Journal of Aircraft and Spacecraft Technology

Review

Overview of Space Debris Mitigation Activities in ISRO

Santosh Kosambe
Independent Researcher, Pune, India

Article history Abstract: For several decades orbital debris has been identified as a serious
Received: 29-06-2019 concern by all space-faring agencies and nations as it potentially threatens the
Revised: 02-07-2019 current and future space endeavors. The Indian Space Research Organization
Accepted: 12-07-2019 (ISRO) is well aware of the present space debris scenario and is aimed
towards achieving the goal of preserving outer-space for humanity. ISRO
Email: [email protected] works on different aspects to effectively manage the threats due to space
debris. This paper provides an overview of past activities carried out in ISRO
towards the implementation of space debris mitigation guidelines. One of the
significant step taken is the implementation of end of life passivation of the
cryogenic upper stage of ISRO’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV). Another one is the successful design and development of propellant
venting system for the upper stage of ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV). ISRO’s constellation of communication and navigation satellites
orbiting in GSO’s are designed with adequate propellant so that it can re-orbit
to the higher graveyard orbit at the end of their operational lifetime. A typical
successful re-orbiting and decommissioning operation of INSAT-3E is
described in detail. ISRO has successfully designed and developed the
models and software to predict the atmospheric re-entry of satellites and
launch vehicle upper stages, and also to compute the collision risk between
the debris and the operational satellites. ISRO has also developed models to
study the evolution of the space debris environment in LEO and GEO region.
ISRO enthusiastically works with the United Nations Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and Inter-Agency Space Debris
Coordination Committee (IADC) to further improve the space debris
mitigation guidelines.

Keywords: ISRO, Space Debris, Mitigation, Debris Modeling, Re-orbiting,

Passivation, Collision Avoidance

Introduction (IRNSS) program. The INSAT program is developed to

provide services such as telecommunication,
Established in 1969, the ISRO has the vision to meteorological, television broadcasting, developmental
develop and harness space technology in national education, societal applications such as telemedicine,
development, while pursuing planetary exploration and tele-education, tele-advisories, and so on. Out of twenty
space science research. Since then, ISRO has gained a four satellites launched, eleven satellites are still operating
place among the elite space agencies in the world over in their respective orbits. The GSAT program is developed
the years, by successfully demonstrating its unique and for digital audio, video, and data broadcasting. Total of
cost-effective technologies. The prime responsibility of nineteen satellites were launched out of which sixteen
ISRO is design, development, and realization in the satellites are still operational. The IRS satellite program is
advancement of space science technologies and developed for the management of natural resources, Earth
applications towards achieving self-reliance and observations and various developmental projects across
facilitating in the all-round development of the nation. the country. Currently, thirteen operational satellites are
With these objectives, ISRO has established five orbiting in Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO) and four in
significant constellations of space systems, such as Geostationary Orbit. Also, the launch vehicles for the
Indian National Satellite (INSAT) program, GSAT program mentioned above i.e., PSLV and GSLV were
program, Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) program, GPS developed to place these constellations of satellites into
Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) program, desired orbits around the Earth. The PSLV and GSLV
and Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System have successfully launched several Earth observation and

© 2019 Santosh Kosambe. This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY)
3.0 license.
Santosh Kosambe / Journal of Aircraft and Spacecraft Technology 2019, Volume 3: 197.210
DOI: 10.3844/jastsp.2019.197.210

communication satellites not just for India but for other models are helpful during the relocation of operational as
countries as well. well as non-operational satellites into different orbits. The
Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan-1 aka MOM), the tool also plays a vital role in planning the launch window as
genuinely maiden first interplanetary spacecraft mission well. Notably, the adjustment in the launch time of PSLV-
of ISRO, launched on November 5, 2013, successfully 32 in March 2016, PSLV-C23 in June 2014, and PSLV-C4
got inserted into Martian orbit on September 24, 2014, in in September 2002 was done to avoid the possibility of a
its first attempt. MOM has successfully completed 1,810 potential collision with the orbital debris.
days in its orbit around Mars, though the designed In order to minimize the risk of on-orbit
mission life of MOM was six months. MOM still fragmentations, ISRO successfully employs a propellant
continues to provide vital information about Mars venting system in the final stage of PSLV and
regularly. Most recent and remarkable space probes of passivation of the Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) of
ISRO include Chandrayaan-1 and AstroSat. ISRO’s GSLV. The launch vehicles are designed with the
lunar orbiter mission (Chandrayaan-1) performed high- propulsion system as integrated systems. Also, the fuel
resolution remote sensing of the moon in visible, near- used is liquid propulsion, and ejecta does not contain any
infrared (NIR), low energy X-rays and high-energy X- solid residual. ISRO’s constellations of satellites in and
ray regions. India’s first dedicated Indian Astronomy near GSO and GEO region, are designed with adequate
Satellite (AstroSat) aimed at studying celestial sources in propellant margins to reduce the potential for future
X-ray, optical and UV spectral bands simultaneously. collisions by re-orbiting them to a higher graveyard orbit
Also, the upcoming missions of ISRO are Chandrayaan- at the end of their operational lifetime. All forms of
2, the second mission to the moon comprising of an stored energy are safed in order to prevent an in-orbit
orbiter, lander, and rover to conduct the new experiments explosion (Adimurthy and Ganeshan, 2006). A number
on moon’s surface was launched on July 22, 2019, and of analytical models of fragmentation events have been
Aditya-L1 will be launched in 2020 to study the process designed and developed to compute the evolution of
of coronal heating and other phenomena in the breakups in orbits (Ganeshan et al., 1988; Ganeshan and
magnetosphere region of the sun (ISRO, 2018). Ananthasayanam, 1996; 1997; Ganeshan et al., 2001;
Woefully, throughout this space era, a significant Ananthasayanam et al., 2003; Anil Kumar et al., 2002;
amount of space debris has left behind by India as well as 2003; Ananthasayanam et al., 2002; Sharma et al., 2002;
space initiative nations. These objects no longer serve any Anil Kumar and Subba Rao, 2002; Bandyopadhyay et al.,
useful functions, but potentially threatens future space 2004). A detailed study of hypervelocity impacts on space
endeavors planned or yet to be planned. Thus, space debris systems is done using finite element techniques (Shone,
becomes a critical issue to deal with among all space-faring 2003). All the space debris mitigation activities followed
nations. This paper provides an overview of earlier in ISRO are as per the ISO norms 24113:2019 (ISO,
activities carried out in design and development towards the 2019). Also, the design and operations of all the satellites
implementation of space debris mitigation guidelines. and launch vehicles are strictly followed as per the IADC
and UNCOPUOS guidelines (IADC, 2007) (UNOOSA,
2010). ISRO actively participates in the various activities
Earlier Space Debris Mitigation Activities in of UNCOPUOS and IADC related to the space debris.
ISRO Also, as an active member of the committee ISRO hosted
The space debris mitigation guidelines in ISRO have the 21st and 28th IADC Meeting during March 2003 and
been implemented in mission planning, design, March 2010 respectively.
manufacture, and operational phases of the satellite
program and launch vehicle orbital stages. The Upper Stage Passivation
constellation of satellites like IRNSS, GAGAN, GSAT,
Explosions of satellites, spacecraft and launch vehicle
IRS, INSAT, and the satellite launch vehicles PSLV and upper stages in orbits around Earth creates a tremendous
GSLV, as well as other space systems, were designed in amount of space debris. By far, 74.8% of the cataloged
such a way that no debris will be created during the space debris population has originated from such
operational phases. Also, appropriate precautions are events. About 242 orbital fragmentations have been
taken in designing such space systems to avoid failure reported so far, with 44.2% of these breakups are
modes which may lead to accidental break-ups resulting in known to have propulsion-related causes.
an increment of debris. Further, development in the Approximately 3.7% were due to batteries, 2.5% were
designed tools and models helps ISRO to predict the caused by an aerodynamic breakup, and 24.4% were
probability of an accidental collision with the operational the result of deliberate actions that are thought to be
satellites or orbital debris during the launch and operational related to national security (NASA, 2019). A pictorial
phases of the space systems. The analysis of such instances representation of fragmentations of satellites and rocket
is carried out regularly at satellite control centers. The bodies in orbits around the Earth is shown in Fig. 1.

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Monthly Number of Objects in Earth Orbit by Object Type

20000

19000
Total Objects
18000

17000 Fragmentation Debris

16000
Spacecraft
15000

14000 Mission-related Debris

13000 Rocket Bodies
Number of objects

12000

11000

10000
9000

8000

7000

6000

5000
4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1960

2020
1956

1958

1962

1964

1966

1988
1970

1972

1974
1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988
1990

1992

1994
1996

1998
2000

2002

2004

2006
2008

2010
2012

2014

2016

2018
Year

Fig. 1: Monthly Number of Objects in Earth Orbit Cataloged by the U.S. Space Surveillance Network.

Table 1: Top worst satellite breakups in the past cataloged by U.S. space surveillance network
Object name Cataloged Debris Year of Event Reason for Breakup
Microsat-R 400 2019 Intentional
Iridium 33 567 2009 Collision
Cosmos 2251 1559 2009 Collision
Cosmos 2421 509 2008 Unknown
Fengyun-1C 3216 2007 Collision
PSLV-C3 Rocket Body 330 2001 Explosion
TES Rocket Body 370 2001 Explosion
CBERS 1 Rocket Body 343 2000 Explosion
STEP 2 Rocket Body 710 1996 Explosion
SPOT 1 Rocket Body 492 1986 Explosion
Nimbus 4 Rocket Body 375 1970 Explosion
OV-2-1/LCS-2 Rocket Body 473 1965 Explosion

The majority of these breakups were unintentional, expulsion of compressed fluids, discharge of electrical
many arise from a wide variety of reasons, including storage devices, disabling of momentum wheels and
propellant tank explosions due to the mixing of fuel communication devices, and safing of any destruct
and oxidizer, battery rupturing, thruster malfunctions, devices, etc. Though the risk associated with the on-orbit
tank failures due to impact of small debris, explosion were known, the incident of PSLV-C3
degradations of the structure, accidental collisions, occurred. After the explosion of PSLV-C3, successful
over pressurization of fuel tanks, deliberate implementation of passivation of the launch vehicle
explosions and many more. Some major breakup upper stage is carried out in the design of PSLV from C4
events observed in the past were recorded in Table 1. mission onwards (Adimurthy and Ganeshan, 2006).
Detailed study and analysis of past incidents shows The potential solutions envisioned for the passivation
that the most effective method to stop such events is by of the 4th stage of PSLV is presented during the 21st
removing of all forms of stored energy from spacecraft IADC in 2003, which includes:
and launch vehicle upper stages at the end of their
mission, also known as passivation. In order to limit the (a) Venting the trapped propellants and subsequently the
risk of on-orbit fragmentations, all onboard sources of pressurant through the main engine in a sequential
stored energy should be depleted or safed when no manner by opening the main engine valves.
longer required. The process includes removal of (b) Consuming the total propellants by restarting the
residual propellants by either venting or burning, the main engines.

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(c) Consuming the propellants by firing the reaction two nozzles were kept in the opposite direction to
control thrusters meant for attitude stabilization. one another.
(d) Venting the propellants through an additional 5. Contamination of the spacecraft was avoided by
branching in the feed lines of each propellant using providing sufficient time for the separation of
separate pyro valves added in the circuit. spacecraft before initiating the process of
(e) Venting the pressurant gas from the propellant tank passivation.
and gas bottles along with the propellant vapors in 6. Experiments were carried out with MON-3 gas in
the tanks through an additional branching in the high altitude test facility to ensure no freezing of
pressurization lines of each tank using separate pyro propellants during the passivation.
valves added in the circuit. 7. To avoid explosions related to batteries, the solar
arrays were utterly disconnected from the main
By considering the safety measures and simplicity of power bus by switching off the charging lines at the
operation, the last proposed option was considered for
end of the mission, and the remaining energy is
the passivation of PSLV-C4. Passivation begins with
utilized for performing the passivation operations.
disabling recovery mechanisms, followed by passivation
8. To avoid any interference with the neighbor
of the propulsion, attitude control, power and
satellites, the communication systems were switched
communication systems. As each system is disabled, its
off completely.
contribution to the mission is nullified. While bearing in
9. In the case of PSLV-C4, it is impossible to achieve
mind a proper order of the steps is designed while
complete passivation due to the presence of
planning the passivation procedure.
common bulkhead in the propellant tanks. So, it is
Further, Adimurthy and Ganeshan (2006) explains
recommended to lower its pressure significantly
the problem areas addressed, and required actions taken
below its critical pressure i.e., the pressure below
in the implementation of passivation schemes in
which the stress in the tank wall is such that a crack
spacecraft and launch vehicle upper stages at ISRO:
does not propagate violently, but remains confined; a
1. For avoiding buckling of the common bulkhead in hole would therefore not degenerate into an explosion.
the propellant tanks during passivation, positive It can be considered that the critical pressure of a tank
pressure was maintained in the MMH tank by is of the order of half its burst pressure. Also, besides
venting the MON-3 tank first. theoretical analysis and calculation, all kinds of
2. To successfully implement the last suggested option, pressure vessels simulations and hypervelocity impact
two separate pyrotechnical valves have been set-ups had done to ensure that no break-ups would
introduced in the pressurization circuit of MMH and occur at this critical pressure. Pressure measurements
MON-3 tanks. from MON and MMH tanks recorded in Fig. 2 shows
3. To avoid interaction of the exhaust plume with the the successful passivation of the PSLV-C4. After the
structure, vent nozzles was positioned 180 apart to fragmentation of the PSLV-C3 and implementation of
eliminate the interaction zone between them. passivation, none of the ISRO’s satellite or launch
4. To eliminate the reaction torques during the process vehicle upper stage exploded in space creating any
of passivation and achieve the reaction less system, debris due to on-orbit explosions and collisions.

20
15 Flight
Pressure (Bar)
MON Tank

10
5
0
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
20
Pressure (Bar)

15
MMH Tank

10

0
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Time (s)

Fig. 2: Pressure variation in MON and MMH tank recorded by PSLV during passivation

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Space Object Re-Entry Estimation accuracy in the re-entry prediction can be increased by
using the more sophisticated orbit propagators with high
Thousands of satellites, rocket bodies and fragments fidelity atmospheric models (Anil Kumar et al., 2007).
are currently orbiting around the Earth. All these The validation of this method is done by utilizing three
objects tend to reenter the Earth’s atmosphere because re-entries of debris objects, namely SROSS-C2 Satellite,
of the atmospheric drag. On average, two small tracked COSMOS 1043 and Soyuz 11A511 U rocket body. The
objects reenter the Earth’s atmosphere each day. So far, re-entry prediction obtained from the proposed model is
most of the re-entries happened till date are in an nearly close to the actual re-entry dates. Unfortunately,
uncontrolled fashion. Fortunately, there have been no the predicted results depend upon the latest TLE data set
known reports of injuries to people or damage to the available from USSPACECOM and the specific
property from reentering space debris. However, in modeling of the ballistic coefficient. One of the
general, reentering objects pose a high risk to people drawbacks of the model is that it only utilizes a mean
and infrastructure on the ground and aviation. For atmosphere and a simple propagator which only consider
safety, it is essential to estimate the impact of such atmospheric drag effects. The model has to be
uncontrolled re-entries. Also, re-entry of space objects redesigned such that it can handle the latest atmospheric
or spacecraft is the most preferred method for space models as well as complex propagators. The many
debris mitigation in LEO. It is challenging to predict perturbations also have to be included in the model to
that debris from a randomly reentering satellite will hit predict the exact location, time, and date for the re-
Earth because of the uncertainties in the orbital
entering objects. Sharma and Anilkumar (2005) further
propagation model, atmospheric density models, solar
tried to improve the above model by incorporating a
flux, geomagnetic activity indices, and further
more accurate propagation model based on
observation of orbital parameters. In general, we can
Kustaanheimo-Stiefel element equations. The constant
predict the time that re-entry will begin with the
kalman gains were estimated by minimizing an objective
uncertainty of 10% of the actual time. Unfortunately,
function through a genetic algorithm.
re-entering objects travel so fast that a minute of error
in the time is equivalent to hundreds of miles on the An integrated model consisting of a high-precision
ground. Hence, the accurate estimation of the predicted orbit propagator (HPOP) and a multi-objective function
re-entry time and impact location of decaying space optimization technique is developed for the prediction of
debris or objects is necessary for proper planning of accurate re-entry time of any object during the last phase
mitigation strategies and hazard assessment. Due to the of orbital decay. The model estimates an Essential
criticality involved in the re-entry of such objects, Ballistic Parameter (EBP) by minimizing a multi-
ISRO has developed several suitable mathematical objective function of errors on the predictions
models to evaluate the trajectory and destruction concerning observed values of orbital parameters of the
process of spacecraft and rocket bodies during re-entry. decaying object at various epoch. Least-square errors,
The various tools have been developed to predict the weighted least-square errors, considering the expected
final orbital characteristics e.g., re-entry time, impact
remaining life as weights, and normalized non-
location, target velocity, etc. for LEO based satellites as
well as launch vehicle upper stages GSLV and PSLV dimensioned errors are taken as the components of the
re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere. multi-objective function. EBP absorbs the uncertainties
The ISRO utilizes a mathematical model developed in TLEs, propagation and atmospheric model
for the online re-entry prediction of its satellites and inaccuracies, and other model input uncertainties. The
launch vehicle orbital stages which use constant gain orbital parameters are computed from TLEs using
kalman filter approach to estimate the ballistic Simplified General Perturbations No. 4 (SGP4) theory at
parameter. A simple model is developed for the orbit their epoch (Shraddha and Anilkumar, 2015). The
propagation with the filter states being the semi-major validation of this proposed model is done with the help
axis, eccentricity and ballistic coefficient. The of decayed objects Phobos Grunt and ROSAT, and the
measurements of the apogee and perigee are derived predicted results show an excellent match with the first
from the Two Line Elements (TLE) data provided by re-entry time. The newly designed model can overcome
agencies like USSPACECOM. The primary feature of the drawbacks of the previously proposed models by
the model is that any un-modeled and un-modellable
handling the inaccuracies in TLEs during the last phase
state and measurement errors can be accounted by
adjusting the kalman gains which are selected based on a of orbital decay. Also, the model can handle the various
suitable cost function. In this model, the mean US atmospheric models, complex propagators, and induced
standard atmosphere and a simple propagator perturbations as well. Although, the model is only limited to
considering only the atmospheric drag effects were used. predict the re-entry of objects during the last phase of decay
Also, the model estimates only the semi-major axis and the accuracy of prediction has direct dependability on
and eccentricity decay in one revolution by considering the selection of the number of TLEs or period of TLEs to be
only constant scale height during the revolution. The used. It has to be further improved to predict the re-entry of

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an object throughout their life by modifying the orbit debris environment, collision probability analysis, and
propagators and multi-objective function. re-entry prediction. Some of the developed models are A
Various models are also developed to predict the re- Semi-Stochastic Environment Modeling of Breakup in
entry time of decaying space objects from LEO such as LEO (ASSEMBLE), Stochastic IMPressionistic Low
Response Surface Method (RSM) with genetic algorithm Earth (SIMPLE), Stochastic IMPressionistic GEO
(GA), Optimization with Satellite Tool Kit (STK Environment (SIMPGE), Spatial density modeling in
OPTIM), and Lifetime Optimization using Satellite Tool LEO using wavelets and continuous wavelets
Kit (STK LTOptim) (Anilkumar et al., 2017). In all transforms, evolution of space debris scenario based on
these models, estimation of EBP has been carried out, the propagation of the characteristics of equivalent
which subsequently results in an optimal re-entry time. fragments, prediction of re-entry of satellites and objects
HPOP with an optimization technique is also used for based on kalman gain filter, and the orbital debris
the accurate prediction of re-entry time in these models. environment in GEO (Ganeshan et al., 2007). l debris
Also, several Object-oriented as well as Spacecraft environment. The mathematical models are used to carry
oriented codes like Debris Assessment Software (DAS), out the analysis of risk due to the space debris, close
Object Oriented Surveillance Analysis Tool (ORSAT) approach of such objects to the operational satellites, and
developed by NASA, and Spacecraft Atmospheric Re- to predict the re-entry of satellites. Also, it is needed to
entry and Aerothermal Breakup (SCARAB) developed fill in gaps in the existing cataloged data, to interpret
by ESA are also used to perform the re-entry analysis of new data, and to project the characteristics of the future
Spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages. debris environment. ISRO designed and developed such
One of the above model is used to carry out the re- mathematical models to carry out in-depth studies in the
entry analysis of PSLV-C39/IRNSS 1H, which was areas of space debris modeling which includes breakup
launched on August 31, 2017. The results obtained from modeling, environment modeling, and evolution of
the TLE data set predicted that the re-entry would occur debris environment, collision probability analysis, and
in between March 2, 2019, to March 3, 2019, while the re-entry prediction. Some of the developed models are A
object decayed on March 3, 2019. Although, the Semi-Stochastic Environment Modeling of Breakup in
designed and developed models are quite useful to LEO (ASSEMBLE), Stochastic IMPressionistic Low
predict the re-entry of any objects orbiting in space, Earth (SIMPLE), Stochastic IMPressionistic GEO
sometimes ISRO has to take help from the international Environment (SIMPGE), Spatial density modeling in
organizations and space agencies to calculate and predict LEO using wavelets and continuous wavelets
the re-entries of some objects. Also, ISRO provides transforms, evolution of space debris scenario based on
information on its upcoming and past re-entries to a the propagation of the characteristics of equivalent
broad target audience, including national protection fragments, prediction of re-entry of satellites and objects
agencies, researchers, and the general public. ISRO based on kalman gain filter, and the orbital debris
participates in and hosts a re-entry data exchange environment in GEO (Ganeshan et al., 2007).
platform for the IADC as well. The developed re-entry An ASSEMBLE model is designed to simulate the
models plays an essential role in the successful on-orbit breakups of satellites and space objects. The
demonstration of ISRO’s two re-entry missions, namely, model depends on the data of the breakup events and
Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1) and Crew characterization of orbital parameters such as semi-major
module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE). axis, eccentricity, inclination, size, shape, and ballistic
coefficient cataloged by USSPACECOM. Upon analysis
Modeling of Space Debris Environment of the TLE data set of some of the fragmentations, it is
The cataloged debris population does not include the assumed that at the time of the breakup the orbital
numerous events that are too small for tracking from parameters obey certain statistical distributions such as the
ground stations. Such objects pose a higher risk to the apogee or perigee height, and the inclination follow
current as well as future space endeavors. Hence, Laplace distributions, while the eccentricity and the
modeling of the space debris population is essential to ballistic coefficient follows a Lognormal distribution. The
describe the traceable as well as untraceable orbita close location and scale parameters of such fragments depend
approach of such objects to the operational satellites, and on the orbit of the parent body at the time of breakup and
to predict the re-entry of satellites. Also, it is needed to intensity of the explosion, respectively. The model utilizes
fill in gaps in the existing cataloged data, to interpret such data to define orbital characteristics of the fragments
new data, and to project the characteristics of the future (Anilkumar et al., 2005). The simulation results obtained
debris environment. ISRO designed and developed such from the proposed model are comparable quite well to
mathematical models to carry out in-depth studies in the simulate the on-orbit breakups of objects in LEO.
areas of space debris modeling which includes breakup The debris scenario up to an altitude of 2000 km and
modeling, environment modeling, and evolution of eccentricity from 0 to 0.2 is described in the SIMPLE

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model of the space debris environment. The model is ballistic coefficient of the tracked non-operational GEO
capable of covering about 75% of the large space debris debris is obtained with the help of SIMPGE Model. The
objects of TLE data sets cataloged in USSPACECOM. model is based on the approach and philosophy as laid
The probability distribution function and the statistics of out for SIMPLE model for LEO (Anilkumar et al.,
the various characteristics data observed at various times 2005). The constant gain kalman filter approach is
are used to model the randomly evolving dynamical designed to predict the re-entry time of space objects
process of space debris environment. The method which can handle numerous uncertainties, sophisticated
utilizes two types of models called gross and local, features, and variables existing in the space debris
respectively. The gross model provides insight into the environment (Anilkumar et al., 2007). The simple
physical process of objects for all inclinations over the propagator by considering drag alone is used to obtain
whole LEO region by characterizing the distribution of the constant gain. A long-term numerical propagator is
the eccentricity, number density, and the ballistic also developed for the ISRO’s communication satellites
coefficient. While, the local model characterizes the to study perturbation due to Solar Radiation Pressure
distribution of ballistic coefficient and eccentricity of the (SRP), third body effects due to luni-solar forces,
objects at suitable altitude and perigee height important Earth’s gravitation potential, and perigee height
for risk assessment and mission analysis. The gross and variation for years.
local model represents the number density, eccentricity,
and ballistic coefficient in terms of Laplace distributions Collision Avoidance Analysis
and lognormal distributions, respectively. The model is
designed with fewer parameters to closely capture all the In the present scenario, the number of satellites
peak fragment densities with accuracy at other altitudes orbiting around the Earth is increasing, even though
and is used to estimate the spatial density of objects, some of them re-enters into the Earth’s atmosphere. As
collision probability, and flux at each altitude on May 2019, Orbital Debris Quarterly News (NASA,
(Ananthasayanam et al., 2006a). The proposed model is 2019), shows that there are 19,404 objects are present in
best suitable to predict the orbital debris scenario in LEO the earthbound space in which only 4,972 are the
below the altitude of 2000 km. The only drawback is that operational and defunct satellites. The remaining objects
the model cannot be utilized for debris scenario in higher existing are the orbital debris formed due to the end of
orbits and with an eccentricity greater than 0.2. life, fragmentation, collision, spacecraft anomalies, and
The evolution of space debris scenario is represented things left by astronauts during extra-vehicular activities.
using the propagation of the characteristics of an In case of GSO region, there are 1,523 objects out of
equivalent fragment without propagating every
which 519 are controlled in their longitude slot, as on May
individual debris fragment, together with a constant gain
kalman filter technique. The equivalent fragments in 2018 reported in (ESOC, 2018). Ever increasing orbital
each of the bins are assigned to a three-dimensional bin debris has become a significant concern for the space-faring
of semi-major axis, eccentricity, and an equivalent nations, since it possesses a potential threat to the operating
ballistic coefficient (a, e, B). The model can provide the satellites. A collision or explosion in space would increase
suitable ballistic coefficient values for the equivalent the number of cataloged objects catastrophically; also such
fragments in the various bins. Also, it can assimilate the an event could damage an operating satellite, resulting in
measurement information over time from other breakups technological as well as economic loss.
as well. The constant kalman gain approach can track the Several on-orbit collisions in the past has increased
dynamically evolving fragment scenario and further the tremendous amount of space debris population in
expand the scenario to provide an appropriate time- space. Hence, it is essential to protect satellite and launch
varying equivalent ballistic coefficient for the equivalent vehicle in its ascent and orbital phase, as well as
fragments in the various bins. Also, it helps to minimize spacecraft upon injection to prevent the further
the errors due to the finite bin size and the environmental generation of space debris through collision. The SPAce
perturbations (Ananthasayanam et al., 2006b). The DEbris PROximity (SPADEPRO) tool is developed to
Spatial density model is designed to perform the perform the collision avoidance or COLA analysis for
conjunction analysis between the operational satellites the powered and the orbital phase of ISRO’s satellites as
and space debris objects for possible mitigation, well as launch vehicles. SPADEPRO referred to
prevention, or maneuver (Anilkumar and Reddy, 2009). assessment of collision risk between cataloged space
An algorithmic procedure using wavelets is used to debris and desired satellite or launch vehicle. The prime
automatically estimate the exact model parameters objective of COLA analysis is to detect close approaches
corresponding to the peak location and number of peaks. of debris to satellites and launch vehicles during the
The wavelets speed up the parameter estimation process launch and early post-deployment. If the maximum
for the models with peaks (Reddy et al., 2011). collision probability exceeds 1 in 1000 or the minimum
The statistical distribution nature of the orbital conjunction distance falls below 100 m SOPA protocol
characteristics such as semi-major axis, eccentricity and is implemented, and collision avoidance maneuver is

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performed for satellites in orbit. Also, the required launch vehicle from the state vector. For the powered
adjustment in the launch time of the satellite or launch phase of the launch vehicle in ascent, a TLE data set can
vehicle is made to avoid the potential collision during this be generated by doing some necessary modifications in
period. As shown in Fig. 3, a typical result of Collision trajectory parameters (velocity and velocity azimuth).
Avoidance Analysis or COLA carried out before the The SPADEPRO analysis depends on the computation
launch of PSLV-C14/OceanSat-2, which shows the of collision probability between desired spacecraft or
probability of collision during the launch window. launch vehicle and cataloged space objects, assessment
The TLE data set of trajectory and orbital elements of of acceptable collision probability, and choice of
the desired satellite or launch vehicle essential to appropriate interval for space debris proximity analysis. The
perform the SOPA is obtained from USSTRATCOM. computation of collision probability depends on effective
The database includes space objects greater than 10 to 30 collision radius (RS), combined trajectory dispersion (σ),
cm in LEO and 1 m in GEO in TLE format. The TLE and the threshold for minimum conjunction distance
data format is mainly associated with specific (Rmin). The computation process to determine minimum
propagation models such as SGP4 and SDP4. It is conjunction distance between the desired satellite and
difficult to estimate the accurate TLE data for the orbital cataloged space object within a specified period is
phase of satellites and powered phase of launch vehicles expensive due to the trajectory calculations of all the objects
due to the uncertainties involved, as it depends on the present in the catalog. The process is simplified in order to
number and quality of the measurements, on the orbit produce quick results and avoid unnecessary computation,
exploration model, and on how latest the information is. using an orbital separation filter, an apogee-perigee filter, a
The TLE data required to perform the analysis of orbital time filter, and an epoch filter. The use of these filters
phases is obtained by converting the state vector reduces the number of cataloged objects drastically in
(altitude, velocity, flight path angle, velocity azimuth, the process. The combined trajectory dispersions for
geodetic latitude, east longitude, and epoch) parameters carrying out the SOPA analysis for a particular satellite
into TLE format. The TGENPRO module has been is obtained by carrying out Monte Carlo Analysis.
developed to generate the TLE data set of the satellite or

Fig. 3: Result of Collision Avoidance or COLA Analysis for PSLV-C14/OceanSat-2

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Satellite or Launch Catalogued Space

Vehicle Data Objects Data

Object Size

Propagation of Satellite and

Catalogued Space Objects

Close-Conjunction Report
Generated by filtering repeated conjunctions
with min distance < 1 km to identify risk object

Collision Probability Computation

d min < 100 m No

Alert Issued
& Pl >103

Yes

Maneuver Strategy

Fig. 4: Typical flow chart of Space Object Proximity Awareness (SOPA)

The trajectory dispersion values of a particular cataloged based on TLE data obtained from USSTRATCOM.
object can be fixed by considering the type of orbit it COLA program provides crucial parameters such as time
presents and the period of the orbital information of the of close approach, minimum distance, and TLE age. If
object. The SOPA is carried out at the injection time of any close approach less than 10 km is encountered, long
satellite for the entire launch windows of about 30 min term orbital evolution of the close approaching object is
duration at 2s intervals so that no close approach of the studied using historical TLE data, followed by
launch vehicle or the satellite with any of the space consistency check of the latest TLE update by
objects is missed (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2004). The propagating few of the previous TLEs. The analysis
flow chart for typical Space Debris Proximity Analysis is steps are repeated with the subsequent TLE updates until
shown in Fig. 4. the day of close approach. If the probability of collision
As most of the ISRO’s navigational, is still predicted, the collision avoidance maneuver will
communicational, and metrological satellites are in GEO be planned for the operational satellite based on minimal
and GSO orbits, COLA for these satellites are performed delta-velocity at an optimal time, require to achieve a
regularly. As on January 2019, ISRO is operating twenty safe distance. Also, the impact on the existing colocation
seven satellites in GSO for communication, due to collision avoidance maneuver, on-orbit
meteorology, and navigation purposes. Among them, maintenance, and control will be analyzed. In 2015, the
nineteen satellites are maintained in geostationary orbit, five satellites, INSAT-3C, INSAT-4CR, GSAT-14,
collocated at four orbital slots. Master Control Facility GSAT-7, and KAPLANA-1 were controlled at 74 East
(MCF) part of ISRO is responsible for monitoring the longitude. As per the COLA analysis carried out on July
close approach of objects to these satellites regularly. For 23, 2005, shown that COSMOS-2440 was approaching
the satellites orbiting in GEO and GSO, collision 740 East longitude and minimum distance less than 10
avoidance analysis or COLA is carried out every week km was predicted. As per the operational guidelines, the

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DOI: 10.3844/jastsp.2019.197.210

orbital evolution of COSMOS-2440 was carried out The operational procedures followed to re-orbit and
using historical and latest TLE data sets. The detailed decommission the satellite were as follow:
analysis carried out using the latest TLE update
predicted the relative distance of 7.5 km with GSAT- 1. At the start of drifting operation computation of
14 and 4.2 km with INSAT-4CR. For the other close approach to any nearby satellite or COLA was
satellites, the relative distance with COSMOS-2440 performed while considering the new orbital
was found to be higher than 15 km. As a result, along elements of satellites.
track maneuver with low thrust pulses was carried out 2. The pulsing operation was performed in a controlled
to increase the minimum close approach distance. For
GSAT-14, the tangential velocity of 0.016 m/s and way while crossing nearby spacecraft or satellite to
INSAT-4CR, the tangential velocity of 0.027 m/s was avoid the risk of any on-orbit collision or explosion.
imparted (Kannan et al., 2015). 3. All the communication devices were switched off
completely to avoid any interference to the nearby
End of Mission Re-Orbiting satellites while drifting.
4. The Nickel-Hydrogen (NiH2) batteries and solar
ISRO has been operating several constellations of arrays were disconnected from the main bus.
communicational, navigational, and meteorological Further, self-discharge was activated to deplete the
satellites in GSO and GEO orbital regime. These amount of stored energy quickly.
satellites are designed with adequate propellants for re- 5. The balancing devices such as momentum and
orbiting to a higher graveyard orbit at the end of their reaction wheels, magnetic torquers, and thermal
operational lifetime. The decommissioning and re- loads were turned off. They were kept on earlier for
orbiting operation of the communication satellite balancing purposes.
INSAT-3E is described in detail here. The prime center 6. As a part of passivation, the propulsion valves were
for spacecraft operations Master Control Facility (MCF) closed completely, and it was also ensured that the
at Hassan is responsible for planning and execution of propulsion tanks are empty.
operations such as orbit determination, orbit raising, 7. In the end, the Telemetry transponders were
orbit maintenance, orbit control, and colocation of GSO switched off to avoid any radio frequency
transmission from the satellite.
and GEO based satellites. INSAT-3E was launched on
September 28, 2003, into a GTO with a perigee of 649 Though the satellite ran out of onboard oxidizer, the
km and an apogee of 36,000 km inclined at an angle of 70 small monopropellant thrusters were used to perform the
to the equator. The satellite was successfully repositioned to micro pulsing maneuvers to re-orbit and decommission
54.97 E longitude on October 1, 2003, for continuing the the satellite successfully. Also, the decommissioning
operations. The Liquid Apogee Motor (LAM) was fired in operation of ISRO’s communicational satellites such as
three phases for a total duration of 121 min to achieve final INSAT-2A, INSAT-2B, INSAT-2C, INSAT-2DT,
circular geostationary orbit of 36,000 km. INSAT-2E, INSAT-3B, GSAT-2, and GSAT-3 was
Unfortunately, on March 29, 2014, INSAT-3E ran performed as per the IADC guidelines.
out of the on-board oxidizer and stopped working
altogether. A decision was taken to decommission the Minimization of GTO Lifetime
satellite well before its desired lifetime of 15 years. As
per the IADC guidelines, the spacecraft that have A significant amount of space debris resides in the
terminated their mission should be maneuvered to the GTO, which is a highly eccentric orbit with the perigee
higher graveyard orbit to prevent interference and on- in LEO at an altitude of 180 to 750 km and the apogee
orbit collision with existing satellites or objects in orbit. near GSO at an altitude of about 36,000 km. Debris such
The required minimum increase in altitude above GSO as launch vehicle upper stages, auxiliary fuel tanks, and
payload carriers left in GTO poses a risk to the
recommended by IADC is given by: operational satellites as it frequently traverses LEO and
GSO. With the successful launch of each satellite in
Altitude (Km) = 235 + 1000 x Solar Radiation GEO one or more large pieces of debris is generated and
Pressure Coefficient x Cross-sectional is left in GTO. Hence, minimizing the orbital lifetime of
Area/Mass of the satellite these objects is essential to avoid the risk of on-orbit
collisions, and to maintain the clean space environment.
Before the start of the re-orbiting operation, the These orbits are characterized by periodic changes in
satellite orbit was lowered on April 4, 2014, to perigee perigee altitude caused by the gravitational perturbations
35,579 km and apogee 35,693 km, with eastward drift due to the Sun and the Moon. The initial orientation of
rate of 2 per day. the orbit with respect to Sun and the Moon determines

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DOI: 10.3844/jastsp.2019.197.210

the subsequent histories of the orbital evolution. which define Sun azimuth angle on spacecraft orbital plane.
Gravitational perturbations due to the Sun and the Moon These two parameters are functions of time. In the case of
directly affect the Right Angle of Ascending Node lower drag, the decay occurs owing to a sharper decrease in
(RAAN), argument of perigee, and eccentricity of an perigee altitude due to the influence of luni-solar gravity. In
orbit. The three body perturbations, atmospheric drag, cases with higher drag, the perigee remains at a relatively
lunar and solar perturbation, and Earth’s oblateness higher level as compared to the cases with lower drag. The
influences the orbital evolution of objects in GTO. The orbital life of an object in GTO has a strong dependence on
combined influence of all these perturbations can result the time and date of insertion into the orbit. Even minute
in lifetime variations from a few days to several years. changes in the launch time can result in changes of several
Unfortunately, one cannot always use this natural orders in the lifetime. The interplay of atmospheric drag and
phenomenon to limit the orbital lifetime of the objects in luni-solar gravity can lead to a situation where higher drag
these orbits. As the launch time of a GSO satellite also means more orbital life (Sharma et al., 2004).
depends upon many other factors such as thermal aspects The estimation of the orbital lifetime of the cryogenic
and eclipse time related to the spacecraft design. One of upper stage of ISRO’s GSLV-D5 is discussed. The
the proposed criteria to ensure a stable space debris launch took place on January 5, 2014, which inserted
environment is to place the objects in orbits with a the GSAT-14 into a GTO with mean perigee altitude of
limited lifetime of up to 25 years. However, the lifetime 170 km and apogee altitude of 35,975 km. The state
of orbital objects in GTO can be significantly reduced vectors consisting of position and velocity is obtained
through appropriate choice of perigee altitude, the with the help of SDP4 orbit propagator model by
longitude of the ascending node, and the launch time of converting the TLE data set of the orbital elements
the spacecraft. The lifetime of objects in GTO is affected from February 11, 2014, to April 4, 2014. The lunar-
by a combination of atmospheric drag and luni-solar solar gravity perturbations, atmospheric drag, solar
perturbations or by a luni-solar gravity alone. The radiation pressure effects, and Earth’s oblateness were
atmospheric drag generates a retarding force on the considered to obtain the accurate state vectors. The
satellite due to which the apogee and perigee of satellite mean and osculating orbital elements at the initial state
reduces drastically. On the other hand, the perigee of the orbit are obtained by providing the state vector as
altitude associated with the satellite can increase or an input to the Numerical Prediction of Orbital Events
decrease due to the effect of Sun and Moon. The perigee (NPOE) software. A Response Surface Methodology
of the satellite is driven below the decay altitude (RSM) using a genetic algorithm for four intervals of
virtually by luni-solar gravity effect. Due to which near-linear variation of the mean apogee altitude observed
complete circularization of the orbit does not take place. were used to obtain the initial values of the ballistic
As a result, rapid decrease in perigee of the satellite take coefficient, uncertain parameters, and eccentricity. The
place and satellite re-enters into the lower atmosphere observed mean apogee and perigee altitudes of GSLV-
with a steep entry angle, causing a structural breakup. D5 computed from TLE’s are plotted in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.
For highly eccentric orbits like a GTO, the lifetime The Earth’s gravitational potential up to J10,10 luni-solar
strongly depends on two parameters, namely, the initial point mass gravitation with the Sun and the Moon
RAAN of the spacecraft and the solar longitude, both of positions computed from GEM10B.

×104
3.54
3.53
3.52
Mean apogee altitude (km)

3.51

3.5 A

3.49
B
3.48
C
3.47
3.46 D

3.45
3.44

3.43
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 25 26 27 28 01 02 03 04 05 06 08 10 11 12 13 14 15 19 17 18 19 20 24 25 26 29 31 04 06
22
February 2014 March 2014 April (DD)
Date (DD)

Fig. 5: Variation in computed mean apogee altitude of GSLV Rocket Body

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DOI: 10.3844/jastsp.2019.197.210

Mean perigee altitude (km)

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24 25 26 27 28 01 02 03 04 05 06 08 10 11 12 13 14 15 19 17 18 19 20 24 25 26 29 31 06
04

February 2014 March 2014 April (DD)

Date (DD)

Fig. 6: Variation in computed mean perigee altitude of GSLV Rocket Body

The computation of atmospheric drag perturbations is spacecraft missions and launch vehicles. The
done using the MSIS90 atmospheric density model, proposed models, as well as techniques, were
which includes the observed and predicted values of upgraded periodically to achieve the best results in the
solar flux and geometric index. As seen in Fig. 6, the present and future missions as well. Also, the new
mean perigee altitude has gone below 140 km due to the models and tools are being designed and developed
solar perturbations which have dominated the forces according to the advancement in technology.
acting on the object. The orbital lifetime of the upper
stage of GSLV-D5 was studied, and it was found that the Acknowledgement
reentry was expected to take place between 149 to 154
The author would like to thank unknown reviewers
days whereas the actual decay took place on June 8, for their thoughtful suggestions and comments.
2014 (Jeyakodi and Sharma, 2014).
Ethics
Conclusion
The author declare that there is no conflict of interest
Implementation of space debris mitigation regarding the publication of this article.
measures are essential for all space-faring nations as
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