Electromagnetic Theory: Unit 2

Unit 2
Electromagnetic Theory
Electrostatics
Coulomb’s Law
It states that the force F between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is
kQ1Q2
F=
R2
In Vector form
Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

If we have more than two point charges

Electric Field Intensity
Electric Field Intensity is the force per unit charge when placed in the
electric field
In Vector form
• Q is the Source
Charge.
• r is the vector from
origin to the point
where the electric field
If we have more than two point charges is measured.
• r/ is the vector from
origin to the source
charge.

Electric Field due to Continuous Charge Distribution
If there is a continuous charge distribution say along a line, on
a surface, or in a volume
The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to

these charge distributions can be obtained by ρL → Charge per unit
length (in C/m)
ρS → Charge per unit

area (in C/m2)
ρV → Charge per unit

volume (in C/m3)
The electric field intensity due to each charge distribution ρL, ρS and ρV
may be given by the summation of the field contributed by the
numerous point charges making up the charge distribution.

Example 1 : Electric Field due to Line Charge
Consider a line charge with uniform
charge density ρL extending from A to B
along the z-axis
The charge element dQ associated with

element dl = dz of the line is
Hence, the total charge Q is
We need to find the electric field intensity E at an arbitrary point P(x, y, z)
It is customary to denote the field point by (x, y, z) and

the source point by (x', y', z').
a x = cosa  − sin a
a y = sin a + cosa
az = az

Substituting this into the formula of electric field due to line charge
We get,
From the figure,
sec α = R/ρ

From the figure,
z’ = OT - CT
z’ = OT – ρ tan α
dz’ = – ρ sec2α dα
Also,
sin α = CT/R C
→ sin α = (z - z’)/R
cos α = ρ/R
Since,

For finite line charge,
For infinite line charge,
point B is at (0, 0, ∞) and A at (0, 0, -∞) → α1 = 90o & α2 = - 90o
ρ is the perpendicular distance from the line to the point of interest and aρ is a
unit vector along that distance directed from the line charge to the field point

Example 2 : Electric Field due to Surface Charge
Consider an infinite sheet of charge lying in
the x-y plane with uniform charge density ρs
We need to find the electric field intensity E

at the point P(0, 0, h)
The charge associated with the elemental

area ds is therefore
the contribution to the E field at the point P by the elemental surface 1 shown in the figure is

From the figure,
See formula for

differential area
in cylindrical
co-ordinates
Since,
Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every element 1, there is a corresponding
element 2 whose contribution along ap cancels that of element 1, as illustrated in the
Figure. Thus the contributions to Eρ add up to zero so that E has only z-component.

In other words, the aρ term vanishes
Therefore,
we notice that (i) the electric field is normal to the sheet, and (ii) it is surprisingly
independent of the distance between the sheet and the point of observation P.

RECAP
✓Coulomb’s Law
✓Electric Field Intensity
✓Electric Field Intensity due to Continuous Charge Distribution
❑ Line Charge (general formula)
❑ Surface Charge (general formula)
❑ Volume Charge (general formula)
✓Electric Field due to Line Charge (Derivation)
✓Electric Field due to Surface Charge (Derivation)
Electric Flux Density
The electric field intensity depends on the medium in which the charges are placed.
Suppose a vector field D independent of the medium is defined by
D = oE
The electric flux ψ in terms of D can be defined as
Ψ = ‫𝑫 ׬‬. 𝒅𝒔
The vector field D is called the electric flux density or electric displacement.
Unit: C/m2

For an infinite sheet, the electric flux density D is given by
For a volume charge distribution, the electric flux density D is given by
In both the above equations D is a function of charge and position only

(independent of medium)
Gauss Law
The total electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
 = Qenc
(i)

Using Divergence Theorem
(ii)
Comparing the two volume integrals in (i) and (ii)
(iii)
This is the 1st Maxwell’s equation. It states that the volume charge density is the same as
the divergence of the electric flux density.
Equation (i) is the 1st Maxwell’s equation or Gauss Law in integral form
Equation (iii) is the 1st Maxwell’s equation or Gauss Law in differential or point form
Application of Gauss Law (Point Charge) Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku
Point charge Q located at origin, have to find D at arbitrary point P
D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, i.e. D = Drar
Applying Gauss Law,

Application of Gauss Law (Infinite Line Charge)
Infinite line charge having line charge density ρL, have to find D at arbitrary point P
D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, i.e. D = Dρaρ
Applying Gauss Law to arbitrary length l of the line,

Application of Gauss Law (Infinite Surface Charge) Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku
Infinite line charge having line charge density ρs, have to find D at arbitrary point P
D = Dzaz
Applying Gauss Law,

Electric Potential
From Coulomb’s Law the force on point charge Q is
𝑭 = 𝑄𝑬
The work done in displacing the charge by length dl is

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑭. 𝒅𝒍 = −𝑄𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
The negative sign indicates that the work is being
done by an external agent.
Total work done, or the potential energy,

required in moving point charge Q from A to B is
𝐵
𝑊 = −𝑄 න 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
𝐴

Dividing the above equation by Q gives the potential energy per unit charge.
𝐵
𝑊
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = − න 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
𝑄 𝐴
VAB is known as the potential difference between

points A and B.
Potential difference between two
points is therefore the work required
to carry a unit charge between the two
points in an electric field. It is
independent of the path taken. The potential at a point, in an electric
field, is the work required to carry a unit
charge from infinity up to that point.
{Potential at infinity (or reference point) is
taken to be 0}.
In other words, the potential at any point, in an electric field, is the potential difference between
that point and a chosen point at which the potential is zero.
Assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r from the point charge (which
produces the electric field) is the work done per unit charge by an external agent in transferring a
test charge from infinity to that point in the electric field.
𝑟
𝑉 = − න 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
∞
1 𝑄
The potential at any point due to a point charge Q located at the origin is 𝑉 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
If the point charge Q is not at origin but at a point whose position vector is r’, the
potential V(r) at r becomes

By the principle of superposition, for n point charges Q1, Q2, …, Qn located at points with
position vectors r1, r2, … rn, the potential at r is
If there is continuous charge distribution instead of point charges, then the potential at r becomes
where the primed coordinates are used

customarily to denote source point location and
the unprimed coordinates refer to field point
(the point at which V is to be determined).

Note that

RECAP
✓Electric Flux Density

✓Gauss Law (Integral & Differential Forms)
✓ 1st Maxwell Equation
✓Application of Gauss Law
❑ Electric Flux Density of Point Charge
❑ Electric Flux Density of Infinite Line Charge
❑ Electric Flux Density of Infinite Sheet of Charge (Surface Charge)
✓Electric Potential & Potential Difference
❑ Potential for line, surface and volume charge densities
Relationship between E and V
𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − න 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
𝐴
𝐴 𝐵
𝑊
𝑉𝐵𝐴 = = − න 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = න 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
𝑄
𝐵 𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 𝑉𝐵𝐴 The potential difference between points

A and B is independent of the path taken
𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 0
𝐵
It means that the line integral of E
ර 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = 0 along a closed path must be zero.
𝐴
Physically, it means that no net work is done in moving a

charge along a closed path in an electrostatic field.
𝐵 Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku
ර 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = 0
𝐴 Any vector field for which the curl is
Applying Stoke’s theorem  A.dl =  (  A).dS 0 or for which the line integral around
L S a closed loop is 0 is called
𝐵 conservative (or, irrational).
ර 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = ර (𝛁 × 𝑬) . 𝒅𝒔 = 0
𝐴
𝜵 × 𝑬=0 2nd Maxwell’s Equation (differential form)
𝐵
Static electric field is conservative in nature. ර 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = 0
𝐴
2nd Maxwell’s Equation
Line integral is path
Irrotational
(integral form)
independent
𝐵
𝑑𝑉 = −𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − න 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
𝐴
𝑑𝑉 = − 𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧
dl = dx i + dy j + dz k
From calculus of multivariable, a total change in V (x, y, z) is the sum of
partial changes of V w.r.t. the variables x, y, z
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 Alternative method:
We know, curl E = 0.
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 → Since any vector whose curl is zero is equal to
𝐸𝑥 = − , 𝐸𝑦 = − , 𝐸𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 the gradient of some scalar quantity → this
scalar quantity is the potential V
𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉 → Electric field intensity = - gradient V
Note that this relation is valid in all
co-ordinate systems
Electric Dipole
An electric dipole is formed when two point charges
of equal magnitude but of opposite sign are
separated by a small distance.
The potential at P (r, θ, Φ) is
r >> d → r2 - r1 = d cosθ , r1r2 = r2

But, d cos θ = d.ar where d = d az
If we define p = Qd as the dipole moment, then
The dipole moment p is directed from – Q to + Q.
if the dipole center is not at the origin but at r’ then

UNIT II
ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY
Electric Fields in Material Space –

Introduction to Dielectrics
Till now, we have considered electrostatic fields in free space or a space that has no materials
in it. Just as electric fields can exist in free space, they can exist in material media. As will
soon be evident, most of the formulas derived for free space are still applicable in case of
materials, though some may require modification.
Materials
Conductors Dielectrics
Abundance of free charges Very little free charges

(metals) (polymers, glass etc.)

Electric Current: flow of electric charges
𝑑𝑄 Current Density (J)

𝑑𝐼 = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑰
𝑱=
𝑨
𝒅𝑰
𝒅𝑱 =
𝒅𝒔
Ohm′ s law (in microscopic form) 𝐼 = න 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔
𝜎 is the conductivity
𝑱 = 𝜎𝑬 E is the applied electric field

Polarization in Dielectrics
Consider an atom of the dielectric consisting of an electron cloud (-Q) and a positive nucleus (+Q).
When an electric field E is applied, the positive charge is displaced from its equilibrium position
in the direction of E by F+ = Q E while the negative charge is displaced by F = Q E in the
−
opposite direction.
A dipole results from the displacement of charges, and the dielectric is polarized. In
polarized atom/dielectric, the electron cloud is distorted by the applied electric field.

This distorted charge distribution is equivalent to the original distribution plus the dipole
whose moment is
p = Qd
where d is the distance vector between -Q to +Q.
If there are N dipoles in a volume Δv of the dielectric, the total dipole moment due to the
applied electric field
The induced dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called polarization vector.
It is a measure of the intensity of the polarization. Denoted by P.
P=Np
p = induced dipole moment of individual atom
N = number of atoms (or dipoles) per unit volume
The major effect of the electric field on the dielectric is the creation of dipole moments
that align themselves in the direction of electric field.
This type of dielectrics are said to be non-polar; e.g., H2, N2, O2
Other types of molecules that have in-built permanent dipole moments are called polar;
e.g., H2O, HCl
When electric field is applied to a polar dielectric then its permanent dipole experiences a
torque that tends to align its dipole moment in the direction of the electric field.

Types of Dielectrics
Dielectrics
Polar Non-polar
Based on dipole moment, the molecules of dielectrics are termed as non-polar and polar molecules.
Accordingly, these dielectrics are referred to as non-polar and polar dielectrics.
Non-polar: A ‘non-polar’ molecule is the one in which Polar: A polar molecule is the one in which the centre of
the centre of gravity of the positive (protons) and gravity of the positive charges is separated by finite distance
negative charges (electrons) coincide → such molecule from that of the negative charges → these molecules possess
does not have any permanent dipole moment. E.g., O2. permanent electric dipole moment. E.g., H2O, HCl.
Field due to a Polarized Dielectric
Consider a dielectric material consisting of dipoles with dipole moment P per unit volume.
The potential dV at an external point due to a volume element dv’ is
(1)
where R2 = (x-x’)2 + (y-y’)2 + (z-z’)2 and R is the distance

between the volume element dv’ and the point O.
Since,
(1) can be written as (2)

We have a vector identity
= -
So,
(3)
Putting (3) in (1) and integrating over the entire volume v’ of the dielectric

Applying Divergence Theorem to the first term on the RHS
(4)
where an’ is the outward unit normal to the surface dS’ of the dielectric.
Note that

So, in (4) the 1st term and 2nd term on the RHS is potential due to surface and volume
charge distributions respectively with densities
(4) says that where polarization occurs, an equivalent volume charge density, ρpv is formed
throughout the dielectric while an equivalent surface charge density, ρps is formed over the
surface of dielectric.
ρps → bound (or polarization) surface charge density.
ρpv → bound (or polarization) volume charge density.
Bound charges are not free to move within the dielectric material; they are caused by the
displacement that occurs on a molecular scale during polarization. Free charges are those
that are capable of moving over macroscopic distance, e.g. electrons in a conductor.

Now, total positive bound charge on surface S bounding the dielectric is
while the charge that remains inside S is
If the dielectric was electrically neutral prior to application of the electric field and if we
have not added any free charge, the dielectric will still remain electrically neutral (after the
polarization). Thus, the total charge of the dielectric material remains zero, i.e.
Total charge =

On the other hand, if the dielectric contains some free charge
of volume density ρv,
the total volume charge density ρt is given by
(5) (1st Maxwell eqn.)
Hence,
(6)
Where, (7)
Note the difference here for D and eqn. (6) for dielectrics and free space/vacuum.
(In case of free space, P = 0; ρpv = 0)

The effect of the dielectric on the electric field E is to increase D inside it by an
amount P. In other words, the application of E to the dielectric material causes the
flux density to be greater than it would be in free space. It should be noted that the
definition of D in free space is a special case of that in eqn. (7) because P = 0 in
free space.
The polarization would vary directly as the applied electric field.
𝐏 = χE ϵ0 𝐄
Electric Susceptibility
It is a measure of how susceptible a given
dielectric is to electric fields.

RECAP
✓ Dielectrics
✓ Polarization in Dielectrics
✓ Polarization Vector (P)
✓ Types of Dielectrics
❑ Non-polar
❑ Polar
✓ Field due to Polarized Dielectric
❑ Concept of Bound charges
✓ Relation between D, E, P (D = εoE +P)
✓ Relation between P, E
RECAP
Dielectric Constant and Strength
D = εoE + P 𝐏 = χE ϵ0 𝐄
D = εoE + χEεoE
D = εoE (1 + χE)
D = εoεr E where, εr = 1 + χE
D = εE where, ε = εoεr is permittivity of the dielectric (or the medium)
ε/εo = εr = 1+ χE = K
εr is the relative permittivity

K is dielectric constant (≥ 1)

No dielectric is ideal. When the electric field in a dielectric is sufficiently high, it begins to
pull electrons completely out of the molecules, and the dielectric becomes conducting.
When a dielectric becomes conducting, then it is called dielectric breakdown. It depends on the
dielectric, temperature, electric field strength and the amount of time for which the field is
applied.
The minimum value of the electric field at which the dielectric breakdown occurs is called the dielectric
strength of the dielectric material.
OR
The dielectric strength is the maximum value of the electric field that a dielectric can tolerate or withstand
without breakdown.
Breakdown Voltage: The voltage at which a given dielectric material becomes conductive
(i.e., undergoes breakdown) is called its breakdown voltage.

Types of Polarization
Types of Polarization (of dielectrics)
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, polarization is due to three types of processes…
▪ Electronic polarization
▪ Ionic polarization
▪ Orientation polarization
Electronic Polarization
✓ Under the action of an external field, the electron clouds of atoms are displaced with respect to
heavy fixed nuclei to a distance less than the dimensions of the atom (i.e., dipole is produced
within the atom).
✓ Does not depend on temperature.
✓ It increases with increase of volume of the atom.
✓ Mostly exhibited in monatomic gases.
✓ Occurs only at optical frequencies (1015 Hz).
R = Radius of the atom

Ionic Polarization
✓ Occurs in ionic crystals. E.g., in NaCl.
✓ In the presence of an external electric field, the positive and negative ions are displaced in opposite
directions until ionic bonding forces stop the process → dipole is induced.
✓ Does not depend on the temperature.

Orientation Polarization
✓ Applicable in polar dielectrics.
✓ In the absence of an external electric field, the permanent dipoles are oriented randomly such that
they cancel the effects of each other → net dipole moment is negligibly small.
✓ When the electric field is applied, these dipoles tend to rotate and align in the direction of the
applied filed → orientation polarization (net dipole moment is large).
✓ Depends on the temperature.
✓ Slower process as compared to ionic polarization.
αo is called orientation
polarizability constant
Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time
𝑑𝑄 Current Density (J)

𝑑𝐼 = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑰
𝑱=
𝑨
𝒅𝑰
𝒅𝑱 =
𝒅𝒔
𝐼 = න 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔
Ohm′ s law (in microscopic form)

Continuity Equation
Principle of Charge Conservation: the rate of decrease of charge within a given volume must be
equal to the net current flowing out through the surface enclosing that volume
Applying Divergence Theorem

𝑑𝑞 to the LHS,
𝐼=−
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝜌
𝜵 .𝑱 = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
The minus sign is due to decreasing ρ in the volume V.
𝜵 .𝑱 + =0
𝜕𝑡
Note that the ρ here is volume charge density (i.e., ρv)

Effect of introducing charge at some interior point of a material (dielectric/conductor)
Ohm′ s law (in microscopic form) Substituting this in (1), we get

𝜕𝜌 𝜌
− =𝜎
𝜕𝑡 𝜖
Gauss law 𝜕𝜌 𝜎
− = 𝜕𝑡
𝜌 𝜌 𝜖
𝜵. 𝑬 = Integrating,
𝜖
𝜕𝜌 𝜎
Taking divergence of Ohm’s Law න = − න 𝜕𝑡
𝜌 𝜖
𝜵 .𝑱 = 𝜎 𝜵 .𝑬 𝜎
ln 𝜌 = − 𝑡 + 𝐶
𝜌
𝜖
𝜵 .𝑱 = 𝜎 …. (1) 𝜎
𝜖 −𝜖 𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜌= 𝜌0 𝑒
From continuity equation we have 𝜵. 𝑱 = −
𝜕𝑡 Note that the ρ here is volume
Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku charge density (i.e., ρv)
𝜎
−𝜖 𝑡
𝜌𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣0 𝑒
This equation shows that as a result of introducing charge at some interior point of the material
there is a decay of the volume charge density (ρvo is the initial volume charge density).
The equation can also be written as,

−
𝑡 𝜖
𝜌𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣0 𝑒 𝑇𝑟 where Tr is the relaxation time 𝑇𝑟 =
(or, rearrangement time) 𝜎
Relaxation time is the time in which a charge

placed in the interior of a material to drops to e-1
(= 36.8%) of its initial value.
For Copper, Tr = 1.53 x 10-19 sec (short for good conductors)
For fused Quartz, Tr = 51.2 days (large for good dielectrics)

Boundary Conditions
So far, we have considered the existence of the electric field in a homogeneous medium. If the
field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field must satisfy
at the interface separating the media are called boundary conditions.
These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if the field on
the other side is known.
Obviously, the conditions will be dictated by the types of material the media are made of. The
possibilities are –
Dielectric & Dielectric
For determining boundary conditions we will use
Dielectric & Conductor Maxwell’s equations
Conductor & Free space (1)
(2)

Dielectric – Dielectric Boundary Conditions
The electric field intensity E can be decomposed into two orthogonal components:
E = Et + En ,
where Et and En are the tangential and normal components of E respectively to the
interface of interest. A similar decomposition can be done for the electric flux density D.
Consider the E field existing in a region consisting of two different dielectrics,

1 and 2, characterized by ε1 = ε0 εr1 and ε2 = ε0 εr2
E1 and E2, in medium 1 and 2 respectively, can be written as

E1 = E1t + E1n
E2 = E2t + E2n
Applying eqn. (1) to the closed path abcda in the figure, we

get

0 = (E1t – E2t) △w
Thus, the tangential components of E are the same on the two
E1t = E2t (3) sides of the boundary. In other words, Et undergoes no change
on the boundary and it is said to be ‘continuous’ across the
boundary.
Now, since D = εE = Dt + Dn , eqn. (3) can be written as
𝐷1𝑡 𝐷2𝑡
= (4)
ε1 ε2
Thus, Dt undergoes some change across
the interface. Hence Dt is said to be
‘discontinuous’ across the interface.
Similarly, applying eqn. (2) to the pillbox (cylindrical Gaussian
surface) shown in the figure -
(2)
𝑄 = ρ𝑠 △S = D1n △S – D2n △S
𝐷1𝑛 − 𝐷2𝑛 = ρ𝑠 (5)
where ρs is the free charge density placed deliberately at the

interface.
If no free charges exist at the interface (i.e., charges are not

deliberately placed there) → ρs = 0 and eqn. (5) becomes
Thus the normal component of D is ‘continuous’
𝐷1𝑛 = 𝐷2𝑛 (6)
across the interface; i.e., Dn undergoes no
change at the boundary (when no free charge
exists at the interface).
Since, D = εE, eqn. (6) can be written as
ε1E1n = ε2E2n Thus the normal component of E is

(7)
‘discontinuous’ across the interface
Equations (3), (4), (5), (6), (7) are collectively known as boundary
conditions for dielectric-dielectric interface – they must be
satisfied by E (or, D) at the boundary between 2 dielectrics.

The boundary conditions can be used to determine the "refraction" of the electric field
across the interface between 2 dielectrics.
Consider D1 (or E1) and D2 (or E2) making angles θ1 and θ2 with the normal to the
interface as illustrated in the figure.
Using eqn. (3) we have E1 sinθ1 = E1t = E2t = E2 sin θ2

E1 sinθ1 = E2 sin θ2 (8)
Using eqn. (6) we have D1 cosθ1 = D1n = D2n = D2 cosθ2
ε1E1 cosθ1 = D1n = D2n = ε2E2 cosθ2
ε1E1 cosθ1 = ε2E2 cosθ2 (9)
tan θ1 tan θ2 tan θ1 ε1 tan θ1 ε𝑟1

Dividing (8) by (9) = = =
ε1 ε2 tan θ2 ε2 tan θ2 ε𝑟2
Note that in this derivation the free charge
Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku at the interface is 0 (i.e., ρs = 0)
Dielectric – Conductor Boundary Conditions Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku
We know from eqn. (3) of dielectric-dielectric interface

E1t = E2t
1 1
E = 0 inside conductor → E2t = 0
E1t = 0 Et = 0 = Dt
Similarly, we know from eqn. (5) of 2

dielectric-dielectric interface 2
𝐷1𝑛 − 𝐷2𝑛 = ρ𝑠
E = 0 inside conductor → D = 0 inside conductor → D2n = 0

If the free charge at the interface is 0
D1n = ρs Dn = ρs = ε En (i.e., ρs = 0)
Dn = ε En = 0
Where ε is the permittivity of the dielectric
Free Space – Conductor Boundary Conditions
We know from dielectric-conductor interface

Dt = 0
Dn = εEn = ρs
For a free space ε = ε0
So for free space Dt = ε0Et = 0 Et = 0 = Dt
Dn = ε0En = ρs
Or, Dn = ε En = 0
If the free charge at the interface is 0 (i.e., ρs = 0)

Electromagnetic Theory: Unit 2

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Unit 2

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to

ρS → Charge per unit

ρV → Charge per unit

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

The charge element dQ associated with

Hence, the total charge Q is

We need to find the electric field intensity E at an arbitrary point P(x, y, z)

It is customary to denote the field point by (x, y, z) and

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

From the figure,

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

For infinite line charge,

point B is at (0, 0, ∞) and A at (0, 0, -∞) → α1 = 90o & α2 = - 90o

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

We need to find the electric field intensity E

The charge associated with the elemental

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

See formula for

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Suppose a vector field D independent of the medium is defined by

The electric flux ψ in terms of D can be defined as

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

For a volume charge distribution, the electric flux density D is given by

In both the above equations D is a function of charge and position only

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Comparing the two volume integrals in (i) and (ii)

Point charge Q located at origin, have to find D at arbitrary point P

D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, i.e. D = Drar

Applying Gauss Law,

D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, i.e. D = Dρaρ

Applying Gauss Law to arbitrary length l of the line,

Applying Gauss Law,

The work done in displacing the charge by length dl is

Total work done, or the potential energy,

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

VAB is known as the potential difference between

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

where the primed coordinates are used

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

✓Electric Flux Density

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 𝑉𝐵𝐴 The potential difference between points

Physically, it means that no net work is done in moving a

𝜵 × 𝑬=0 2nd Maxwell’s Equation (differential form)

The potential at P (r, θ, Φ) is

r >> d → r2 - r1 = d cosθ , r1r2 = r2

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

If we define p = Qd as the dipole moment, then

The dipole moment p is directed from – Q to + Q.

if the dipole center is not at the origin but at r’ then

Reference Book: Principles of Electromagnetics, Sadiku

Electric Fields in Material Space –

Abundance of free charges Very little free charges