CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION

An engine is a device, which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into sensible, or
“thermal”, energy and uses this sensible energy to perform useful work. In the internal
combustion engine both processes can be considered to take place within the engine cylinder.

Crankshaft is one of the critical parts of internal combustion engine which converts
the reciprocating motion of the connecting rod to rotary motion. It is the principle-rotating
member of the engine. The crankshaft is subjected to both torsion and bending stresses,
which may be greatly increased by resonance. Hence it is very difficult to calculate the stress
developed in the crankshaft during the operating conditions. Hence finite element technique
can be used for the stress analysis of the crankshaft.

The overall objective of this project was to evaluate and compare the fatigue
Performance of two competing manufacturing technologies for automotive crankshafts
namely forged steel and ductile cast iron. In addition, weight and cost reduction opportunities
for optimization of the forged steel crankshaft were also investigated. The detailed results are
presented in two reports. The first report deals with the fatigue performance and comparison
of forged steel and ductile cast iron crankshafts. This second report deals with analyses of
weight and cost reduction for optimization of the forged steel crankshaft.

The main objective of this project was to investigate weight and cost reduction
opportunities for a forged steel crankshaft. The need of load history in the FEM analysis
necessitates performing a detailed dynamic load analysis. Therefore, this study consists of
three major sections: Stress analysis (Static), Stress analysis (Dynamic), Optimization for
weight and cost reduction.

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1.1THEORY OF CRANKSHAFT:

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Crankshaft is one of the critical parts in internal combustion engine which converts
reciprocating motion of the connecting rod to rotational motion. It is the principle-rotating
member of the engine. An extension of this shaft is usually the part through which the
external work of the engine is done. This shaft is built with one or more eccentric portions
called crank and crank throws.

Fig. 1.1 Crankshaft

1.1.2 TYPES:

All crankshafts may be divided in to two types, shafts with side cranks and shafts with
center cranks. The later constitutes the majority and many be further subdivided into single
crank and multi crankshafts.

The crankshaft, depending upon the position of crank, may be divided into the following two
types:

1. Side crankshaft or overhung crankshaft, as shown in Fig.(a), and

2. Centre crankshaft, as shown in Fig. (b)

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 The crankshafts are subjected to shock and fatigue loads. Thus material of the
crankshaft should be tough and fatigue resistant. The crankshafts are generally made of
carbon steel, special steel or special cast iron. The crankshafts are made by drop forging or
casting process but the former method is more common. The surface of the crankpin is
hardened by case carburizing, nitriding or induction hardening.

1.1.3 FUNCTION OF CRANKSHAFTS IN IC ENGINES:

The crankshaft, connecting rod, and piston constitute a four bar slider-crank

mechanism, which converts the sliding motion of the piston (slider in the mechanism) to a

rotary motion. Since the rotation output is more practical and applicable for input to other

devices, the concept design of an engine is that the output would be rotation. In addition, the

linear displacement of an engine is not smooth, as the displacement is caused by the

combustion of gas in the combustion chamber. Therefore, the displacement has sudden

shocks and using this input for another device may cause damage to it.

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 The concept of using crankshaft is to change these sudden displacements to a smooth

rotary output, which is the input to many devices such as generators, pumps, and

compressors. It should also be mentioned that the use of a flywheel helps in smoothing the

shocks. Figure 1.2 shows the mounting of a crankshaft in an engine and Figure 1.3 shows the

P-V diagram during an engine cycle for a four stroke cycle engine, where V d is the volume

swept by the piston and Vbdc is the volume of the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom

dead centre (BDC).

1.1.4 MATERIALS:

MATERIAL SELECTION:

Medium-carbon steel alloys are composed of predominantly the element iron, and
contain a small percentage of carbon (0.25% to 0.45%, described as ‘25 to 45 points’ of
carbon), along with combinations of several alloying elements, the mix of which has been
carefully designed in order to produce specific qualities in the target alloy, including harden
ability, nitridability, surface and core hardness, ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
endurance limit (fatigue strength), ductility, impact resistance, corrosion resistance, and
temperembrittlement resistance. The alloying elements typically used in these carbon steels
are manganese, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, cobalt, vanadium, and sometimes
aluminum and titanium. Each of those elements adds specific properties in a given material.

4
The carbon content is the main determinant of the ultimate strength and hardness to which
such an alloy can be heat treated.

In converting the linear motion of the piston into rotational motion, crankshafts
operate under high loads and require high strength. Crankshafts require the following
characteristics

 High strength and stiffness to withstand the high loads in modern engines, and to offer
opportunities for downsizing and weight reduction
 Resistance to fatigue in torsion and bending
 Low vibration
 Resistance to wear in the bearing areas

Thus the forged steel crankshafts offer higher strength and stiffness and the other material
characteristics than the cast iron alternative

Crankshafts are usually made of open-hearth steel, alloy steel, cast steel, cast iron, etc.
nowadays Spheroidal Graphite Iron (S.G. Iron) is also used for manufacturing crankshafts.

1.1.5 STRESSES:

The stresses, which arise in a crankshaft, are from bending and twisting moments. As
the failure of a crankshaft is apt to cause a serious engine wreck, and also because not all of
the acting forces can be measured accurately, the allowable stress limit usually are taken
rather low. High stress concentration may occur as a result of abrupt change of section,
unsymmetrical drilled holes or sharp-ended keyways. To avoid this two different cross
sections are blended with large fillet.

1.1.6 ENDURANCE FAILURE:

Most crankshaft failures are due to progressive fracture either from repeated bending
or from reversed torsional stresses. Stresses repeated many times results in the final failure of
the stressed part, even though the stresses do not reach the elastic limit of the material. The
maximum stress that can be applied indefinitely without causing failure is called the
endurance limit. Repeated bending stresses exceeding the endurance limit may be produced
in a crankshaft from one or more bearings being lower or higher than the rest.
5
 Repeated dangerous torsional stresses may occur in multi throw crankshafts from
torsional vibration at critical speeds. In single throw and two throw crankshafts these stresses
may occur from counter weights placed into the rim of the flywheel instead of being fastened
to the crank cheeks. In a multi throw non-rigid crankshaft, with a heavy flywheel on one end
and the power take-off on the other end, the torsional stresses may exceed the endurance limit
at other than the critical speed.
The crankshaft must be checked for at least two crank positions – one when the
bending moment from the gas pressure is maximum, the other when the twisting moment is a
maximum.

1.1.7MAXIMUM TORQUE:

The crank angle where the maximum torque occurs may be found graphically by
taking the pressures from the net-effort diagram for different crank angles and determining
the tangential components Ft. The crank angle which corresponds, to the largest value of Ft is
the angle of the maximum torque. This angle usually lies between 25 and 35 degrees from the
corresponding dead center for engines with constant pressure combustion.

1.2 FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF CRANKSHAFT:

When any machine element is subjected to variable loads, it may fail before the
stipulated time, which has been calculated by treating the machine element under static or
steady load, and that failure due to variable load is called fatigue failure. By analyzing the
fatigue stress by decreasing the load and finding the life, we may get one fatigue stress below
which the material will not fail at all for infinite life. That stress is called as fatigue limit or
endurance limit.
When a rotating member is subjected to a concentrated load, the member will fail at a
particular number of revolutions for that particular load. If the load is reduced, then the life
(or no. Of revolutions) is increased. If we go on reducing the load, at a particular load, the
member will not fail for infinite number of revolutions. That load per unit area of member is
known as endurance limit or fatigue stress.

6
 In practice, only a few machine parts like front axle of automobiles, ceiling fans
hanging rods, machine tolls columns, some fixed frames are subjected to steady loads (ie,
loads not varying with time). But many of the machine components like motor shafts,
springs, gear teeth, valves, turbine blades, rear axle of automobiles; suspension bridges, wire
ropes are subjected to variable loads (ie, loads varying time to time) also known as fatigue
loads.

In most engineering materials, a stress that fluctuates is more likely to cause failure
than a steady stress. When selecting a material for manufacturing a machine component, its
resistance to failure due to cyclic load should be considered.

7
 The resistance of a material to fatigue failure is characterized by its fatigue limit. In
order to find out the fatigue limit of a particular material, a number of specimens of equal
conditions like shape, size and surface smoothness (generally mirror polished specimen) are
tested one after the other in a fatigue testing machine by varying the loads from a higher
value to a lower value and the corresponding number of cycles or reduced, at a particular
load, the specimen will not fail (or break) at all for infinite number of cycles. The stress
corresponding to this load is called “fatigue limit” or “endurance limit”. That is the
endurance limit may be defined as the cyclic stress below which the specimen can withstand
without failure for infinite number or cycles.

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 CHAPTER – 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.0 INTRODUCTION:

The crankshaft being a very critical part of the IC engine must be structurally sound.
The advent of new technologies such as finite element analysis the design of crankshaft has
become easier and accurate.

Crankshaft (i.e. a shaft with a crank) is a central component of any internal

combustion engine and is used to convert reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion or vice versa. Crankshafts come in many shapes and sizes from small ones found in
two-stroke small engines to giant ones found in diesel engines in ships. Crankshafts in
automotive engines also vary each one unique to its engine type and make. The crankshaft
main journals rotate in a set of supporting bearings ("main bearings"), causing the offset rod
journals to rotate in a circular path around the main journal centers, the diameter of which is
twice the offset of the rod journals. The diameter of that path is the engine "stroke": the
distance the piston moves up and down in its cylinder. The big ends of the connecting rods
("conrods") contain bearings ("rod bearings") which ride on the offset rod journals.

The crankshaft consists of the shaft parts which revolve in the main bearings, the
crankpins to which the big ends of the connecting rod are connected, the crank arms or webs
(also called cheeks) which connect the crankpins and the shaft parts.

The crankshaft must be designed or checked for at least two crank positions one when
bending moment from the gas pressure is maximum the other when twisting moment is
maximum. V.L. MALEEV, Internal Combustion Engines Theory & Design (1985) explains
the design aspects of the crankshaft, giving details of the loads acting on the crankshaft.

JOSEPH EDWARD SHIGLEY and JOHN JOSEPH UICKER. Jr, Theory of Machines,
(1995) analyses the dynamics of the single cylinder engine. They also analyses the forces
acting on the crankshaft.

EDWARD F. OBERT, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollutions, (1973) explains the
performance factors of the IC engines.

9
Dr. R.C. BHAL and Dr. V.K. GEOL, Machine Design (1982), analyses the forces acting on
the crankshaft in various positions and explains the design aspect of the crankshaft.

ROBERT D. COOK, Concept and Applications of Finite Element Analysis (1981),

emphasizes finite element formulation of linear stress analysis and also explains about the
finite element method in dynamics and vibration.

ROBERT D. COOK, Finite Element Modeling for Stress Analysis, (1995), presents a modest
amount of theory, discusses the nature of finite element solutions, offers modeling details
suggests computational problems and emphasize the need for checking the computed results.

This study was motivated by a need for a comparative study of forged steel and

ductile cast iron crankshafts, which are the most commonly, used manufacturing processes

for an automotive crankshaft. In addition, it was desired to develop an optimized geometry,

material, and manufacturing procedure which will reduce the weight of the forged steel

component for fuel efficiency and reduce the manufacturing cost due to high volume

production of this component.

This research was performed on crankshafts from single cylinder engines. However,

since the basis of analysis are the same for multi-cylinder engines, the procedures used could

be modified and implemented for crankshafts from other types of engines. Other studies on

crankshafts from multi-cylinder engines are typically performed on a portion of the

crankshaft consisting of two journal bearings and one crankpin bearing, which is similar to

that a single cylinder engine. The only major difference in engines with different number of

cylinders is the dynamic analysis of the loads applied to the component.

This study is a part of a project dealing with fatigue performance comparison and

optimization of forged steel and ductile cast iron crankshafts. A comprehensive literature

review about crankshaft durability, comparison of competing manufacturing processes and

10
cost analysis was performed by Zoroufi and Fatemi (2005). Fatigue and durability assessment

of the crankshafts used in this study were investigated by Williams and Fatemi (2007). They

conducted experimental monotonic and cyclic tests on both materials using specimens taken

from as forged and as cast crankshafts. Their investigation also included component fatigue

tests and fatigue life predictions.

This study is concerned with identifying the critical location of fatigue failure caused

by engine loads and calculating the operating stress range at this location (Montazersadgh

and Fatemi, 2007). In addition, considering component geometry and according to the

applied loads during service life of the crankshaft, it was desired to optimize the weight and

manufacturing cost of the forged steel crankshaft, while maintaining or improving its fatigue

performance (Williams et al., 2007).

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 CHAPTER – 3

MODEL DEVELOPMENT OF CRANKSHAFT

3.0 INTRODUCTION:

To find the stress developed in the crankshaft under bending and torsion loads, it is
necessary to model of the crankshaft. From the analysis, besides getting the stress developed
on the crankshaft can also be found using fatigue analysis.

Fig. 3.1 Crankshaft for single cylinder engine

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3.1 MODEL CREATION:

The model is created in CATIA V5 R19. To start with, necessary dimensions,

physical properties and material properties where given as input. Dimensions of the
crankshaft are in the blue print.

3.2 INTRODUCTION TO CATIA

CATIA Version 5 is the first release of the next generation of Dassault Systems
software solutions, and addresses advanced mechanical process centric design requirements.
In addition to leading edge feature-based design functions, it includes highly productive
capabilities for the design of mechanical assemblies and for drawing generation.

Available on both UNIX and Windows environments, Version 5 is built to be totally

compliant with Windows presentation standards.

The Version 5 Part Design application makes it possible to design precise 3D

mechanical parts with an intuitive and flexible user interface, from sketching in an assembly
context to iterative detailed design. Version 5 Part Design applications will enable you to
accommodate design requirements for parts of various complexities, from simple to advance.

This application, which combines the power of feature-based design with the
flexibility of a Boolean approach, offers a highly productive and intuitive design environment
with multiple design methodologies, such as post-design and local 3D parameterization.

As a scalable product, Part Design can be used in cooperation with other current or
future companion products such as Assembly Design and Generative Drafting. The widest
application portfolio in the industry is also accessible through interoperability with CATIA
Solutions Version 4 to enable support of the full product development process from initial
concept to product in operation.

Assembly Design Version 5 workbench allows the design of assemblies with an

intuitive and flexible user interface.

13
 As a scalable workbench, Assembly Design Version 5 can be cooperatively used with
other current companion products such as Part Design Version 5 and Generative Drafting
Version 5. The widest application portfolio in the industry is also accessible through
interoperability with Solutions Version 4 to enable support of the full product development
process from initial concept to product in operation. Digital Mock-Up (DMU) Navigator
Version 5 inspection capabilities can also be used to review and check your assemblies.
Interactive, variable-speed techniques such as walk-through and fly as well as other viewing
tools let you visually navigate through large assemblies

Version 5 Interactive Drafting is a new generation product that addresses 2D design

and drawing production requirements.

Interactive Drafting is a highly productive, intuitive drafting system that can be used
in a standalone 2D CAD environment within a backbone system. It also expands the
Generative Drafting product with both integrated 2D interactive functionality and an
advanced production environment for the dress-up and annotation of drawings. This provides
an easy and smooth evolution from 2D to 3D-based design methodologies

Freestyle Shaper is a powerful modeling tool used to dynamically design all types of
surface elements, from the stylist's drawing to the final surface, ready for the manufacturing
processes.

Using this product you can generate free form 3D curves and surfaces from scratch,
and dynamically deform and analyze all produced elements.

Using the Freestyle Optimizer you can create and modify curve and surface shapes
based on other elements such as digitized data.

Using Freestyle Profiler, you can directly create complex surfaces based on profiles
and sets of curves in one step, without having to deform them in a second step.

The Freestyle Sketch Tracer is a new-generation tool used to import stylist's drawings
into the 3D world.

Using this product you can convert 2D images into a 3D scene to create 3D geometry
from your hand drawings, or other source such as pictures. You position the 3D model in
14
relation to the sketch and, in conjunction with other products, create geometric outlines
directly over the sketches.

The Generative Shape Design workbench allows you to quickly model both simple
and complex shapes using wire frame and surface features. It provides a large set of tools for
creating and editing shape designs and, when combined with other products such as Part
Design, it meets the requirements of solid-based hybrid modeling.

The feature-based approach offers a productive and intuitive design environment to

capture and re-use design methodologies and specifications.

This new application is intended for both the expert and the casual user. Its intuitive
interface offers the possibility to produce precision shape designs with very few interactions.
The dialog boxes are self-explanatory and require practically no methodology, all defining
steps being commutative.

As a scalable product, Generative Shape Design can be used with other Version 5
products such as Part Design and Free Style Shaper and Optimizer. The widest application
portfolio in the industry is also accessible through interoperability with CATIA Solutions
Version 4 to enable support of the full product development process from initial concept to
product in operation.

Digitized Shape Editor is a powerful application used to read, import and process
parts digitized to clouds of points. These clouds of points can then be used in Free Style
Shaper, DMU or Machinist or exported to various other formats.
3.2.1 DIGITIZED SHAPE EDITOR:

 Proposes several import formats,

 Takes special characteristics of imported shapes into account (free edges, facets, ...),
if requested,

 Ensures a fast processing of clouds (that may contain several million of points)
through filtering, activation and removal functions,

15
 (points, scans, grids, tessellation) easy,

 Provides edition functions such as merging and aligning of clouds, or creation of

planar sections,

 Provides display and analysis functions of the cloud,

 Keeps the architecture of objects processed,

 Provides tessellations to be used directly with other applications or for visualization,

 Exports the models created to several formats.

3.3 MODEL OF CRANK SHAFT:

Fig. 4.1 C30 Engine Crankshaft-CATIA V5 CAD Model

16
Views of crank shaft

Front view

Right view

17
 CHAPTER-4
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
4.0 INTRODUCTION:

Today the finite element method is a powerful tool for the approximate solution of
differential equations governing diverse physical phenomena. Its use in industry and research
is extensive and indeed it could be said that without it (along with the computer) many
problems could be incapable of solution. High speed electronic digital computers have
enabled engineers to employ various numerical discretization techniques for approximate
solutions of complex problems.

The finite element method is one such technique. It was originally developed as a tool for
structural analysis, but the theory and formulation have been progressively so refined and
generalized that the method has been applied successfully to such other diverse fields as heat
flow, seepage, hydrodynamics, etc.

As a result of this broad applicability and systematic generality of the associated

computer codes, the method has gained wide acceptance by designers and research engineers.

Various soft wares employing finite element techniques are available in the industry
at present. Our project was carried out implementing the design and analysis software
ASNSYS 5.4 This is multipurpose software on which both designing and analysis can be
carried out without the trouble of importing the designed product from the design soft wares.

18
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

Ansys is leading finite element analysis software developed by Ansys inc. it is user-
friendly graphical user interface package. Many cad programs have direct interface with
ansys through software written by ansys inc. or by cad vendors.

4.2 CAPABILITIES OF ANSYS:

The following types of analysis can be done using ansys

 Linear Stress Analysis

 Structural Nonlinear Analysis
 Geometric nonlinear analysis
 Material nonlinear analysis
 Dynamic Analysis
 Modal analysis
 Spectrum analysis
 Harmonic analysis
 Random analysis
 Structural analysis
 Buckling Analysis
 Thermal Analysis
 CFD
 Laminar
 Turbulent
 Incompressible
 Compressible, etc

 Field and Coupled Field Analysis

 Acoustics-Structural
 Piezo Electric
 Thermal-Structural, etc.

19
4.3. STEPS IN FINITE ELEMENT PROCEDURE:

Regardless of the approach find the element properties; the solution of the
continuum problem by the finite element method always follows an orderly step-by-step
process. The steps are,

4.3. 1 DISCRETIZE THE CONTINUUM:

The first step is to divide the continuum or the solution region into elements. A
variety of element shapes may be used, and with care different shapes may be employed in
the solution region. Although the number and type of element used is a matter of
engineering judgment. The analyst can reply on experience of other for guidelines.

4.3.2 SELECT INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS:

The next step is to assign nodes to each element and then choose the type of interpolation
function t represent the variation of the field variable over the element. The field variable
may be a scalar, a vector or a high order tensor. Often, although not always polynomials are
selected as interpolation functions for the field variable because they are easy to integrate and
differentiate.

The degree of the polynomial chosen depends on the number of nodes assigned to the
element, the nature and number of unknowns at each nod and certain continuity requirements
imposed at the node and along the element boundaries. The magnitude of the filed variable
as well as the magnitude of its derivatives may be unknowns at the nodes.

4.4 ELEMENT PROPERTIES:

Once the finite element model has been established (that is once the element and their
interpolation functions have been selected), we are ready to determine the matrix equations
expressing the properties of the individual elements.

For this task we may use one of the four approaches mentioned below.

 Direct approach
 Variational approach
 Weighted residual approach
 Energy balance approach

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4.5.1 ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT PROPERTIES:
To find the properties of the over all system modeled by the network of elements we
must assemble all the element properties i.e. We must combine the matrix equations
expressing the behavior of the elements and form the matrix equations expressing the
behavior of the entire solutions region or system. The matrix equations for the system have
the same form as the equations of the individual elements except that they contain many more
terms because they include all nodes. The basis for the assembly procedure stems from the
fact at a node, where elements are interconnected, and the value of the files variable is same
for each element sharing that node.

Assembly of the element equations is a routine matter in finite element analysis is

usually done by digital computer. Before the system equations are ready for solution they
must be modified to account for the boundary Conditions of the problem.

4.5.2 SOLVE THE SYSTEM EQUATION:

The assembly processes of the preceding step gives a set of simultaneous equations
that we can solve to obtain unknown nodal values of the field variable. If the equations are
linear, we can use a number of standard solution techniques, if the equations are non linear,
their solutions arte more difficult to obtain.

4.5.3 MAKE ADDITIONAL COMPUTATIONS IF DESIRED

Sometimes we may want to use the solution of the system equations to calculate other
important parameters. For example, in a solid mechanics problem such as the stress analysis
problem the solution of the system equation gives the displacements within the system. From
the nodal values of the displacements we may then calculate stress distributions.

4.6 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PROCESS:

4.6.1 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING:

Finite element analysis begins with the finite element modeler (called a meshed or a
pre-processor). The cost-effectiveness of FEA is heavily depending on the pre-processor
since the vast majority of human time involved in finite element analysis is spent in creating
the model for analysis. In order to effectively incorporate analysis into the design cycle, you
must be able to quickly create the required modes. The modeler creates

21
 The physical data necessary for analysis for creating a mesh of elements utilizing
either an imported 3D CAD model or one generated internally.

There are two basic mesh types characterized by the connectivity of their points.
Structured meshes have a regular connectivity, which means that each point has the same
number of neighbors (for some grids a small number of points will have a different of
neighbors).

Unstructured meshes have irregular unstructured meshes have been developed mainly
for the finite element method. There is a range of possible shapes for finite for finite
elements: tetrahedral, prism, blocks and they can be arbitrary connectivity, leading to
unstructured meshes.

4.6.2 FINITE ELEMENTS SOLVERS:

Solvers are the engines of finite element analysis. They take the elements, boundary
conditions, and loads and output a solution containing all of the information needed to review
and understand the results. Solvers may be divided into two categories: linear and nonlinear.

Linear FEA is differentiated from nonlinear in that all deflection are assumed small, no
boundary conditions change during analysis and material properties are linear (i.e. elastic).

4.6.3 POST PROCESSING:

Post processors or visualizes utilize the data generated by the solver to create
easily understandable graphics and reports.

4.7 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:

4.7.1 SOLVED PROBLEMS IN COMPUTER:

The equations of equilibrium, compatibility and stress-strain will be developed for

problems in linear static elasticity with small deformations. It is the solution of these partial
differential equations with appropriate boundary conditions, i.e. loading and restraints that
provide information that is useful to engineers when carrying out mechanical design

When the problem has simple geometry and simple boundary conditions this
differential equations can be solved to provide classical solutions.

22
 In these cases the solution functions, are described in the form of series expansions
and at every point of the structure they satisfy equilibrium, compatibility and the boundary
conditions.

Most engineering designs, however, are too complex for this classical approach. For
example, a structure may have spatially dependent material properties if different materials
are used; the geometry may be irregular in some sense or the boundary conditions can be
achieved only by resorting to an approximate numerical method.

There are three numerical methods that are commonly used to solve partial
differential equations throughout a three-dimensional domain.

The methods are,

 THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

 THE FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD

 THE BOUNDARY INTEGRAL OR BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD

Out of these three methods, the finite elements method has become the most
widely used when solving structural problems in both industry and academic.

There has been a sustained research effort into the finite element method since
1960 and numerous commercial finite element programs are now available. Since then the
range of problems being routinely solved has grown, starting with the original application of
finding static elastic solutions, to embracing even those problems which posse's large
deformations and dynamic plasticity.

It is worth a note here to explain some of the philosophy behind the finite element
method. Essential, any problems can be split up into any number of smaller problems. With
the finite method considering that a complex geometrical shape is made up of number of
simpler shapes does this. For example, a circle might be approximated by a series of
triangles in an attempt to calculate the are of the circle. This is known as spatial
discretization, with each simple shape being known as an element and whole collect on of
elements being known as a mesh.

23
 Within each element the relevant property of the element is predicted, say its area in
the case of the triangles approximating a circle, or the relationship between forces and
displacements for a structural element.

This is done without any reference to other element is the mesh. Here, people talk of
forming the elements equations, often by assuming known value of properties at fixed points
on the elements known as nodes.

Then the properties of all the elements and the interactions between them are taken
into account by assembling the element equations and finding a solution to them. In the
case of the area of a circle, the element equations calculate the area of the triangles and the
solution process adds these together to predict the area of the triangle. Clearly, as more
triangles are considered, there are predicted approximates ever more closely the area of the
circle, which is known as the convergence of the solution.

4.8 RESEARCH IN FINITE ELEMENTS:

An important method for deriving element stiffness matrix (K) is the direct method
that is based on physical reasoning. It is limited to simple linear elastic elements such as a
pure bending beam with constant properties along their lengths. Note that such elements are
identical to those used in the direct stiffness matrix method. But real structures cannot often
be modeled using such simple elements so alternative methods are sought to develop (K)
when shape, material properties and behavior are more complex.

Both variational and weighted residual methods have been developed to derive (K)
using piecewise continuous distributions for the nodal unknowns. For structural
mechanics problems it is observed that the finite element characteristics are identical
whichever of the two methods is use.

4.9 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PROCEDURE IN ANSYS:

Ansys helps to build a complete finite element model, including physical and material
properties, loads and boundary conditions, and analyses the various behavior of mechanical
components and structure

4.9.1 PRE-PROCESSING:
Preprocessing comprises of building, meshing and loading the model created.

24
 4.10 MESHING

Ansys offers a complete set of tools for automatic mesh generation, including
mapped mesh generation. Both mapped meshing and free meshing can access geometric
information in the form of points, curves and surfaces.

4.11 SOLVING THE MODEL:

With all parts of model defined, nodes, elements, restraints and loads, the
analysis part of the model is ready to begin. The system can determine approximate values
of stress, deflections, temperatures, pressures and vibration nodes.

An analysis requires the following in formations,

 Nodal point
 Elements connecting the nodal points
 Material and physical properties
 Boundary conditions which consist of loads and constraint
 Analysis option :how the problem will evaluated
4.12 POST-PROCESSING ANALYSIS RESULT:

The post processing task display and study the results of an analysis, which exist in
the model as analysis data sets. This task can generate displays of deformed geometry, con
tour plots, arrow plots, etc.
Ansys can show stress/temperature contours or stress/thermal gradients on the
deflected data model. Animation of static and dynamic deflections and mode shapes often
with analysis results superimposed on the model.
4.13 APPLICABLE ANSYS PRODUCTS:

Ansys/Multi-Physics

 Ansys/Mechanical
 Ansys/ Structural
 Ansys/Mechanical with electromagnetic add-on (emag)
 Ansys/Mechanical with the Flotrran CFD add-on (flotrran)
 Ansys/Thermal
 Ansys/ Emag 3d

25
4.14 PARABOLIC TETRAHEDRON IS A TEN-NODE ISOPERIMETRIC SOLID
ELEMENT:

Type Solid element

Physical property Solid

Mesh connectivity Parabolic tetrahedron

Number of nodes 10

Degrees of freedom(per node) 3 (translations)

Type of behavior Elastic

Fig. 6.1 Parabolic Tetrahedron Element

4.15 SOLID92 ELEMENT DESCRIPTION:

SOLID92 has a quadratic displacement behavior and is well suited to model irregular meshes
(such as produced from various CAD/CAM systems). Ten nodes having three degrees of
freedom at each node define the element: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The
element also has plasticity, creep, swelling, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain
capabilities.

26
4.15.1 SOLID92 INPUT DATA:

Beside the nodes, the element input data includes the orthotropic material properties.
Orthotropic material directions correspond to the element coordinate directions. The element
coordinate system orientation is as described in Coordinate Systems.

Element loads are described in Node and Element Loads. Positive pressures act into
the element. Temperatures and fluencies may be input as element body loads at the nodes.
The node I temperature T (I) defaults to TUNIF. If all other temperatures are unspecified,
they default to T (I). If all corner node temperatures are specified, each mid side node
temperature defaults to the average temperature of its adjacent corner nodes. For any other
input temperature pattern, unspecified temperatures default to TUNIF. Similar defaults occurs
for fluencies except that zero is used instead of TUNIF.

You can apply an initial stress state to this element through the ISTRESS or ISFILE
command. Alternately, you can set KEYOPT (9) = 1 to read initial stresses from the user
subroutine USTRESS. For details on user subroutines, see the Guide to ANSYS User
Programmable Features.

You can include the effects of pressure load stiffness in a geometric nonlinear analysis
using SOLCONTROL, INCP. Pressure load stiffness effects are included in linear Eigen
value buckling automatically. If an unsymmetrical matrix is needed for pressure load stiffness
effects, use NROPT, UNSYM.

4.15.2 SOLID92 OUTPUT DATA:

The solution output associated with the element is in two forms:

 Nodal displacements included in the overall nodal solution

The element stress directions are parallel to the element coordinate system. The surface stress
outputs are in the surface coordinate system and are available for any face (KEYOPT (6)).
The other surface coordinate systems follow similar orientations as indicated by the pressure
face node description. Surface stress printout is valid only if the conditions described in

27
Element Solution are met. A general description of solution output is given in Solution
Output.

4.15.3 SOLID92 ASSUMPTIONS AND RESTRICTIONS:

 The element must not have a zero volume. May have node L below the I-J-K plane.
 An edge with a removed midside node implies that the displacement varies linearly, rather
than parabolic ally, along that edge

4.15.4 SOLID92 PRODUCT RESTRICTIONS:

When used in the product(s) listed below, the stated product-specific restrictions apply to this
element in addition to the general assumptions and restrictions given in the previous section.

4.16 ANSYS PROFESSIONAL:

 The DAMP material property is not allowed.

 Fluencies body loads are not applicable.
 The only special feature allowed is stress stiffening.

28
 CHAPTER-5
THEORITICAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM

5.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF IC ENGINE:

Type 4- stroke, Side valve, Single cylinder, Air cooled,

Constant speed, Horizontal shaft, Spark ignition
engine

Bore 66.7 mm

Stroke 70 mm

Displacement 153 cc

Length of connecting rod 121 mm

Fuel petrol start kerosene engine run

Max output 3000 R.P.M.

Continuous output speed 3000 R.P.M.

Cooling system Forced air-cooling

Dry weight 25kgs

Compression ratio 4.5:1

Peak pressure 2.1 bar

5.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES:

29
The crankshaft of C30engine is made from Spheroidal Graphite Iron (S.G. Iron) of grade
700/2
Young’s modulus 1.724 x 105N/ mm²

Density 6.976 x 10-6kg/ mm²

Poisons ratio 0.3

Yield strength 400 N/mm²

Tensile strength 700 N/mm²

Hardness 225 – 300 BHN

5.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE OF CRANKSHAFT:

Fig. 5.1 design of crankshaft for multi cylinder engine

30
 Fig. 5.2 Crankshaft Side View

Consider a single throw three bearing crankshaft:

D= piston diameter or cylinder bore in mm

P=maximum intensity of pressure on the piston in N/mm2

W=weight of flywheel acting downwards in N

T1 +T2= Resultants belt tension or pull acting horizontally in N

The thrust in the connecting rod will be equal to the gas load on the piston (fp)
Fp = π / 4 (D2 * P).

Due to this piston gas load acting horizontally, there will be two horizontal reactions
H1 and H2.

H1= fp*b1 / b

H2= fp*b2 / b

Due to the weight of the flywheel acting down words, there will be two vertical
reactions V2and V3.

V2=W*C1/C

V2=W*C2/C

31
 Now due to the resultant belt tension acting horizontally they will be two horizontal
reactions H2’ and H3’

H2’ =(T1+T2)*C1 /C

H3’ = (T1+T2)*C2 /C

The resultant force at bearing 2

R2 =((H2+H2’) 2 +(v2) 2) 1/2

The resultant force at bearing 3

R3 = ((H3) 2+(v3) 2)1/2

Now the various parts of the center crankshaft are designed for bending only,

Design of crank pin

Let dc = diameter of the crank pin in mm

Lc = length of the crank pin in mm

σb = allowable bending stress for the crank pin in N/mm2

Bending moment at the center of the crank pin,

Mc = H1.b2

Also, Mc =( π /32)*dc3* σb.

From the above equations diameter of the crank pin is determined. The length of the crank
pin is given by

Lc = Fp/(dc*pb)

Where pb = permissible bearing pressure in N/mm2

5.4 DESIGN OF LEFT HAND CRANK WEB:

32
 The crank web is designed for eccentric loading there will be two stresses acting on
the crank web, one is direct compressive stress and t6he other is bending stress due to piston
gas load.

The thickness of the crank web is given as

T = 0.4.ds to 0.6ds

= 0.22d to 0.32d

= 0.65dc + 6.35mm

ds = shaft diameter in mm,

D = Bore diameter in mm,

dc = crank pin diameter in mm

The width of the crank web is taken as

w=1.125.dc+12.7mm

Maximum bending moment on the crank web

M = H1 (b2- (lc/2)-(t/2))

Section modulus Z= (1/6). W.t2

Bending stress σb= M/Z = 6* H1* (b2- (lc/2)-(t/2))/(wt2).

And Direct compressive stress on the crank web

σc = H1/w.t

Total stress on the crank web = Bending stress +Direct stress

= σb + σc.

The total stress should be less than the permissible bending stress

5.5 LOAD CONDITIONS:

33
Stresses will arise on a crankshaft due to bending load and twisting load.

Fig. 5.2 Fx= Bending Force Direction; Fy= Torsional Force Direction; Fz=Longitudinal
Force Direction

(a) PURE BENDING ANALYSIS:

Bending load will be maximum during the combustion stroke. Combustion will take
place when the piston is at the top dead center. During the time of combustion of the fuel the
pressure created in the cylinder will be maximum. This peak pressure will be transmitted to
the crankshaft through connecting rod. In the top dead center position there will not be any
torsion in the crankshaft.

Gas load on the piston

Fp =8080N

Bending moment at the center of the crank pin,

Mc = 282.86KN/mm

Mc = 4.908*10-3*dc3

Where dc = 34.6mm

lc = 25.25mm

34
5.6 THICKNESS OF THE CRANK WEB:

t = 27.15mm

Width of the crank web

w = 48.7mm

Bending stress = 68.8N/mm2.

Direct compressive stress on the crank web

σc = 3.05N/mm2.

Total stress on the crank web = Bending stress +Direct stress

= σb + σc.

= 71.85 N/mm2

(b) Torsional Analysis:

The tangential force acting on the crankshaft can be calculated using the formula:

Ft = Fp Sin [L+ {cos / (sqrt (r^-2 – (sin)^2 ) ) } ]

Where

Ft Tangential force on the crankshaft

Fp Piston pressure at that angle.

L Length of connecting rod in mm.

R Radius of crankshaft in mm.

 Angle of crankshaft.
For constant volume combustion engine the crank angle that corresponds to the largest value
of ‘Ft’ is from 25 to 35 degrees.

Length of the connecting rod L = 121 mm.

35
Radius of the crankshaft r = 25 mm.

Let the crank angle  = 30 degrees.

Ft = 1220 N

5.7 INPUTS FOR ANALYSIS:

5.7.1 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

Structural loads and restraints on degree of freedom (D.O.F) were the two boundary
conditions considered for the analysis.

(a) PURE BENDING ANALYSIS

(b) TORSIONAL ANALYSIS
(c) FATIGUE ANALYSIS
5.8 STRUCTURAL LOADS:

(a) BENDING ANALYSIS:

Maximum pressure will be exerted on the crankshaft when the piston is in the top
dead center. In the top dead center position there will not be any torsional forces in the
crankshaft.

The maximum Load =8080N

(b) TORSIONAL ANALYSIS:

Maximum Tangential Force Ft=1220 N

BALANCING OF CRANKSHAFT:

36
 The crankshaft and the connecting-rod convert the reciprocating motion of the piston
into one of rotation. The crankshaft is made very stiff, since it is subjected to severe and
varying twisting and bending stresses, due to the combustion pressures and also to the
“inertia” effects of the reciprocating parts. The latter effects are the forces due to the
acceleration and deceleration of the piston and connecting rod in their strokes. The twisting
or turning action on the crankshaft, which is generally spoken of as the Torque, is constantly
changing; this fact necessitates a stronger shaft than for a steady motion.
The manner in which the torque varies in the case of a single cylinder engine is as
shown in below graph

.
It will be observed that firing stroke gives the greatest torque. In this case the greatest
torque is no less than 8 times the mean value. These vibrations are caused by the irregular
turning or torques on the crankshaft, due to the firing strokes of the different cylinders. This
force tends to twist the crankpin ahead of the rest of the crankshaft. And when the force
against the crankpin recedes, it tends to untwist or move back into its original relationship
with the rest of the crankshaft. This twist – untwist action, repeated with every power
impulse, tends to set up an oscillating motion in the crankshaft To absorb these uneven forces
and the output end of crankshaft is connected with flywheel.
The flywheel absorbs the uneven torques/ forces and transmits the power smoothly.
Let us calculate the various forces acting on crankshaft at each change in angle of crank when
the piston changes its position. Our engine is having 4 cylinders; hence, the forces induced at
each change in angle of crank at each location of cylinder are to be derived. Consider
following data for calculating the horizontal, vertical, rotating and counter forces.

37
 CHAPTER – 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.0 CASE STUDIES

A) STUDY: I
S.NO DESCRIPTION ANALYSIS

1. Analysis type Linear Static Analysis

2. Load case Bending Load

3. Failure theory adopted Von-Mises stress theory.

Stress plot (Von-Mises),

4. Output required
Resultant displacement plot

The unit of stress is N/mm2

The unit of displacement is mm.
B) STUDY: II
S.NO DESCRIPTION ANALYSIS

1. Analysis type Linear Static analysis.

2. Load case Torsional Load.

3. Failure theory adopted Von-mises stress theory.

Stress plot (Vonmises)

4. Output required
Z-axis displacement plot.

The unit of stress is N/mm2.

The unit of displacement is mm.
C) STUDY III
S.NO DESCRIPTION ANALYSIS

38
 1. Analysis type Modal Analysis

2. Output required Natural Frequency

The unit of natural frequency is Hz.

39
6.1 ANSYS WORKBENCH (IMPORTED GEOMETRY) MODEL:

Fig. 6.1 Imported CAD Geometry- Ansys Workbench

6.2 FINITE ELEMENT (MESHED) OF CRANK SHAFT:

40
 Fig. 6.2 Mesh model of Crankshaft- Ansys Work Bench

6.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (DISPLACEMENT):

41
 Fig. 6.3 Boundary conditions

6.4BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (BENDING LOAD):

42
 Fig. 6.4 Bending load on Crankshaft- Ansys Work bench

6.5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (TORSIONAL LOAD):

43
 Fig. 6.5 Boundary Conditions under torsional load

6.6 RESULTS FOR CASE-I (S.G IRON MATERIAL):

6.6.1 VON-MISES STRESS:

44
 Fig. 6.6 (a) Equivalent Stress Report

6.6.2 DEFORMATION:

45
Fig. 6.6 (b) Total Deformation Report

46
6.7 RESULTS FOR CASE-I (STRUCTURAL STEEL MATERIAL):

6.7.1 STRESS:

Fig. 6.7 (a) Equivalent Stress Report

47
6.7.2 DEFORMATION:

Fig. 7.7 (b) Total Deformation Report

6.8 RESULTS FOR CASE-II (S.G IRON MATERIAL):

48
6.8.1 STRESS:

Fig. 6.8 (a) Equivalent Stress Report

6.8.2 DEFORMATION:

49
 Fig. 6.8 (b) Total Deformation Report

6.9 RESULTS FOR CASE-II (S.G IRON MATERIAL):

50
6.9.1STRESS:

Fig. 6.9 (a) Equivalent Stress Report

6.9.2 DEFORMATION:
51
 Fig. 6.9 (b) Total Deformation Report

6.10 RESULTS FOR CASE-III (S.G IRON MATERIAL):

52
6.10.1 FREQUENCY:

Fig. 6.10.1 Dynamic Analysis Report

6.11. RESULTS FOR CASE-III (STRUCTURAL STEEL MATERIAL):

6.11.1 FREQUENCY:
53
 Fig. 6.11.1 Dynamic Analysis Report

6.12 DESIGN OPTIMIZATION:

ANSYS CALCULATED VALUES

S.NO MATERIAL LOADING STRESS DEFORMATIO FREQUENCY

MPa (N/mm2) N mm Hz.

1. S.G IRON BENDING 192.28 0.036398 1.6084

54
2. S.G IRON TORSION 136.71 0.083589 ---

3. STEEL BENDING 267.62 0.043667 1.5409

4. STEEL TORSION 168.51 0.088812 ---

FROM ABOVE TABLE S.G IRON SHOWS BETTER RESULTS, HENCE THIS
PROJECT OPTIMIZES THE CRANSHAFT BY SUGGESTING S.G IRON MATERIAL
FOR MAKING CRANKSHAFT

CHAPTER –7

CONCLUSION:

The modeling and analysis of the crankshaft is carried out successfully and various
stress plots and natural frequencies are studied and the results are discussed. The design

55
check for the resulting stress values for static load conditions has been done in comparison
with yield strength of the material of the component and found to be safe design.

Fatigue analysis was performed to check the endurance life of the component and it
was observed from the analysis that, 35% life of the component is used and the remaining
65% life would be useful for the operation.

FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT:

The main objective of this study was to investigate weight and cost reduction
opportunities for a forged steel crankshaft. The need of load history in the FEM analysis
necessitates performing a detailed dynamic load analysis. Therefore, this study consists of
three major sections: stress analysis, and Dynamic load analysis, Optimization for weight and
cost reduction.

REFERENCES

1. V.L.Maleev, internal- Combustion Engines Theory and Design, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, 1985.

56
2. A.R.Rogowski, Elements of Internal-Combustion Engines, Tata McGraw-Hill
publishing company Ltd., 1986.
3. Edward F. Obert, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollutions, Harper and Row
publishers, 1973.
4. Joseph Edward Shigley and John Joseph Uicker, Jr., Theory of Machines and
Mechanisms, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1995.
5. Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russel Johnston, Jr., Vector Mechanics for Engineers –
Dynamics, metric edition, McGraw-Hill Book company, 1990.
6. George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
7. Dr. R.C. Bahl & Dr.V.K. Goel, Mechanical Machine Design, Standard Publishers
Distributors, Delhi, 1982.
8. Robert D. Cook, Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, John Wiley &
Sons, 1981.
P.S.G Design Data Book, 1995.

9. The Wonder Material with a Future: S.G. Iron, Southern Alloy Foundries (P) Ltd.,
Madras.
10. S.G Iron Properties and Applications, The International Nickel Company (MOND)
Limited, London.

57