CELL BIOLOGY 1

1.1. Cell theory 8

– Sizes of cells – Cell properties – Examples of stem cell
use

1.2. Cells and membrane 15

transport
– Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells – Cell membrane
– Membrane transport – Osmolarity

1.3. Origin of cells 24

– Pasteur’s soup – Formation of organic molecules
– Endosymbiotic theory

1.4. Cell division 25

– Cell cycle – Phases of mitosis

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory

1.1 Cell theory

1. All organisms are composed of cells:

B microscopic examination of many organisms
has shown that they are all composed of cells;
unicellular organisms are still composed of one
cell that performs all functions of life.

2. Cell is the basic unit of life:

cell as a whole can perform the functions of
life, while its individual components cannot.

3. All cells originate from a pre-existing cell:

spontaneous generation of cells is not possible;
C
a cell needs to divide to create another cell.

Even though most organisms fit well into the first

two points of the cell theory (A and B), some
organisms and tissues seem to contradict it. Muscle
fibres are fused, elongated cells with multiple nuclei
and as such differ from the common definition of a
cell (C). Similarly, fungal hyphae often don’t contain
dividing walls and are made up multiple fused
thread-like cells (D).
D

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory 1

7 Functions of life car-

ried out by cells
1 Nutrition If these are hard to remember, think about the
following:
2 Metabolism
Every living being has to eat 1 , process the
3 Excretion food it has eaten 2 and excrete the waste 3 ,
take in the signals from the environment and
4 Response respond to them 4 , accordingly make sure that
it is well balanced 5 (food-wise, heat wise, etc.)
5 Homeostasis
and finally, use all that to grow 6 and pass on
6 Growth its genes 7 .

7 Reproduction
.

Example: Paramecium is a unicellular organism widely used as an example of a

Example

functional unit of life.

The Paramecium:

• Is surrounded by cilia that allows it to move. (Response)

• Engulfs food via a specialized membranous feeding groove called a cytostome.
(Nutrition)
• Encloses food particles in small vacuoles with enzymes for digestion.
(Metabolism)
• Removes solid waste via an anal pore and liquid wastes are pumped out through
contractile vacuoles. (Excretion)
• Allows essential gases to enter and exit the cell via diffusion. (Homeostasis)
• Grows in size and divides asexually (fission) (Reproduction and growth)

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory

1.1.1 Sizes of cells

Surface area to volume ratio

Surface Area: of a cell is related to the rate of exchange of materials or how fast/slow a
cell takes in food/gasses and excretes wastes products.

• The higher the surface area, the higher the exchange rate as there is more
physical membrane where exchange can happen.

Volume: of a cell is related to the rate of metabolic reactions occurring in a cell or how
much nutrient processing and waste production is occurring in a cell at a given
time.

• The higher the volume of a cell, the higher the metabolic rate as the more
nutrients are needed/used and thus more waste produced.

Cell growth is limited by two features of the cell: surface area and volume.

When the cell volume increases, the surface area increases comparably less. This limits
the size of a cell because:

• the cell must be able to transport enough food/waste through the surface

• compared to the food needs/excrement production, which is determined by the

cell volume.

This is linked to cell division, as following a period of growth a cell will divide in order
to increase the surface area to volume ratio and function more effectively. In addition,
some cells increase their surface area to volume ratio by creating folds in the plasma
membrane, which creates more surface area to cope with a large exchange of materials.
This can be seen in the cells of the intestinal lining.

Microvilli

vs.

Figure 1.1: Microvilli increases surface area for exchange.

10
. CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory 1

Example surface area (SA) and volume (V ) calculation

Example

Imagine a cell as a cube with sides of length a. The

surface area (SA) can be calculated by adding the
SA SAs of the six faces of the cube and the volume (V )
by multiplying the sides.
a SA = 6 × a 2 and V = a3

Now, compare the growth of cells, starting with a = 1, a = 5 and a = 10.

size of 1 size of 5 size of 10

side= a a= 1 a= 5 a= 10
SA= 6 × a 2 SA= 1 SA= 150 SA= 600
V = a3 V=1 V = 125 V = 1000

Up to a certain size the SA still exceeds the V , and the cell would be able to import
and export enough materials to sustain its life. But as the cell grows bigger the
volume will exceed the SA, at which point the cell cannot transport enough materials
in and out of the cell to keep up with its food needs/waste production.

Typical cell sizes

Cells have different sizes, from one organism to another as well as within an organism.
This difference arises from the different cell functions and needs. The following scheme
should help you compare the sizes of different cells:

molecules cell membrane virus prokaryotes organelles eukaryotes

1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory

Calculating magnification

Most cells are invisible to the naked eye therefore we use microscope magnification to be
able to see them.

Image of the cell = real cell size × magnification

.

Real cell size

Example

Exam question: Image of a cell, measurable by a ruler. Magnification in the corner.

Calculate the real size of the cell in the picture or the magnification factor

Solution:
Image of the cell = real cell size × magnification
therefore
Image of the cell
Real cell size =
magnification
Numbers worked out.

Remember to always use the same units

• 1 mm = 1000 micrometers (µm)

Microscopes

An electron microscope has a far greater resolving power than a conventional light
microscope, meaning an electron microscope can be used to create images of smaller
objects with greater resolution.

The limit of resolution is determined by the wavelength of the incident light/electrons.

And since the wavelength of electrons is much smaller than that of visible light, they can
be used to view objects much smaller and in much more detail.

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory 1

1.1.2 Cell properties

In multicellular organisms, each cell has its own function and cooperates with
other cells to form an organism.

Emergent properties

Emergent properties are properties that emerge from the interaction of the individual
cell components creating new functions. Multicellular organisms can realize a number of
complex functions that individual cells cannot perform on their own by collaborating
with one another.
.

You can easily visualize this by thinking about how individual cardiac cells form
Example

tissues that work together to create an organ (the heart). Then the heart together
with tissues that formed vessels can function as the vascular system, transporting
blood across the body. The latter cannot be done by one single cell, but is possible by
the collective actions of many cells together. Finally, different systems can create an
organism, like a human, who can also perform several functions that a single cell
could not do on its own.

muscle cardiac heart vascular human

cell tissue organ system organism

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory

Cell differentiation

Although all cells possess the same genes, expressed genes are the ones that are “switched
on” while all other genes are “switched off”. Cell differentiation is the process whereby
different genes are put on “lockdown” to reach a very specific cell type with particular
functions brought by the available active genes.

Stem cells

Undifferentiated cells that can divide and have the capacity to differentiate into any cell
type and thus acquire any function. Therapeutic sources of stem cells include umbilical
cord blood, bone marrow and human embryonic stem cells

1.1.3 Examples of stem cell use

.

Stadgardt’s disease
Example

Stadgardt’s disease is a degenerative disease of the eye (retinal cells) leading to

blindness. Human embryonic stem cells are obtained from unsuccessful in vitro
fertilizations. These cells are differentiated in the lab towards retinal cells and
injected into the eye of patients. The new cells replace the degenerate cells in the
retina and restore vision
.

Leukaemia
Example

Leukaemia is the cancer of white blood cells (immune cells). Human cord blood is
collected after childbirth. The cord blood contains stem cells that differentiate into
white blood cells. A patient with leukaemia is irradiated and given chemotherapy to
kill all cancerous white blood cells. The killed cells are then replaced by the matching
cord blood cells which are able to differentiate into all kinds of white blood cells in
the patient

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport 1

1.2 Cells and membrane transport

1.2.1 Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

The main distinctions between the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells relate to their size
and complexity. Prokaryotes, also known as bacteria, are unicellular organisms with a
simple, non-compartmentalized structure. Eukaryotes, which can be unicellular or
multicellular organisms, are usually bigger with a complex organelle based function and
compartmentalization.

Compartmentalization means to have structures wrapped around a membrane, creating

different discrete compartments. This allows regions in the cell to have specific functions
and environments.
.

Lysosomes
Example

Lysosomes are membrane bound organelles responsible for the digestion of

materials. In order to break down materials they need to have a very acidic pH of
around 4.5–5. This pH is achieved with hydrogen pumps in the organelle’s
membrane that pump protons inside the organelle. Without compartmentalization,
this specific concentrated acidic environment would not be possible, and would
disrupt normal cell functioning.

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport

Prokaryotic cells

Make sure you can pili

draw and clearly label
this yourself!
cell wall

plasma membrane
plasmid

nucleoid (naked DNA)

70S ribosomes
cytoplasm

flagella

Figure 1.2: Prokaryotic cell.

The bold structures in

the table are shared Table 1.1: Functions of prokaryotic cells.
between the
Structure Function
prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. Capsule Protection
Cell wall Protection and pressure maintenance
Cell membrane Transport of materials
Cytoplasm Contains enzymes, food. . . , medium for cellular processes
Ribosomes Protein synthesis
Nucleoid DNA containing area not enclosed by a membrane
Plasmid Extra genetic material (e.g., antibiotic resistance genes)
Pilli Communication, DNA exchange, attachment
Flagellum Movement

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CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport 1

Eukaryotic cells

eu = good/true

→ organisms with a nucleus
karyon = nucleus

centrioles Make sure you can

draw and label this
mitochondria yourself!

lysosome

nuclear envelope
nucleolus
nucleus

rough ER
ribosome

plasma membrane
Golgi apparatus
cytoplasm
smooth ER

Figure 1.3: Eukaryotic Cell.

There are two types of eukaryotic cells: pancreatic cell (animal) and mesophyll cell
(plant).

Table 1.2: Comparison of animal cell and plant cell.

Animal Plant
Structure Function cell cell
Ribosome Protein synthesis 3 3
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Protein modifications 3 3
Golgi apparatus Protein packaging 3 3
* Mitochondrion Site of cell respiration 3 3
* Nucleus Contains chromosomes (DNA) 3 3
Lysosome Degradation enzyme storage 3 3
Centrioles Chromosome separation during mitosis 3 7
Vacuole Food and water storage 3 3
Cell Wall Maintenance of cell pressure 7 3
* Chloroplast Site of Photosynthesis (food production) 7 3
* Centrosomes Contain microtubules, move to opposite 3 3
poles during mitosic division
* indicates double membrane bounded organelles.

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport

Comparison of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells

Table 1.3: Comparison of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Naked DNA DNA wrapped around
DNA in nucleoid DNA enclosed by a nuclear region
DNA circular DNA linear
No membrane bound structures Membrane bound structures such as
mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus
present which compartmentalize
functions
Plasmids present No plasmids
Mitochondria not present Mitochondria always present
Ribosomes smaller (70S) Ribosomes larger (80S)

Remember that in a compare and contrast question in the exam, you only get a point
for differences if you give the alternative for each thing being compared. So it is not
enough to say Prokaryotes have DNA at the nucleoid region, but you must also mention
that Eukaryotes have DNA enclosed in the nuclear membrane.

Besides in their structure, the two types of cells also differ in their mode of division.
Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis (discussed later) while prokaryotic cells divide by
binary fision.

1.2.2 Cell membrane

Cell membrane Cell membranes are an assembly of different components

that encloses cells. This includes phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins,
and lipoproteins.

Phospholipids molecules composed of a glycerol head with a negatively

charged phosphate group and two hydrocarbon lipid tails. This makes
phospholipids amphipathic, meaning that they have two opposite
properties:
• Their heads are hydrophilic (water loving) making them polar.
• Their tails are hydrophobic (water hating) making them
non-polar.

Make sure you can draw and label a phospholipid diagram (Figure 1.4).

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CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport 1

Phosphate group

P
Glycerol head
Hydrophilic (polar)

Hydrocarbon tail
Hydrophobic (non-polar)

Figure 1.4: Phospholipid diagram.

This will usually give you an extra point in essay questions concerning the plasma
membrane.

Notice the head / tail structure of the phospholipid: their amphipathic properties cause
them to spontaneously arrange into a bilayer in an aqueous environment. This is due to
the fact that water is polar, and therefore the hydrophobic, non-polar portion of the
phospholipids will want to be shielded from water by the hydrophilic, polar heads of the
phospholipids.

Due to these interactions, the plasma membrane is very stable but is said to be fluid.
This means that the tails will always be facing tails, and the heads will always face
outside, but the position of individual phospholipids in a layer may change.

This property of the membrane also allows it to hosts a variety of other molecules, like
proteins and cholesterol. This makes it look like a mosaic.

glycoprotein

peripheral protein protein channel

phospholipid

hydrophobic tails
hydrophilic head

integral protein cholesterol

Figure 1.5: Phospholipid molecules form a phospholipid bilayer, which together with
proteins and cholesterol forms cell membranes.

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport

Cholesterol keeps the fluidity of the membrane constant at a variety of temperatures.

When it is cold, it increases fluidity and when hot, it makes the membrane more rigid.
This is important to maintain a constant environment for cellular processes to occur.

Integral Proteins span the lipid bilayer and are permanently attached to it
by polar interactions with the phospholipid heads and nonpolar
interactions with the tails. These can be for example receptors or
transport proteins.

Peripheral Proteins are attached to the inner or outer side of the membrane
by non-covalent interactions with the surface of the membrane or other
integral proteins. These are for example enzymes attached to the
outside of cells.

Membrane proteins fulfill various functions:

Channel Carrier Recognition Receptor Enzymatic

Figure 1.6: Phospholipid molecules form a phospholipid bilayer, which together with
proteins and cholesterol forms cell membranes.

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CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport 1

1.2.3 Membrane transport

The lipid bilayer membrane is semi-permeable and selective, which means that

Semi-permeable: only certain molecules (small, polar) can freely cross the membrane
Selective: with the use of transport proteins, it can select what comes in and out and
what does not

Recall that the main function of the plasma membrane is transport. Generally, transport
is defined as passive or active.

Active transport movement of molecules from an area of lower

concentration to an area of higher concentration, with the use of
energy (against the concentration gradient)

Passive transport movement of molecules from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration (down the
concentration gradient)

Passive transport is further divided into two types of diffusion, simple and
facilitated.

Simple diffusion passive transport of molecules through a membrane,

without the need of protein channels (oxygen diffusion)

Facilitated diffusion passive transport of molecules facilitated by channel

or carrier proteins (sodium transport, calcium transport)

Osmosis is a form of passive transport that only refers to the movement of water. The
water, like other particles in passive transport, moves from the area where there is more
of it, to the area where there is less of it. However, osmosis is defined in terms of the
concentration of dissolved molecules:

Osmosis movement of water from the area of low solute concentration to

the area of high solute concentration.

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport

Active transport, like (passive) facilitated diffusion requires proteins. However, these
proteins use energy in form of ATP to pump molecules against their concentration
gradient. There are two types of active transport:

Primary: direct use of metabolic energy for transport of molecules against

concentration gradient.
Secondary: coupling the movement of one molecule against the concentration gradient
with the movement of another along the concentration gradient of the second
molecule, often created by primary active transport.

Sodium-potassium pump is such a protein, and can be found in many cells including
neurons. This pump is described in more detail in the “Human physiology” chapter, but
now consider the following points:

• sodium potassium pump is an integral protein that uses ATP to transport

molecules across a membrane;
• it transports sodium out of the cell, and potassium into the cell;
• it works against the concentration gradients of both sodium and potassium;
• for every three sodium molecules it transports out, two potassium molecules are
transported in.

You should consider two more types of active transport that involve vesicle transport,
rather than protein pumps.

Exocytosis Exocytosis: Transport of molecules in secretory vesicles that fuse

with the plasma membrane upon contact to release the contents outside
of the cell

Endocytosis transport of molecules into the cell through invagination of the

plasma membrane and formation of the phospholipid vesicle
containing the molecule.

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CELL BIOLOGY Cells and membrane transport 1

1.2.4 Osmolarity

Osmolarity Is a measure of solute concentration (osmol/L) in a given

system. A system can be a petri dish, a cell, an organism, etc.

Hypotonic low osmolarity, or low solute concentration, meaning that the

system loses water

Hypertonic high osmolarity, or high solute concentration, meaning that the

system will gain water

Imagine a potato cube in a water bath. Mind you that the potato has a much smaller
volume compared to that of the water tank.

Hypotonic

The ratio of solutes to water inside the potato is

much higher than that same ratio in a water bath.

The bath is hypotonic compared to the potato.

The water moves from the bath into the potato, Recall that in osmosis,
the water moves from
making the potato swell.
where there is more of
it to where there is less
The ratio of water to solute in the potato is the same of it
as the one in the bath.

Hypertonic

The water bath is more saturated with its solute

compared to the potato.

The bath is a hypertonic solution compared to the

potato.

The water inside the potato will pass into the water
bath, trying to dilute it to the same concentration as
in the potato.

The potato will shrink, its ratio of solute to water

will increase and the osmolarities will be balanced.

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 CELL BIOLOGY Origin of cells

1.3 Origin of cells

1.3.1 Pasteur’s soup

A prior belief was that cells could spontaneously arise from the assembly of inorganic
matter. However, Louis Pasteur disputed the belief of spontaneous formation of life in
the 19th century.

In his simple experiment, he filled two flasks with nourishing soup, a medium highly
nutritious for microorganisms to thrive, and then sterilized them. One flask had a
straight open neck, while the other had a curved opened neck. Within a week, the
straight-necked soup was spoiled and the curved-necked soup was as good as it was on the
first day.

Day 1 Day 7

The germs found in the spoiled soup, could be found at the entrance of the curved
necked, where they got stuck. Therefore, the mould, fungi and bacteria were able to
enter the soup from the environment, but were not able to assemble from thin air in the
sealed container.

1.3.2 Formation of organic molecules

In order to form cells, first we have to form (relatively) complex molecules. The
Miller-Urey experiment showed that:

• water vapour, ammonia and methane, all found in the early atmosphere, could
have spontaneously assembled into amino acids and carbon compounds, in the
presence of electricity (lightning);

• if some of the compounds formed at that time on earth were phospholipids, they
would have naturally assembled into bilayers, forming early membranes;

• the formation of nucleic acids such as RNA would have given rise to early
enzymatic activities, protein assembly and the first genetic information.

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CELL BIOLOGY Cell division 1

1.3.3 Endosymbiotic theory

Next, this theory assumes that more complex eukaryotic cells have evolved from the
prokaryotic cells through a symbiotic process.

• Symbiosis is a mutually favourable coexistence of two organisms.

• The theory suggests that a larger anaerobic prokaryotic cell could have engulfed a
smaller aerobic cell, and started coexisting with it.

• The large cell was supplying the smaller one with food, while the smaller cell was
converting the food into energy for the larger cell → symbiosis.This would have
given rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts.

• Unlike the rest, these organelles are bounded by a double membrane. The two
membranes would be the vesicle from endocytosis and the cell membrane of the
engulfed cell.

• Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain plasmid-like, circular DNA (characteristic

of prokaryotes) that has genes independent from those found in the eukaryotic
nucleus. These are thought to be conserved genes from the original engulfed cell.

1.4 Cell division

Mitosis is the division of the cell’s nucleus into two identical daughter nuclei
containing the same number of chromosomes as the mother cell.

cleavage furrow
centrosome spindle microtubules

chromosomes equator

prophase metaphase anaphase telophase

The function of mitosis is to create two genetically identical daughter cell with the
genome of the mother cell. The process involves replication (=duplication) of DNA (all
chromosomes). In order for separation of duplicated DNA to work, the DNA (normally

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell division

a very long molecule) needs to supercoil. Replication is said to be proofread and checked
for errors by the cell’s machinery.

Remember that mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells, while prokaryotic cells divide by
binary fision.

Cytokinesis is the division of the cell’s cytoplasm and organelles that

directly follows mitosis

In plant and animal cells, the process of cytokinesis differs. In plant cell, the kinesis
results from the transport of vesicles to the cell equator leading to their eventual fusion
and formation of the plasma membrane. The vesicles bring cellulose to form the cell wall
around the newly formed plasma membrane. In animal cells, the division of cytoplasm is
a result of an invagination of the plasma membrane. Actin and myosin are the contractile
fibres that create this invagination called cleavage furrow.

1.4.1 Cell cycle

From its formation, until division, each cell goes through several phases of the life cycle.

• G1 is the phase in which cells spend the majority of their lifespan: this is the
period of growth and performance of its daily functions.

• S is the phase that occurs once the cell has decided to undergo mitosis: this is the
period of DNA synthesis (replication)

• G2 is the phase where the cell does its last preparations for mitosis: during G2, the
cell duplicates its organelles and prepares enzymes and proteins needed for mitosis

• A tip to remember the phases is to know them as G(rowth)1, S(ynthesis of DNA),

and G(rowth)2.

Cyclins are proteins that regulate the cell cycle.

The name cyclin should help you remember that the concentrations of these proteins go
through cycles or vary throughout the cell cycle in response to internal and external
signals. An increase or decrease in the concentration of cyclins will influence the
progression of the cell cycle.

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CELL BIOLOGY Cell division 1

• Cyclins comprise the cell cycle checkpoints

• The first cell cycle check point occurs between G1 and S phase

• Another checkpoint occurs during S phase before the beginning of DNA

replication

• If the cyclins are not produced or activated, the cell cannot pass a cell cycle
checkpoint

Cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) are enzymes whose activity is dependant

on the concentrations of cyclins. It is CDKs which ultimately allow
progression through a stage of the cycle via phosphorylation specific
molecules.

Despite this tightly regulated cell cycle system, some cells manage to escape the
checkpoints and form tumours.

Cancer is the result of uncontrollable cell division and tumours are the
aggregates of cancerous cells.

• Mutagens are agents that cause mutations in the DNA.

• Some of these mutations can be missed by proofreading machinery leading to gene

mutations

• UV light is a known mutagen that cause high rate of DNA mutations that can
often not be repaired

• Oncogenes are genes of each cell that are responsible for normal cell division.
They are called oncogenes, because a mutation in these genes can lead to the
formation of cancer

• If these genes are mutated, they often lead to cancer

• Proto-oncogenes are oncogenes that in their mutated state become overactivated

and promote cell division leading to tumour formation

• Tumour suppressor genes are genes that negatively regulate the cell cycle, so when
mutated, they fail to prevent uncontrollable cell divisions

• Metastasis refers to the movement of the primary cancerous cells to a new

formation where they continue to form tumours.

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell division

1.4.2 Phases of mitosis

Mitosis consists of 4 phases that can be distinguished under the microscope. Due to
supercoloiling of the DNA, the chromosomes become visible and can be tracked during
these phases.

Prophase

• DNA supercoils,
chromosomes condense and
become visible.
centrosome
• Nuclear envelope breaks
down.

• Spindle microtubules start

forming at the poles of the
cell.
chromosomes
• The cell contains double the
Figure 1.7: Prophase: nuclear envelope is DNA compared to its G1
fractured, chromosomes are becoming thick, phase, the same number of
centrioles are located and the poles of the cell. chromosomes.

• Begins after S phase has

occurred

Metaphase

spindle microtubules

• Chromosomes align at the

equator equator of the cell.

Figure 1.8: Metaphase: chromosomes lo- • Spindle microtubules attach

cated at the equator of the cell, each X to the centromeres (centres
representing a chromosome, and they’re of the chromosome).
ordered in one single row. Spindle fibres
origninate at the poles and attach to centres
of X-es each pole, with one chromosome
having one spindle from each pole.

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CELL BIOLOGY Cell division 1

Anaphase

• Sister chromatids (legs of

each chromosomes,
containing identical copies of
DNA) are pulled to opposite
poles by spindle
microtubules.

• Now there is an equal

Figure 1.9: Anaphase: fibres are shortening
number of chromosomes
towards the poles, and dragging one leg of
(DNA molecules) at each
the X towards the pole. Equal number of
pole, but overall, the cell
chromosome legs are moving to each pole.
now has double the number
of chromosomes compared
to prophase.

Telophase

cleavage furrow

• Chromosomes begin to
uncoil as the nuclear
envelope reforms around
them.

• The cell contains two

identical nuclei and awaits
Figure 1.10: Telophase: two nuclei beginning the division of cytoplasm and
to form at each pole, and the chromosomes organelles (= Cytokinesis).
uncoiling and becoming longer.

When observing a tissue or a group of cells under a microscope, it is easy to calculate the
rate of division of the cells/tissue in question. This is done by the following formula:

number of cells undergoing mitosis

Mitotic index =
total number of cells

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 CELL BIOLOGY Cell division

30