1.

Define the following

A. Nucleic acid
- Nucleic acid is the storage of genetic information that a living organism
receives from its parents. Nucleic acids play an important role in cells and
viruses. One main function of Nucleic acids is it is the storage and
involves the expression of genomic information
B. Gene
- A gene contains instructions that instructs the cells to make molecules
called proteins. A gene is also considered to be called as the basic unit of
inheritance or heredity. It is passed from the parents to its offspring.
Genes are made up of DNA sequences that are arranged at a certain
placement.
C. Genome
- A genome is the complete set of DNAs in organisms. It is the entire set of
DNA instructions found in the body or cells. It contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes in humans which is then located at the cell’s nucleus. It has
all the genetic information needed for an organism to function and
develop.
D. DNA
- DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid is made up linked strands that appears to
be a twisted ladder that is called a double helix. The components of DNA
are sugar, phosphate, and four nitrogen bases which are adenine,
thymine, guanine, and cytosine. Is made up of nucleotides and It contains
information necessary to build and maintain an organism.
E. RNA
- RNA or Ribonucleic acid is a molecule that is responsible for reading
genetic information that is translated by ribosomes to proteins. Its
structure is somewhat similar to what a DNA has. It is single stranded and
has a backbone made up of alternating phosphate groups and sugar
ribose. RNA functions as the one that converts genetic information that is
stored in the DNA and turns it into proteins.
F. Protein synthesis
- Protein synthesis is a process in which cells make proteins. It is a process
in which amino acids are arranged into proteins through ribosomal RNA,
transfer RNA, messenger RNA, and other enzymes. It occurs in 2 stages
which is transcription and translation. Transcription is the transfer of
genetic instructions to mRNA. Translation is when the genetic code in the,
mRNA is read and now used to make or produce polypeptide.

G. Nucleotide
- Nucleotide is also called as the basic building block of nucleic acids.
Nucleotide is a molecule that consists of nitrogen-containing base which
are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine in DNA and adenine,
 guanine, cytosine and uracil in RNA, phosphate group and sugar which
are deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA.
H. Nucleoside
- Nucleoside is a subunit of nucleic acids. It consists of nucleobase and five
carbon sugar. It is a nitrogenous base that is bound to a pentose sugar
ribose or deoxyribose.
I. Okazaki fragments
- Okazaki fragments are short sequences or sections of DNA nucleotides
which are synthesized and linked together by the DNA ligase to create the
lagging strand during DNA replication. It is proposed by Reiji Okazaki and
his wife, Tsuneko Okazaki, and his other colleagues.
J. Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
- Heterogeneous nuclear RNA or hnRNA is when a section of DNA is
transcribed as a part of RNA and is eventually spliced out of that RNA and
the entire gene transcript, which now may serve as an eventual mRNA. In
simple words it is known in the term as the unprocessed mRNA molecules
in the nucleus.
K. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- Messenger RNA or mRNA is a molecule that carries a portion of DNA
code to other parts of the cell for it to be processed. It is created during
transcription. It is also known as a subtype of RNA.
L. Transcription
- Transcription is involved in the process of protein synthesis. During
transcription, DNA is used to produce a molecule of messenger RNA. The
molecule then now leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome in the
cytoplasm. It is the transfer of genetic information to mRNA.
M. Translation
- Translation is also involved in the process of protein synthesis. It is the
second part after the transcription occurs. It is the process in which the
genetic code sent to the mRNA is read to make or produce proteins.
N. Elongation
- Elongation is when the RNA polymerase or strand gets longer because of
the addition of new nucleotides.
O. Translocation
- Translocation is a type of abnormality in the chromosome in which a
chromosome breaks and a portion of it reattaches to another or different
chromosome.

P. Mutagen
- Mutagen is a chemical or physical substance or agent that causes
impairment in the DNA which results into the alteration of the DNA
sequence.
 Q. Mutation
- Mutation is when an alteration or change occurs in our DNA sequence.
Alteration in the genetic material or nucleic acid sequence of the genome
of a living organism.
R. Anticodon
- Anticodons are sequences of nucleotides that are complementary to
codons. It is a trinucleotide sequence that is located at one end of tRNA or
transfer RNA.
S. Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Polymerase chain reaction is a technique or method that is used to
produce various copies of a specific DNA sample.
2. Steps in the Transcription Process
- The steps in the transcription process involves three steps which are
initiation, elongation, and lastly termination. Initiation is the start or
beginning of transcription. Elongation is when the nucleotides is added to
the mRNA strand. And lastly, termination is the last step of transcription
that occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a stop sequence.
3. Properties of Nucleotides
- Nucleotides contains three characteristics and those are, nitrogenous
base, pentose, one or more phosphate groups. Cells contains various
types of nucleotides and is in constant flux which is between free and
polymeric states.
4. Difference of DNA and RNA
- In terms of the number of strands, DNA has two while RNA has one. In its
function, the DNA Functions as the one that is responsible for carrying as
well as transmitting genetic instructions from parents to its offspring while
the RNA, Functions as the one that converts or turns genetic information
stored in the DNA into proteins. In terms of its structure, the DNA is
Double helix; each strand has a backbone made up of alternating sugar
which is deoxyribose and phosphate groups while the RNA is single
stranded; has a backbone consisting of alternating phosphate groups and
sugar ribose. Ribose sugars are attached to nitrogenous bases and
phosphate groups. In terms of its propagation, the DNA is self-replicating,
or it replicates on its own. While the RNA is not self-replicating, or it
cannot replicate on its own. And lastly in terms of its nitrogenous bases
and pairing the DNA has Adenine and Thymine pair together, and
Guanine and Cytosine pair together (A=T and G=C) while the RNA has
Adenine and Uracil pair together, and, Guanine and cytosine, pair together
(A=U and G=C).
5. Principles of DNA Recombinant Technology
- Recombinant DNA technology is the capacity to edit the DNA. It is also
known as gene cloning or genetic engineering. it aims to alter the genetic
information or hereditary apparatus of a cell. The principles of DNA
 recombinant technology is to introduce the recombinant vectors into host
cells, to express the gene to produce or make desired product. Insertion o
the selected DNA into a cloning vector to produce rDNA or chimeric DNA.
6. Enumerate the Steps of DNA Recombinant Technology
- The steps of DNA recombinant technology involve
 Transformation
 Is when the vector is inserted into the host cell.
 Phage introduction
 Is the process of transfection, in which is also equivalent to
transformation but instead phage is used instead of a bacterium.
 Non-bacterial transformation
 It is similar to transformation and the only difference is the two non-
bacterial does not use bacteria such as E.Coli for example as host.
7. Enumerate the application of DNA Recombinant Technology
- The applications of DNA recombinant technology includes
 AIDS test
 Diagnosis of molecular diseases
 Prenatal diagnosis
 Gene therapy
 Transgenesis

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