650 lb. The aerodynamic drag assumes a vehicle of 23.3
()
0.005 ft2 frontal area and a drag coefficient of0.34. The total road load curve rises with
fs the square of the speed due to the aerodynamic component. Roll ing resistance and
a - grade simply slide the whole curve upward in proportion to their size.
20 30 40 50
The road load horsepower is computed by multiplying Eq. (4-16) by the
Inflation Pressure (psi)
vehicle velocity and applying the appropriate conversion factor to obtain
Fig. 4.34 Coefficients for Eq. (4- J5). horsepower. In that case:
HPRL = RRL Y/550 = (fr W + 112 P y2 CD A + W sin 8) Y/550 (4-18)
At the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, similar
The road load power corresponding to the road load forces in Figure 4.35
equations for estimating rolling resistance of heavy truck tires of both the radial
is shown in Figure4.36 for a level road condition. Note that the power increases
and bias-ply types were developed [24]. These are:
much more rapidly with velocity due to the cubic relationship in Eq. (4-18).
fr = (0.004] + 0.000041 Y) Ch Radial tires (4-16a) Thus at high speeds a small increase in speed results in a large increase in
vehicle power required, with an associated penalty to fuel economy.
fr = (0.0066 + 0.000046 Y) Ch Bias-ply tires (4-16b)
where:
Fuel Economy Effects
Y = Speed in mph Today, aerodynamic and rolling resistance forces are of particular interest
Ch =Road surface coefficient for their effect on fuel consumption. Aerodynamic drag, of course, is the most

= 1.0 for smooth concrete 300

= 1.2 for worn concrete, brick, cold blacktop :0­
'=­
= 1.5 for hot blacktop OJ
~
u.. 200
0
Road
Rolling resistance is clearly a minimum on hard, smooth, dry surfaces. A "0 Grade (%)
<U
worn-out road almost doubles rolling resistance. On wet surfaces, higher 0 ---4
--l
rolling resistance is observed probably due to the cooler operating temperature "0
<U
of the tire which reduces its flexibility. 0 100
IT:

--­ 1
TOTAL ROAD LOABS
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIlt' S1I1I11IHlli1l1l III lilt' IlIlIilll'. ll ' sislalllT alld al'flldyllilillic f'llrre s (a lid Speed (mph)
I',I :IIIt' fllll ' I ' ~'. il jlll",I' III) 11111 :1I1111 l' S IIII' PII'I'III :,illll Il,ad '''1 III!' v('hidl '. IlIIeI is
1'/.1:. '/ I'. /,'",u//",,'/ "/II( /,., "(I', '"',,//'nl',I,'"}:''' ('III .

II I JI)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMICS CHAPTER 4 - ROAD LOADS

important of the aerodynamic properties. In the decade of the 1970s, drag EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
coefficients of 0.4 to 0.5 were common on relatively large cars. In the 1980s,
drag coefficients are commonly less than 0.4 with some cars less than 0.3 . In 1) A heavy truck weighing 72,500 lb ro11s along 170 in Denver at a speed
addition, the smaller cross-sectional areas contribute to lower overall drag. of 67 mph. The air temperature is 55°F and the barometric pressure is 26.01
in Hg. The truck is 8' wide by 13.5' high, and has an aerodynamic drag
The exact improvements in fuel economy that may be expected from coefficient of 0.65. The truck has radial-ply tires. Calculate the aerodynamic
improvements in road loads are difficult to predict because of the uncertainty drag, the rolling resistance (according to the SAE equations) and the road load
about the ways cars are used and dri ven. Figure 4.37 shows an estimate ofwhere horsepower at these conditions.
the energy is used in EPA driving cycles and in steady highway driving [25].
Solution:
.... 75r-------------------------------~
0,) The aerodynamic drag may be calculated using Eq. (4-2) . The temperature
~
o and barometric pressure conditions are not standard, so we must first calculate
0.
0,)
the local air density using Eq. (4-3a).
~ 50

"0
Pr 519

ro
o p = 0.00236 29.92460 + T;

-l
~ 25
c:
o P =0.00236 26.01 519 =0.002071b-sec2 = 0.0667 ~
29.92 (460 + 55) ft4 ft3

Now the aerodynamic drag can be calculated:

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed (mph)
Ib-sec 2 67 mph 2 ,
Fig. 4.36 Road load power plotfor a typical passenger car. D A = 0.5 (0.00207 ) (0 682 hlftl ) 0.65 (8 ft)(13.5 ) = 702lb
ft4 . mp sec
~ work due to drag
Weight = 1361 kg @b4A,H work due to rolling resistance The rolling resistance comes from a combination of Egs. (4-12) and (4­
C A = 0.84 m2 IIIIIIIIIIIIIII work due to acceleration
d
16a). First from the SAE equation, we calculate the rolling resistance
70

coefficient, assuming a surface coefficient of unity:

~ 60
0
~
fr = [0.0041 + 0.000041 (67 mph)] =0.00685
ro 50
:§ Then the rolling resistance is:
'0 40
Q)
OJ
m
Rx =0.00685 (72,500 lb) =497 Ib
C 30
Q)
e At the speed of 67 mph (98.3 ftlsec) the horsepower required to overcome
Q)
!l..
20 aerodynamic drag is:
10 HP A = 702 10 (98.3 ft/sec) I hp/(550 ft-Ib/sec) = 125 hp
Alld Iht' hll rSI'r)()W '1' 10 (IV OJ' om ° rollin resistance is:

F'g I 1/ SII/,d , ' I \ I" "'JII\'''' ~ II/II' '''''111'' '' , /I /I, d, /d" l:' I" ~ /1'1 III'/{ .j ll/lil (11K , \ 1111."1 ') I 111'/( '1 () 11 Ill/sec HH.H lip

------~--------- ' .!.II ~ _ _ _ _ _- ­

FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMICS CHAPTER 4 - ROAD LOADS

Notes: REFERENCES
a) A total of nearly 215 hp is required to keep the truck rolling at this speed.
1. Li, W.H., and Lam, S.H., Principles of Fluid Mechanics, Addison­
b) Highway trucks typically have diesel engines rated at 350 to 600 horse­
Wesley Pub1 ishing Company, Inc., Reading, Massachusetts, 1964,374 p.
power. These engines are designed to run continuously at maximum power, so it
is not unreasonable for them to run at this output level for mile after mile. 2. Shepherd, D.O., Elements of Fluid Mechanics, Harcourt, Brace and
World, Inc., New York, 1965,498 p.
c) At a typical brake specific fuel consumption of 0.35 Ib per brake­
horsepower-hour, the engine will bum 82.6 Ib of diesel fuel per hour (13 3. Schenkel, F.K., ''The Origins of Drag and Lift Reductions on Automo­
gallons/hour) getting about 5.25 miles per gallon. It is not unusual to have a biles with Front and Rear Spoilers," SAE Paper No. 770389, 1977, II p.
fuel tank capacity of 300 gallons on-board a highway tractor, so they can run 4. Kramer, c., "Introduction to Aerodynamics," Lecture notes for Short
for nearly 24 hours or 1500 miles without having to stop for fuel. Course 1984-01, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Jan. 1984,60 p.
5. Lay, W.E., "Is 50 Miles per Gallon Possible with Correct Streamlining?"
2) A passenger car has a frontal area of21 square feet and a drag coefficient
SAE Journal, Vol. 32, 1933, pp 144-156, pp 177-186.
of 0.42. It is travel ing along at 55 mph. Calculate the aerodynamic drag and
the associated horsepower requirements if it is driving into a 25 mph headwind, 6. Hoerner, S., Fluid-Dynamic Drag, Published by the author, Midland
and with a 25 mph tailwind. Park, NJ, 1965.

Solution: 7. Kamm, W., "Einfluss der Reiehsautobahn auf die Gestaltung von
Kraftfahrzeugen," ATZ, Vol. 37,1943, pp 341-354.
The drag can be calculated from Eq. (4-2), although the relative velocity
must take into account the headwinds and tailwinds as given in Eq. (4-4). We 8. "SAE Vehicle Dynamics Terminology," SAE J670e, Society of Auto­
will assume that the air temperature and pressure conditions are effectively motive Engineers, Warrendale, PA (see Appendix A).
ncar standard conditions so that the standard value for air density can be used. 9. "Vehicle Aerodynamics Terminology," SAEJ 1594, Society ofAutomo­
Headwind condition: tive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, June 1987,5 p.
10. Buchheim, R., Deutenback, K.-R., and Luckoff, H.-J., "Necessity and
D =0.5 (0.00236Ib-sec2) ( (55 + 25) mph )20.42 (21 ft2) = 143lb Premises for Reducing the Aerodynamic Drag ofFuture Passenger Cars,"
A ft4 0.682 mph/ftlsec
SAE Paper No. 810185,1981, 14 p.
Tailwind condition:
11. Hucho, W.-H., and Janssen, L.1., "Beitrageder Aerodynamik im Rahmen
o = 0.5 (0.00236Ib-sec2) (~- 25) mph )20.42 (21 ft 2 ) = 20 lb einer Sciroeco," ATZ, Vol. 77, 1975, pp 1-5.
A ft4 0.682 mph/ft/sec
12. Scibor-Rylski, A.1., Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, Second Edition,
Notes: Pentech Press, London, 1984, 244 p.

a) The normal aerodynamic drag on this vehicle in the absence of any 13. Sardou - M.S.W.T , M., and Sardou, S.A., "Why to Use High Speed
headwind or tailwind would be 68 lb. Moving Belt Wind Tunnel for Moving Ground Surface Vehicles Devel­
opment," Lecture notes for Short Course 1984-01, von Karman Institute
h) The headwind mor than dOli hI 's th' dra 'b calise the drag increases with for Illid Dynamics, Jan. 1984, 59 p.
th sqllan' of' 11)(' rdatiw headwilld wl()\'· ily. whi '11 /,,( 's from 55 to HO mph.
I ~ . I II II': hI). W ,I I.. Jallssell. I ..J., and Jo.mm Imann, H.J., "The Optimization of
l' ) Tilt· Inil w illd II 'dlll '(' S II ... (hilI' (llIl: id('lalll dill" 10 Ihl" ::pl"l"d Nqllar' Blidy Ilt-Illib /\ M\"!hlld fill' ncdlll"iug A ' rodynamic Drag of Road
I"Ikl 'l, Vd lll "" .: ' . ' I' 1'.llwl Nil. If,OIH\ Ill/(,. I X p.
FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLE DYNAMICS

15. Gilhaus, A.M., and Renn, V.E., "Drag and Driving-Stability-Related

Aerodynamic Forces and Their Interdependence-Results of Measure­
CHAPTERS

ment on 3/8-Scale Basic Car Shapes," SAE Paper No. 860211, 1986, )5 p.
RIDE

16. Cole, D., "Elementary Vehicle Dynamics," course notes in Mechanical

Engineering, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 1972.
17. Aerodynamics ofRoad Vehicles, Wolf-Heinrich Hucho, ed., Butterworths,
London, ] 987, 566 p.
18. Hogue, J.R., "Aerodynamics of Six Passenger Vehicles Obtained from
FuJI Scale Wind Tunnel Tests," SAE Paper No. 800142, 1980, 17 p.
19. MacAdam, C.C., Sayers, M.W., Pointer, J.D., and Gleason, M., "Cross­
wind Sensitivity of Passenger Cars and the Influence of Chassis and
Aerodynamic Properties on Driver Performance," Vehicle Systems
Dynamics, Vol. 19, 1990,36 p.
20. Willumeit, H.P., et al., "Method to Correlate Vehicular Behavior and
Driver's Judgment under Side Wind Disturbances," Dynamics of
Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, Proceedings, Swets and Zeit1inger B. V.
- Lisse, 1988, pp. 509-524.
21. Uffelmann, F., "Influence of Aerodynamics and Suspension on the
Cross-Wind Behaviour of Passenger Cars - Theoretical Investigation
under Consideration of the Driver's Response," Dynamics of Vehicles LaSI segmenl oj Ciflluralo P3 endurance lesl. (PllOla courlesy oj Pirelli Tire Corp.)
on Roads and Tracks, O. Nordstrom, ed., Swets and Zeitlinger B. V. -
Lisse, 1986, pp. 568-581. Automobiles travel at high speed, and as a consequence experience a broad
22. van den Hemel, H., et aI., "The Cross-Wind Stability of Passenger Cars: spectrum of vibrations. These are transmitted to the passengers either by
Development of an Objective Measuring Method," Fourth IA VSD tactile, visual, or aural paths. The term "ride" is commonly used in reference
Congress, 1987. to tactile and visual vibrations, whi1e the aural vibrations are categorized as
"noise." Alternatively, the spectrum of vibrations may be divided up according
23. Clark, S.K., et al., "Rolling Resistance of Pneumatic Tires," The
to frequency and classified as ride (0-25 Hz) and noise (25-20,000 Hz). The
University of Michigan, Interim Report No. UM-01 0654-3-1, July 1974,
25 Hz boundary point is approximately the lower frequency threshold of
'65 p.
hearing, as well as the upper frequency limit of the simpler vibrations common
24. Fancher, P.S., and Winkler, c.B., "Retarders for Heavy Vehicles: Phase to all motor vehicles. The different types of vibrations are usually so
III Experimentation and Analysis; Performance, Brake Savings, and interrelated that it may be difficult to consider each separately; i.e., noise is
Vehicle Stability," U. S. Department ofTransportation, Report No. DOT IIsually present when lower-frequency vibrations are excited.
HS 806672, Jan. 1984, 144 p.
Thl' vihration environment is one of the more important criteria by which
25. Buchhcim, R.," ontrihutiol1s of A 'rodynamics to lIel E 'onomy lm­ (wopl r. jlldp thc' design and onstruction "lJlIal ity" of a car. Being ajudgment,
prov'llIl:nts of 1'IlllIrl' Cars," 1:IIl'I I: ' OJllllllY R'search onf"r nee, il is slIhit: ·tiv,' ill lIallln', from wlli 'h aris 'S on " of the greatest difficulties in
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