Dna & Rna
Dna & Rna
Dna & Rna
BY
Mariam Mohamed Omar
Level 2
Section 5
Supervisor:
Dr\ Yasser Abdel-Raouf
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Introduction
You have probably heard of such subjects as cloning, genetic engineering, and
DNA “fingerprinting.” These subjects relate to the nucleic acids, DNA and RNA.
DNA, the genetic material in living things, directs everything the cell does. It is
both the organizational plan
and the set of instructions
for carrying the plan out.
Because it directs and
controls all of life’s
processes including growth,
development, and
reproduction, DNA is key to
life itself. RNA, a closely
related macromolecule, is
responsible for carrying out
the instructions of DNA, and
in some cases, of regulating figure 1
the activity of DNA itself. In some viruses RNA (rather than DNA) serves as the
genetic material.
DNA
DNA is a nucleic acid made of two long chains of repeating subunits called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a five-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The five-carbon sugar in a DNA
nucleotide is called deoxyribose. The phosphate group consists of a
phosphorus (P) atom bonded to four oxygen (0) atoms. The nitrogenous base
contains nitrogen (N) atoms and carbon (C) atoms and is a basic in nature as
seen in figure 2.
The DNA double helix is similar to a spiral staircase as seen in figure 1. The
alternating sugar and phosphate molecules form the side "handrails" of the
staircase. Nucleotides along each strand are connected by covalent bonds
between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next
nucleotide. Each full turn of the DNA helix has 10 nucleotide pairs.
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Nitrogen Bases
The nitrogenous bases face toward the center of the DNA molecule. The bases
on one strand of DNA face-and form bonds called hydrogen bonds with the
bases on the other strand. Nitrogenous bases are bonded in pairs between the
two strands by two or three hydrogen bonds. The base pairs form the "steps"
of the staircase. The base pairs are of uniform width because, in each pair one
base has a two-ring structure and the other base has a single-ring structure.
Hydrogen bonds between the bases help
hold the two chains of the DNA double
helix together.
The sugar and phosphate group are
identical in all DNA nucleotides. However,
the nitrogenous base as seen in figure 2
may be any one of four different kinds
thymine, cytosine, adenine or guanine The
nitrogenous bases and their chemical
structures, called rings. The nitrogenous
bases are often represented by the first
letter of their name T (thymine), C
(cytosine), A (adenine), and G (guanine).
Nitrogenous bases that have a double ring
of carbon and nitrogen atoms, such as
adenine and guanine, are called purines.
Nitrogenous bases that have a single ring
of carbon and nitrogen atoms, such as
cytosine and thymine, are called figure 2
pyrimidines.
Complementary base pairing
American biochemist Erwin Chargaff observed that the percentage of adenine
equals the percentage of thymine, and the percentage of cytosine equals that
of guanine in the DNA of a variety of organisms. This observation was key to
understanding the structure of DNA because it meant bases pair by base-
pairing rules in DNA, cytosine on one strand pairs with guanine on the
opposite strand, and adenine pairs with thymine, as shown in figure 2. These
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pairs of bases are called complementary base pairs. Notice that each
complementary base pair contains one double-ringed purine and one single-
ringed pyrimidine.
Because of the base-pairing rules, the order of the nitrogenous bases on the
nucleotides in one chain of the DNA molecule is complementary to the order
of bases on the opposite chain. For example, if a DNA chain has the sequence
ATTC, then the other chain must have the complementary sequence TAAG. The
order of nitrogenous bases on a chain of DNA is called its base sequence.
Complementary base pairing is important in DNA structure and function for
two reasons. First, the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs help hold the
two strands of a DNA molecule together. Second, the complementary nature of
DNA helps explain how DNA replicates before a cell divides. One strand of a
DNA molecule can serve as a template for making a new complementary
strand.
DNA Replication
DNA replication is the process by which DNA is copied in a cell before a cell
divides by mitosis, meiosis, or binary fission. During DNA replication, the two
nucleotide strands of the original double helix separate along the strands.
Because the two strands are complementary, each strand serves as a template
to make a new complementary strand. After replication, the two identical
double-stranded DNA molecules separate and move to the new cells formed
during cell division.
Steps of DNA Replication
As shown in figure 3, Enzymes called helicases separate the DNA strands.
Helicases move along the DNA molecule, breaking the hydrogen bonds
between the complementary nitrogenous bases. This action allows the two
DNA strands of the double helix to separate from each other. The Y-shaped
region that results when the two strands separate is called a replication fork.
Then, enzymes called DNA polymerases add complementary nucleotides,
found floating freely inside the nucleus, to each of the original strands. As the
nucleotides on the newly forming strand are added, covalent bonds form
between the adjacent nucleotides. Covalent bonds form between the
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deoxyribose sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next
nucleotide on the growing strand. Hydrogen bonds form between the
complementary nitrogenous
bases on the original and
new strands.
Finally, DNA polymerases
finish replicating the DNA
and fall off. The result is two
separate and identical DNA
molecules that are ready to
move to new cells in cell
division.
figure 3
In each new DNA double helix, one strand is from the original molecule, and
one strand is new. This type of replication is called semi-conservative
replication because each of the new DNA molecules has kept (or conserved)
one of the two (or semi) original DNA strands.
RNA
RNA is a nucleic acid made up of nucleotides. However, the structure of RNA
differs from that of DNA In four basic ways. First, RNA contains the sugar
ribose, not the sugar deoxyribose
found in DNA. Second, RNA
contains the nitrogenous base
uracil instead of the nitrogenous
base thymine found in DNA. Third,
RNA is usually single stranded
rather than double stranded like
DNA. However, within a single-
stranded RNA molecule, some
regions fold to form short double-
stranded sections. In the double- figure 4
stranded regions, guanine forms base pairs with cytosine, and uracil forms
base pairs with adenine. Fourth, RNA is usually much shorter in length than
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DNA (about the length of one gene). On the other hand, DNA is usually long,
containing hundreds or thousands of genes.
Types of RNA
Cells have three major types of RNA. Each type of RNA plays a different role in
protein synthesis. The first type of RNA is messenger RNA (mRNA), a single-
stranded RNA molecule that carries the instructions from a gene to make a
protein. In eukaryotic cells,
mRNA carries the genetic
"message" from DNA in the
nucleus to the ribosomes in
the cytosol. The second type
of RNA is ribosomal RNA
(rRNA), which is part of the
structure of ribosomes.
Ribosomes are organelles in figure 5
the cell where protein synthesis occurs. Ribosomes are made of rRNAs and
many proteins. Figure 5 shows a model of a ribosome. The third type of RNA is
transfer RNA (tRNA), which transfers amino acids to the ribosome to make a
protein. Although the entire tRNA is made of nucleotides linked together.
Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the genetic instructions in a specific
gene are transcribed or "rewritten" into an RNA molecule. Transcription takes
place in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and
in the DNA-containing region in the
cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
Steps of Transcription
As shown in figure 6, transcription occurs
in three as following: RNA polymerase, an
enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA
on a DNA template, binds to a promoter. A
promoter is a specific nucleotide sequence
of DNA where RNA polymerase binds and
figure 6
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initiates transcription. After RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, the DNA
strands unwind and separate.
Then, RNA polymerase adds free RNA nucleotides that are complementary to
the nucleotides on one of the DNA strands. The resulting chain is an RNA
molecule. As in DNA replication, complementary base pairing determines the
nucleotide sequence in the newly made RNA. For example, if the bases on the
DNA strand was ATCGAC, the bases on the RNA strand would be UAGCUG.
Unlike DNA replication, transcription uses only a specific region (a gene) on
one of the two DNA strands to serve as the template. As RNA polymerase
moves past, the separated DNA strands rewind.
After that, RNA polymerase reaches a termination signal, a specific sequence
of nucleotides that marks the end of a gene. Upon reaching this "stop" signal,
RNA polymerase releases both the DNA and the newly formed RNA. The RNA
made during transcription can be one of many types including mRNA, IRNA, or
rRNA. The newly made RNA can now perform its job in the cell, and the RNA
polymerase can transcribe another gene
Translation
Every protein is made of one or more polypeptides. Polypeptides are chains of
amino acids linked by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids found
in the proteins of living things. Each polypeptide chain may consist of
hundreds or thousands of the 20 different amino acids, arranged in a sequence
specific to each protein. The amino acid sequence determines how the
polypeptides will twist and fold into the three-dimensional structure of the
protein. The shape of the protein is critical to its function.
Steps of Translation
As shown in figure 6, translation or decoding of the genetic instructions to
form a polypeptide involves five main steps. In step 1, two ribosomal subunits,
tRNA, and an mRNA join together. Enzymes first attach a specific amino acid to
one end of each tRNA according to the genetic code. The other end of each
tRNA contains the anticodon, three nucleotides on the RNA that are
complementary to the sequence of a codon in mRNA. A tRNA carrying the
amino acid methionine at one end and the anticodon UAC at the other end
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pairs with the start codon AUG on the mRNA. The first amino acid in nearly all
polypeptides is methionine, but this amino acid may be removed later.
In step 2, the polypeptide chain is put together. A tRNA carrying the
appropriate amino acid pairs its anticodon with the second codon in the
mRNA. The ribosome then detaches methionine from the first tRNA, and a
peptide bond forms between methionine and the second amino acid. The first
tRNA then exits the ribosome. The ribosome then moves a distance of one
codon along the mRNA.
During step 3, the polypeptide chain continues to grow as the mRNA moves
along the ribosome. A new tRNA moves in, carrying an amino acid for the next
mRNA codon. The growing polypeptide chain moves from one tRNA to the
amino acid attached to the next IRNA The polypeptide grows one amino acid
at a time until step 4. At this step, the ribosome reaches the stop codon. The
newly made polypeptide falls off. During step 5, the components of translation
come apart. The last tRNA leaves the ribosome, and the ribosome moves away
from the mRNA. The translation machinery is now free to translate the same
or another mRNA.
References
For the text:
• Postlethwait, J. H., Hopson, J. L., & Inc, W. (2012). Modern biology. Holt, Rinehart
And Winston, A Harcourt Education Company.
• Johnson, M. D. (2011). Human Biology. Pearson Higher Ed.
For the pictures:
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/rna-structure/
https://cdn.britannica.com/64/47664-004-4CC27A46.jpg
https://www.thoughtco.com/dna-373454
https://www.genome.gov/sites/default/files/media/images/tg/DNA-
replication.jpg
https://www.pharma-food.de/assets/images/0/dr-microbe-adobestock-
532133575-5a202f4d.jpg
https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-
24d107c6799001d4ca78f84228515a40-lq
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