Virology Assignment0

Name : ABEEHA FARAN
Roll No.5014.
DEPARTMENT:MLT[LIFE SCIENCES]
Virology and MYCOLOGY .
Assignment no .1
SUBMITTED TO: MR.AFAQ MEHMOOD

SUBMITTED BY:ABEEHA FARAN.
What is Transcription:
 Transcription is the first step in gene expression, in which information
from a gene is used to construct a functional product such as a
protein.
 The goal of transcription is to make a RNA copy of a gene's DNA
sequence.
 For a protein-coding gene, the RNA copy, or transcript, carries the
information needed to build a polypeptide (protein or protein subunit)
 Transcription has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.

1. Initiation. RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called
the promoter, found near the beginning of a gene. Once
bound, RNA polymerase separates the DNA strands, providing
the single-stranded template needed for transcription.
2. Elongation. One strand of DNA, the template strand, acts
as a template for RNA polymerase. the polymerase builds an
RNA molecule out of complementary nucleotides, making a
chain that grows from 5' to 3'. . The RNA transcript carries the
same information as the non-template (coding) strand of DNA,
but it contains the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
3. Termination. Sequences called terminators signal that

the RNA transcript is complete. Once they are transcribed,
they cause the transcript to be released from the RNA
polymerase.
Translation:
 Translation, as related to genomics, is the process through which
information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) directs the
addition of amino acids during protein synthesis. Translation takes
place on ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm, where mRNA is read and
translated into the string of amino acid chains that make up the
synthesized protein.
 It has 3 parts:
1.Initiation: in this stage, the ribosome gets together with the mRNA
and the first tRNA so translation can begin.
2. Elongation: In this stage, amino acids are brought to the ribosome by
tRNAs and linked together to form a chain.

3. Termination:
In the last stage, the finished polypeptide is released to go and

do its job in the cell.
Reverse Transcrition:
 In biology, the process in cells by which an enzyme makes a copy
of DNA from RNA. The enzyme that makes the DNA copy is
called reverse transcriptase and is found in retroviruses, such as the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
 Discovery:
 The original central dogma of molecular biology held that DNA
was transcribed to RNA, which in turn was translated into protein.
However, this concept was challenged in the 1970s when two
scientific teams, one led by Howard Temin at the University of
Wisconsin and the other led by David Baltimore at MIT,
independently identified new enzymes associated with replication
of RNA viruses called retroviruses [1,2]. These enzymes convert
the viral RNA genome into a complementary DNA (cDNA)
molecule, which then is capable of integrating into the host’s
genome. These are RNA-dependent DNA polymerases and are
called reverse transcriptase because, in contrast to the DNA-to-
RNA flow of the central dogma, they transcribe RNA templates
into cDNA molecules.
 Reverse transcriptases have been identified in many organisms, including
viruses, bacteria, animals, and plants. In these organisms, the general role of
reverse transcriptase is to convert RNA sequences to cDNA sequences that
are capable of inserting into different areas of the genome.
Application:
While reverse transcriptases have functional roles in biological systems, they also
serve as important tools for studying RNA populations. One of the first molecular
biology protocols utilizing reverse transcriptases was for the production of cDNA
to build libraries that contained DNA copies of mRNA from cells and tissues
[9,10].
Structure of DNA:In cells, DNA is the nucleic acids that functions as

the original blueprint for the synthesis of proteins.DNA contains the
sugar deoxryibose,phosphates and a unique sequences of nitrogenous
bases adenine {A},guanine {G}, cystine {C} and thyamine {T}.Genes
are formed by the order of the nitrogenous bases present in DNA which
is crucial for protein synthesis.RNA is another nucleic acid that
translates genetic informationinto proteins from DNA.The nucleotides
are linked together for the formation of two long strands which spiral to
produce a structure known as the double helix which resembles that of
ladder wherein the sugar and phosphate molecules from the sides while
the rungs are formed by the bases.Guanine pairs with cytosine and
adenine pairs with thyamine .DNA molecules are extremely long and
hence without the right packaging .they cannot fit into cells.In humans
there are 23 pairs of chromosomes that are present within the nucleus of
the cells.
Each DNA nucleotide is made up of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a base.
The phosphate group of one nucleotide bonds covalently with the sugar molecule
of the next nucleotide, and so on, forming a long polymer of nucleotide monomers.
The sugar–phosphate groups line up in a “backbone” for each single strand of
DNA. In its natural state, each DNA molecule is actually composed of two single
strands held together along their length with hydrogen bonds between the bases.
Watson and Crick proposed that the DNA is made up of two strands that are
twisted around each other to form a right-handed helix, called a double helix.
SS AND DS in DNA:
ssDNA is a linear structure that has only one DNA strand. dsDNA has
two DNA strands bound by hydrogen bonds in a helical fashion.SS
DNA is found in a few viruses.and DS DNA is found in most
organisms.
STRUCTURE OF RNA:
RNA is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our
body. This nucleic acid is responsible for the production of new cells in
the human body. It is usually obtained from the DNA molecule. RNA
resembles the same as that of DNA, the only difference being that it has
a single strand unlike the DNA which has two strands and it consists of
an only single ribose sugar molecule in it. Hence is the name
Ribonucleic acid. RNA is also referred to as an enzyme as it helps in the
process of chemical reactions in the body.
The ribonucleic acid has all the components same to that of the DNA
with only 2 main differences within it. RNA has the same nitrogen bases
called the adenine, Guanine, Cytosine as that of the DNA except for the
Thymine which is replaced by the uracil. Adenine and uracil are
considered as the major building blocks of RNA and both of them form
base-pair with the help of 2 hydrogen bonds.
RNA resembles a hairpin structure and like the nucleotides in DNA,
nucleotides are formed in this ribonucleic material(RNA). Nucleosides
are nothing but the phosphate groups which sometimes also helps in the
production of nucleotides in the DNA.
Functions of RNA
 The ribonucleic acid – RNA, which are mainly composed of
nucleic acids, are involved in a variety of functions within the cell
and are found in all living organisms including bacteria, viruses,
plants, and animals. These nucleic acid functions as a structural
molecule in cell organelles and are also involved in the catalysis of
biochemical reactions. The different types of RNA are involved in
various cellular process. The primary functions of RNA:
 Facilitate the translation of DNA into proteins
 Functions as an adapter molecule in protein synthesis
 Serves as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosomes.
 They are the carrier of genetic information in all living cells
 Promotes the ribosomes to choose the right amino acid which is
required in building up of new proteins in the body.
RNA Types:
There are various types of RNA, out which most well-known and most
commonly studied in the human body are :
 tRNA – Transfer RNA

 MRNA
 RRNA
T-RNA: The transfer RNA is held responsible for choosing the
correct protein or the amino acids required by the body in-turn
helping the ribosomes. It is located at the endpoints of each amino
acid. This is also called as soluble RNA and it forms a link
between the messenger RNA and the amino acid.
r-RNA: The rRNA is the component of the ribosome and are located
within the in the cytoplasm of a cell, where ribosomes are found. In all
living cells, the ribosomal RNA plays a fundamental role in the
synthesis and translation of mRNA into proteins. The rRNA is mainly
composed of cellular RNA and are the most predominant RNA within
the cells of all living beings.
m-RNA: This type of RNA functions by transferring the genetic
material into the ribosomes and pass the instructions about the type of
proteins, required by the body cells. Based on the functions, these types
of RNA is called the messenger RNA. Therefore, the mRNA plays a
vital role in the process of transcription or during the protein synthesis
process.
SS-RNA AND DS-RNA:

 ssRNA has only one strand of RNA while dsRNA is made up of
two complementary siRNA or miRNA strands. RNA or
ribonucleic acid is a type of nucleic acid which is made up of
ribonucleotides. Generally, RNA is a single-stranded molecule,
unlike DNA double helix.SS RNA is most abundant while DS
RNA is less abundant than ss RNA.
 SsRNA viruses in Group 4 or 5while DS RNA are in Group 3.

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Name : ABEEHA FARAN

SUBMITTED TO: MR.AFAQ MEHMOOD

 Transcription has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.

3. Termination. Sequences called terminators signal that

tRNAs and linked together to form a chain.

In the last stage, the finished polypeptide is released to go and

Structure of DNA:In cells, DNA is the nucleic acids that functions as

Each DNA nucleotide is made up of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a base.

 tRNA – Transfer RNA

SS-RNA AND DS-RNA:

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